earthwatch data collection protocol · 2007-04-05 · guide to meerkat behaviours will inform you...

Kalahari Meerkat Project

Earthwatch Data Collection Protocol

Version 1

2007

Copyright: Kalahari Meerkat Project

This document or parts of it may not be reprinted or published without written permission

© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 3

2. THE STUDY POPULATION..................................................................................................... 4

3. GENERAL DATA COLLECTION PROTOCOLS ...................................................................... 43.1. LIFE HISTORY DATA................................................................................................. 43.2. SUPPLEMENTAL ADLIB DATA ................................................................................. 43.3. WEIGHTS................................................................................................................... 5

4. EARTHWATCH DATA COLLECTION PROTOCOLS .............................................................. 74.1 TRACKING SESSIONS............................................................................................... 74.2 FORAGING FOCAL PROTOCOL ............................................................................... 84.3 DRONGO SCANS AND FOCALS ............................................................................... 8

APPENDIX I. SAFETY GUIDELINES.......................................................................................... 9

1. EMERGENCIES................................................................................................................ 9

2. SAFETY AROUND THE HOUSE...................................................................................... 9

3. SAFETY IN THE FIELD .................................................................................................... 93.1. Getting lost ................................................................................................................. 93.2. Hypothermia ............................................................................................................. 103.3. Hyperthermia, Heat-stroke, sunburn, dehydration .................................................... 103.4. Game........................................................................................................................ 113.7. Snakes...................................................................................................................... 12


1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The primary aim of the Kalahari Meerkat Project is to investigate the evolutionary causes and

ecological consequences of cooperative breeding in mammals. Subsidiary aims are to determine

the factors affecting the distribution of reproductive success among males and females, and the

behavioural and physiological mechanisms controlling reproduction and cooperative behaviour.

The Project was initially established in the Kalahari Gemsbok Park in February 1993. A second

study site, based at the farm Rus en Vrede (now Kuruman River Reserve (KRR)), was set up six

months later. In May 1998, the Park site was effectively closed.

1.1 HOW EARTHWATCH HELPS

The Earthwatch program presents an excellent opportunity for the investigation of questions

about animal behaviour and the environment, using simple effective data collection techniques.

Behavioural ecologists seek to investigate functional questions about observed behaviours that

are derived from evolutionary theory. This is often stimulated by seeing a fascinating behaviour

in the wild such as an apparently terrestrial mammal sitting on top of a bush, or multiple

individuals carrying live prey items to begging young.

Researchers at the Kalahari Meerkat Project have generated numerous questions covering a

wide range of interactions between meerkats and their environment as well as each other. We

hope that Earthwatch can assist us in attaining our research targets, provide insight in to novel

questions with their own data and develop biodiversity information about the Kuruman River

Reserve and the Kalahari ecosystem.

This protocol is designed to act as both a reference manual and a training document for new

members of the Project team. As a new recruit, we ask that you read through the whole protocol,

although we will recap critical points in the various talks and workshops scheduled.

Please understand and be familiar with all the information contained in the following sections:

• General Data collection protocols

• Earthwatch Data Protocols


2. THE STUDY POPULATIONThe Meerkat Project works with a number of very well habituated meerkat groups. It’s possible

to walk with these groups while they are foraging, and to weigh almost all of the members.

These focal groups allow us to collect very detailed behavioural data. There are currently 14

focal groups at the KRR study site (composed of approximately 225 meerkats). Five habituated

groups reside exclusively within the boundaries of the KRR, while the ranges of the other study

groups extend over a number of neighbouring farms, primarily Rus en Vrede, The Heights, and

Leerdoos. Wherever possible, Earthwatch volunteers will work exclusively on groups that stay

within the reserve boundaries, these are currently, Lazuli, Moomins, Whiskers, Young Ones,

Commandos and where possible Elveera and Gattaca..

3. GENERAL DATA COLLECTION PROTOCOLS

3.1. LIFE HISTORY DATA

The project aims to keep accurate life history records for each animal in the population. Births,

deaths, pregnancies, the onset and conclusion of lactation and oestrus, changes in dominance

status, and short term absence from a group (roving for mating partners or evicted from group)

are regarded as important data. With the aid of a group mark identification sheet, you will assist

your Meerkat Project partner in the following:

• Help to establish group composition (essentially a sort of roll-call) at the start and end of

each session, and at regular intervals during the session itself. Animals often come and

go, and it is necessary to pay close attention to this.

• Take note of any signs of pregnancy (abdominal swelling), lactation (prominent nipples),

dominance interactions, aggressive encounters, etc.

• Keep a sharp look out for injuries or signs of disease.

3.2. SUPPLEMENTAL ADLIB DATA

One of the main data types routinely collected by the Meerkat Project is adlib data. This

essentially comprises recording any noteworthy behaviour or activity (which is pretty much

anything other than normal foraging behaviour) as and when it is seen to occur. Meerkat Project

researchers are trained to recognise and interpret a wide range of behaviours, and to record


them in a standardised format using hand-held Psion computers. As EW volunteers, you are not

expected to record standard adlib data; this will be handled by your Meerkat Project partner. The

guide to meerkat behaviours will inform you of behaviours to look out for and the Meerkat Project

researcher accompanying you will point these out to you should they occur such that you may

become familiar with them. At busy times and in large groups it can be difficult to enter accurate

data on the Psion and still keep an eye on the ongoing behaviours. At these times it is very

useful to have an additional observer to keep track of which animals are doing what, and to or

with whom.

• Inform your Meerkat Project partner of any interactions or behaviours that may have

escaped their attention, so that these too may be recorded.

• Help to identify individuals engaged in any noteworthy behaviours, using the group mark

ID sheet for reference.

3.3. WEIGHTS

All meerkats in our focal groups are weighed on a regular basis using electronic scales. This

weight data is used for many different purposes (e.g. as a measure of foraging success or food

availability, to demonstrate the costs of helping behaviour such as babysitting, guarding or pup-

feeding, etc.).

Animals are normally weighed whenever a group is visited. Weights are written into a Weight

Book (each group has its own), and these records are later entered into a Psion and

downloaded onto the computer. Weighing will be undertaken by the meerkat project researcher

but they may ask you to assist by recording weights for them.

3.3.1. Recording weights

During weighing sessions you may be asked to assist with ‘scribing’, as weighing and recording

the weights simultaneously can be a rather hectic affair. When recording weights in the field, it is

essential that you check back the weight and the individual weighed as and when meerkat

researchers tell you this information. You also need to compare the weight reading for an

individual with those already in the book. If there is a major difference (ani9mals have lost weight

or gained more than 80 grams), the animal should be re-weighed and checked that you have

identified it correctly. This is absolutely critical!

Other items that are recorded in the Weight Book are:

Date:

Observer: your own and your weighing partner’s initials

Type of weight:


- Morning weight (MW) - collected first thing in the morning, if the weight is collected 15

minutes after the meerkat group has left the sleeping burrow record it as a morning

weight interrupted (MWI)

- Lunch-time weight (LW) - collected at the end of a morning’s observation period.

- Evening weights (EW) are collected once the group has returned to their sleeping

burrow for the night or just before they return.

Time weighed: enter the time each individual’s weight is taken. For morning and evening

weights, record the same time for all the animals (the mid-point of the weighing session).

However, it is essential that you record individual times for lunch weights (LW) and for

morning weights interrupted (MWI).

Missed individuals:

If you don’t get an individual’s weight, it is worth making a note why:

AO = absent;

Ref = refused to be weighed;

BO = down the burrow;

BS = babysitter;


4. EARTHWATCH DATA COLLECTION PROTOCOLSThe primary data focus will be the collection of foraging focals during the morning meerkat

sessions and the collection of meerkat/drongo interaction data in the evenings. Group tracking

data shall be collected at the same time.

4.1 TRACKING SESSIONS

What factors influence territory use?

Investigator: Kalahari Meerkat Project

Background:Meerkat groups occupy territories of around 3-4km2, comprising a number of sleeping burrows and a network ofemergency refuges or “boltholes”. These territories are far from uniform. Food resources, cover from predatorsand proximity to neighbours vary considerably, on spatial and temporal scales, both within and among territories.The choice of foraging route is therefore an important factor affecting the fitness of each individual in the group.However, amongst the individual group members there may be conflict of interest over which route is best. Forinstance, hungry individuals would obviously be most interested in food-rich areas of the territory, whilereproductively active subordinate males and females may prefer to spend time in the more remote areas of theterritory, where encounters with potential mates are more likely. Mothers with young pups may prefer areas wellaway from hostile neighbours, or areas with better cover to provide protection against predators.

Questions:• Do meerkats use a limited repertoire of foraging routes?

o Are these routes influenced by (a) predation rate?(b) breeding prospects?

• Do meerkats always use the same route between two given bolt-holes?o Is that route (a) the shortest?

(b) the one offering the best foraging?(c) the safest (i.e. high density of nearby bolt-holes)?

• How are territory boundaries established?• How do meerkats know and orientate themselves within their home range?

Methods:For the time being, we will simply gather information on the groups movements each day. Positions will berecorded using handheld GPS units (GPS=Global Positioning System) and later plotted to reveal the foragingroute followed during the session.


4.2 FORAGING FOCAL PROTOCOL

4.3 DRONGO SCANS AND FOCALS

Development of foraging skills, Foraging Strategies,and the consequences of individual fitness difference.Investigator: Kalahari Meerkat Project

Background:Meerkats must devote the majority of each day to foraging. Invertebrate prey, which comprise the bulk oftheir diet, must usually be excavated from below the sand surface. The best foragers can find more foodand expend little energy for each unit of food consumed, which allows them to devote greater energyreserves to growth and the maintenance of a better body condition. Good foragers can also afford tospend more time avoiding predators, improving social ties, helping relatives to breed, or pursuing theirown opportunities to reproduce – activities that may have very important consequences for their fitness.So who are the best foragers in a meerkat group?

Questions:- Which meerkats are the most efficient foragers?- - How do meerkats develop their ability to find food, how does this change with hole depth- - - How does good foraging ability influence individual reproductive strategy- - - - How do individuals alter their foraging strategies in response to ability and food availability

Methods:Individual foragers will be followed (“focalled”) for 15-min periods, during which time all significantdigging bouts will be recorded). Information will also be taken on the size of hole, any prey itemsacquired and how often the meerkat is ‘vigilent’ during a focal

To what extent do drongos rely on kleptoparasitisingmeerkats to meet their dietary requirements?Investigator: Tom Flower / Kalahari Meerkat Project

Background:Fork-tailed drongos (Dicrurus adsimilis) are adept opportunists that commonly follow foraging groups ofbirds and mammals to snap up any insects that are disturbed by their activities. However, it is alsobelieved that they contrive to steal food items from animals they follow, termed Kleptoparasitism.Drongos often attempt to steal unearthed prey from unsuspecting meerkats, and will even employ falsealarm calls to trick meerkats into abandoning their quarry. In order to study this fascinating interaction wemust first observe drongos in association with meerkat groups to ascertain the nature of drongo meerkatbehavioural interaction and the roll of drongo calls.

Questions:

- How do drongos find food when they follow meerkats, are they kleptoparasitising the meerkats

- What is the response of meerkats to calls made by drongos and what are drongo’s calling for.

Methods:

Observers will conduct scans at 10-minute intervals to note the presence or absence of drongos with thegroup. In addition, when drongos are noted as being present with a group, the observer will focal onedrongo at every alternate scan (i.e. do not focal drongos for more than 10 minutes consecutively), themanner in which all prey items were acquired and what context drongo’s emit calls in.


APPENDIX I. SAFETY GUIDELINES

1. EMERGENCIES

For your own safety…..

- ensure you have valid health/travel insurance fro the duration of your stay, and fill in your and

your next of kin’s (or emergency contact) details on the emergency clipboard so that they are

accessible in the event of an accident

- familiarise yourself with our emergency procedures and the locations of First Aid kits, fire

extinguishers, fire-fighting equipment and emergency telephone numbers. Don’t rely on other

people knowing where things are and what to do; you may be the only person around when

an emergency happens.

- always carry your emergency first-aid kit when in the field

- always wear closed shoes after dark and in the field

2. SAFETY AROUND THE HOUSE

- take care when handling electrical sockets, plugs, adapters, etc.

- avoid walking around the house and garden in bare feet, always wear closed shoes when

in the field or outside at night. Cape Cobras have been seen in the garden several times, and

scorpions often make their way into the house. You should always switch on the light or carry

a torch when going to the bathroom in the night.

- when handling boxes, furniture, etc. (particularly in the storeroom, garage or on the veranda),

check for spiders first.

- when using candles (i.e. when there is a power failure), do not leave them unattended and

take great care that they cannot make contact with anything flammable, particularly when

they burn down low.

- Smoking indoors is prohibited. The rondavels have thatched roofs and as such represent a

significant fire hazard. Each rondavel is fitted with a smoke detector to warn of fire, but

smoking indoors will also trigger their alarms.

3. SAFETY IN THE FIELD

3.1. Getting lost

Familiarise yourself with the layout of roads, fences and the river. Always carry a GPS, radio,

torch and matches. Stay aware of where you are when walking with the meerkats (i.e. note the


number of dunes you’ve crossed, what fences you’ve climbed, any land marks or burrow-

markers that you’ve passed, etc).

Once you are lost, don’t panic. Use your radio to call for assistance, we will then come and find

you. If you do not have a radio, or if the radio repeater station has lost power someone will come

looking for you when you do not return at the expected time. Stay where you are and we will find

you, the further you move the harder you will be to find. You can try climbing a nearby high dune

or tree to see if you can see the road, wind-pump, river, fence or power lines. It may be possible

to follow your footprints back the way you’ve come. Don’t risk contracting heat-stroke; if it’s very

hot, just sit in the shade and wait for someone to find you. Similarly, if you’re still lost after a

couple of hours, just sit down and listen for people calling you and watch for lights if it’s dark.

3.2. Hypothermia

In winter the early morning and evening air can be very cold – especially if accompanied by

wind. Always ensure that you have appropriate clothing (e.g. warm hat, gloves). A spare jumper

is useful at all times just in case you stay longer in the filed than planned. Reduce heat loss by

breathing through a scarf or balaclava and find shelter from the wind if possible, but do not sit up

against cold objects as they will simply speed up heat loss. The onset of hypothermia is marked

by violent shivering, clumsiness, confusion, or sleepiness, and a weakened pulse or breathing. A

hypothermic person will appear bluish and their pupils will be dilated. If these symptoms are

observed, call fro help. Note that your emergency kits contain foil blankets which provide

excellent thermal insulation in emergencies.

3.3. Hyperthermia, Heat-stroke, sunburn, dehydration

The Kalahari is hot in summer! During your first few weeks on the Farm, always wear plenty of

sunscreen. Beware of doing anything energetic in the middle of the day. Never go out in the

field without a hat and water between September and April, and make a conscious effort to drink

plenty of water throughout the day. Remember that you can suffer dehydration without feeling

thirsty. Symptoms include nausea, headache, dizziness, light-headedness and a restless feeling

of non-specific discomfit and ill-ease.

If you are feeling badly discomfited by the heat, rest in the shade for a few minutes until you feel

better. If you stop sweating, the situation is serious, and you must cool yourself down

immediately. Retreat to the shade/house, douse yourself with cold water or submerge yourself in

a cold bath or in the pool, and drink plenty of cold drinks.


3.4. Game

Large game such as Gemsbok, wildebeest or hartebeest can potentially do serious harm with

their hooves and horns, though they are not normal aggressive and will usually keep their

distance. Treat them with respect, maintain a safe distance, and avoid panicking them (i.e.

trapping them in a corner of a fenced camp).

The farms in our area stock ostriches as well as cattle, sheep and goats. Most of these birds are

shy of people and run away when they see you (take care not to panic these birds).

Occasionally, however, a breeding male (recognisable by the red flush on the front of his legs)

becomes aggressive. If you are working in an area where there is a known aggressive ostrich,

keep an eye open for the birds at all times (the meerkats usually give a rolling alarm call when

they see an ostrich approaching). At regular intervals check your surroundings for climbable

trees, large piles of dead timber (into which you can clamber) and fences, so that you always

know where you can escape if an ostrich attacks. Try to avoid loitering in places that have no

refuges. If you see an ostrich running toward you, immediately retreat beyond its reach.

DISCRETION IS THE BETTER PART OF VALOUR.

If you cannot escape the bird, you can try throwing stones or timber at it, or hitting it with a heavy

piece of wood (aim for the head, neck or legs, not the body). Some people recommend lying

down on the ground (face first, covering your head). Bear in mind that ostriches are just as agile

as you are, so dodging around trees and bushes isn’t a feasible strategy. The bird will try to kick

you (ostriches kick forward). Don’t panic. A number of people on the Project have been kicked

by ostriches and they’ve suffered no worse than torn clothes and minor bruises. The ostrich

normally struts off to display after a couple of attacks.

3.5. Spiders

There are three spider species you are likely to come in contact with. The black and brown

widow spiders, which are web dwellers and the sac spider, which is a active forager. You can

recognise Black Widow Spiders by their pea-shaped abdomen, narrow thorax and red hourglass

pattern on both the ventral (stomach) and dorsal (back) surfaces of the abdomen. If you are

bitten (bites are not fatal, except to small children), apply a pressure bandage (as for cobra bite,

Error! Bookmark not defined.) and go to a local hospital for treatment. Brown Widow Spiders

are similar in appearance but have the red pattern on their ventral surface only. Their bite is

painful but does not require hospitalisation. The sac spider can be recognised by their cream

body and pronounced black fangs. They do not spin webs but instead make a silky sac in the

folds of materials or cracks of walls. The bite is not deadly, but may form a ulcerative wound due


to the cytotoxic venom. Treatment involves oral antibiotics to prevent secondary infection and

painkillers that can be issued at the local clinic.

3.6. Scorpions

Scorpions are active at night (although you’ll see meerkats eating them by day) so don’t walk

around after dark without closed footwear. If you see a scorpion in the house, warn other people.

Four species of scorpion occur here. There are two species of Burrowing Scorpion (Shiny and

Cape) who have big chelipeds (front pincers) and small tails, and two species (the Cape

Scorpion and the Thick-tailed Granulated Scorpion) who have small chelipeds and a large, thick

tail. If you get stung by a scorpion, look closely at its tail and front pincers so you know which

species it is. The sting of the first two species is very painful but not dangerous. Take painkillers

and apply an ice pack to reduce the pain. The sting of the second species is much more serious

(can be fatal without medical treatment). Apply a pressure bandage (as for snake bite, see

Error! Bookmark not defined.), take painkillers, apply an ice-pack and go to the nearest

hospital straight away (ring ahead to let them know you are coming). You have several hours

before serious symptoms develop.

3.7. Snakes

We do not see snakes particularly often, but they are out there. A number of different species

occur here, but the most common venomous species are the Cape Cobra (yellow with

chocolate-button eyes) and the Puff Adder (short, thick, diamond-patterned and - when

threatened - sounds like a deflating football).

- use a torch when walking back from the group in the evening and pay attention to where you

put your feet (finish entering data on your Psion BEFORE starting to walk back). Puff adders

tend to lie cryptically on paths waiting for small rodents to stumble on them.

- stomp (but not when you’re with the meerkats) so snakes will feel the vibrations and get out

of your way. Puff adders don’t tend to move away, but will puff (a rushing air sound) if they

know you’re about to step on them.

- boots are considerably safer than sandals and closed shoes (never sandals) should always

be worn in the field

- stand well back when the meerkats mob a snake

- do not touch or handle ANY snake (even if it appears dead), as species identification is

difficult, colour can vary greatly, and some species “play dead”.

- do not put up your hand down holes or under fallen timber


- do not walk around outside at night without a torch (this includes the garden)

If you get bitten, don’t panic. Make sure you know what the snake looks like (for identification

purposes) but don’t try to catch or kill it.

Puff adder bite

If you are bitten by a puff adder, DO NOT apply a pressure bandage or tourniquet, or cut the

wound; all these things will make things worse. Puff adder venom is cytotoxic: it does not move

around the body and is slow acting, but it breaks down the cells at the site of the bite. Stay calm;

adults very rarely die from puff adder bites. Ideally stay where you are and radio for help. Keep

warm (use a blanket or a coat even if you don’t feel at all cold) and drink lots of water, to prevent

shock from setting in. Phone the hospital for their advice and to let them know you are coming,

then get there as quickly as possible.

Cobra bite

If the snake was a cape cobra, you should immediately apply a pressure bandage and

immobilise the limb. Cobra venom is neurotoxic; it travels around the body via the lymphatic

system and affects your nervous system. Fluid is pushed around the lymphatic system by the

pressure of moving muscles and joints. A firm bandage slows the flow of the lymph, as does

immobilising the limb’s muscles and joints. (A tourniquet is no use because it cuts the blood flow

(which can cause gangrene) not the flow of lymph.)

Ideally, use a broad elastic bandage, or you can make do with strips of torn up clothing. You

should quickly bandage the whole limb as firmly as you would for a sprain, starting at the top of

the limb (where it joins the body) and working downwards towards the bite. Mark the site of the

bite on the outside of the bandage. (If, when you press the extremity of the bandaged limb (i.e.

the fingers or toes), the press-mark stays white (i.e. it does not go pink again as the blood

returns), the bandage is too tight. DO NOT REMOVE IT (not until you are with a doctor at the

hospital), but you can cut every second turn of the bandage, 2/3rds of the way through the

bandage’s width, to loosen it.) Ideally, the limb should be splinted so you can’t move it. (Use a

sturdy branch, plank or aerial, lie it along the bandaged limb, and bind it on, above and below

each joint. It should be positioned so that the joints can’t bend.)

If the bite is not on a limb, use your hand to press firmly on the area around the bite.


If you are with someone else, you should lie down and relax while they go or radio for help (your

limb must be bandaged, however). Make sure that they and/or you take careful note of exactly

where you are located. Someone should be requested to go as rapidly as possible to the nearest

phone and ring for a helicopter ambulance, and phone the hospital to check they’re

prepared for your arrival (i.e. they have the appropriate anti-venom).

If you are alone, bandage your limb firmly, and then make your way to help (e.g. go to the

nearest person who can then go to the phone, etc.) as quickly as possible. Try not to use the

bitten limb (it will help to splint it) because it’s muscle movement that pushes the poison away

from the site of the bite. Once you’ve reached help, keep warm (use a jacket or blanket even if

you don’t feel cold) and drinks lots of water, to prevent shock. Remember that venomous snakes

frequently bite without injecting venom (they don’t want to waste it on you!).

earthwatch data collection protocol · 2007-04-05 · guide to meerkat behaviours will inform you...

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