drawing anatomy: an artists’ guide to the human figure
TRANSCRIPT
DRAWINGANATOMY
DRAWINGANATOMY
BARRINGTONBARBER
CONTENTS
IntroductionTechnicalIntroduction
TheFullFigureTheHeadTheTorso
TheArmsandHandsTheLegsandFeetTheHeadinMovement
TheTorsoinMovementTheArmsandHandsinMovementTheLegsandFeetinMovement
TheMovingBodyLifeDrawingPuttingitAllTogether
Index
INTRODUCTION
Anatomybooksareessentialforfigureartists,butmanyarepublishedfor medical purposes and tend to give too much information – forexample, theinnerorgansof thebodyareinterestingtoknowabout,butnotrelevantfordrawing.Whatisimportantfortheartistorartstudentistolearnthestructure
ofthehumanform,basedontheskeletonandthemusculature.Therehavebeenanumberofgoodandusefulbooksonthissubject.Somearealittleoutofdate,notsomuchintheinformationthattheygivebut often in the way it has been presented. Other well-producedcontemporarybooksaremainlyphotographic.My taskhasbeen toproduceacomprehensiveanatomybook that
has all the information necessary for an artist, using drawings anddiagramspresentedinaneasy-to-followformat;andIalsowantedtoput into it everything that I have found useful in my own drawingpractices.Inthefirstpartofthisbook,Idealwiththefullfigure,followedby
achapterontheanatomyofeachmajorpartofthebody.Eachsectionshowstheskeletonfromdifferentviewpoints;thenthemusclesontopofthebonestructure;andfinally,thesurfaceformofthehumanbody.Of course, not all human bodies are perfectly formed and
proportions do differ fromperson to person.Throughout the book Ihave usedwell-proportioned, fairly athletic figures. Thismeans thatyoubecomeacquaintedwith the shapesof themusclesat theirbest,althoughyouwillprobablydrawmanypeoplewhodonothavewell-tonedbodieslikethese.Inthesecondpartofthebook,Iexamineeachpartofthebodyin
more detail, concentrating in particular onmusculature and how the
body moves. Each area of detailed analysis will sometimes repeatwhat has been shown in the previous chapters: this is necessarybecause some muscles overlie others, which to a certain extentchangestheirshapeonthesurface.Sodonotbesurprisedtoseethesamenamescroppingupfromtimetotime;itdoesmakethemeasiertoremember,too.Inthetechnicalintroductionimmediatelyafterthis,youwillfindan
explanationofdescriptive termsasused inmedicalcircles, followedbyadetailedlistofLatinterminology.Thisisworthreading,becauseunderstanding anatomical terms will help you to follow theannotationsinthebook.Itmaytakealittletimetomemorizeall thenamesyouneed,butafterregularuseofthesetermsyouwillprobablyrememberenoughtodescribewhatyouarelookingat.Ihaveomittedanydescriptionof thebrain,heart, lungsandother
viscerabecausetheseitemsarehousedwithinthecranium,theribcageand thepelvis,and it is thebonyparts thatdictate thesurfaceshapefor figure-drawing purposes. I have also left out details of themalegenitalia,becausethedifferencesinsizeandshapearetoovariable.Throughout history, artists have looked at our bodies and shown
their beauty, power and distortions. I have used the best possiblereferences todrawthesepictures, includingmyownlifestudies,buthavenotdrawnfromdissectedcorpsesasMichelangeloandLeonardodaVincidid.Artistshavecontributedmuchtothestudyofanatomy,bothforartisticandmedicalpurposes.Indrawing,thepractisingartistwantstocapturetheformofthiscomplexbodilymachinery,butfirstheorsheneedstoknowhowitworks.
TECHNICALINTRODUCTION
This section is intended to give you some initial detail about thehuman anatomy before starting to draw. I have described thepropertiesofbones,muscles,tendons,cartilage,skin,fatandjoints,aswellasshowingdiagramsofthedifferenttypesofjointsandmuscles.Thereisalsoanintroductiontoanatomicalterminology:youwillfindthisusefulascertaintermsareusedthroughoutthebook.
BONESThe skeleton is the solid framework of the body, partly supporting and partlyprotective.Theshapeoftheskeletoncanvarywidely.Itwillaffectthebuildofapersonanddeterminewhethertheyhavemassesofmuscleandfatornot.Bones are living tissue supplied by blood and nerves. They can become
weaker and thinnerwith lack of use andmalnutrition, or heavier and strongerwhenhaving tosupportmoreweight.Theyaresoftandpliable in theembryo,andonlybecomewhatwewouldconsiderhardandbone-likebythetwenty-fifthyearoflife.Humanshave206bones,butafewfusetogetherwithageanditispossibleto
be bornwith somebonesmissing or even having extra ones.We each have askull, ribcage, pelvis andvertebral column, aswell as arm,hand, leg and footbones. Most bones are symmetrical. The bones of the limbs are cylindrical,thickening towards the ends. The projecting part of a bone is referred to as aprocessoraneminence.Highlymobileareasofthebody,suchasthewrists,consistofnumeroussmall
bones.Otherbones,likethescapula(shoulderblade)canmoveinalldirections,controlledbythemusclesaroundit.The bones of the cranium (skull) differ from all others. They grow from
separateplatesintoonefusedvaulttohousethebrain.Themandible(jawbone)istheonlymovableboneinthehead.Thelongbonesofthearmsandlegsactlikelevers,whiletheflatbonesofthe
skull,thecage-likebonesoftheribsandthebasinshapeofthepelvisprotectthemorevulnerableorganssuchasthebrain,heart, lungs,liverandtheabdominalviscera.
MUSCLESThe combination of bones, muscles and tendons allows both strong, broadmovements and delicate, precise ones. Muscles perform our actions bycontracting or relaxing. There are long muscles on the limbs and broadermuscleson the trunk.Themore fixed endof themuscle is called thehead ororigin,andtheotherend–usuallyfarthestfromthespine–istheinsertion.Thethick muscles are powerful, like the biceps; and the ring-shaped muscles(sphincters)surroundtheopeningsofthebody,suchastheeye,mouthandanus.Certainmusclesgrowtogetherandhavetwo,threeorfourheadsandinsertions.Combinedmusclesalsohavepartsoriginatingindifferentplaces.Thefleshypartofamuscleiscalledthemeat,andthefibrouspartthetendon
oraponeurosis(seebelow).Striated (voluntary) muscles operate under our conscious control. The 640
voluntarymusclesaccountforupto50percentofthebody’sweightandformtheredflesh.Organizedingroupsandarrangedinseverallayers,thesemusclesgive the body its familiar form. The following drawings show the variousdifferent types of striated muscles, with the tendons at each end. Note thedistinctiveshapeofthesphinctermuscleonthefarright.
Smooth (involuntary) muscles are confined to the walls of hollow organs,such as intestines and blood vessels. They function beyond our consciouscontrol.Cardiac(heart)musclesarebothstriatedandinvoluntary,withacellstructure
thatensuressynchroniccontraction.
TENDONSThe tendons are fibrous structures that attach the ends of the muscles to thebonesatprotrudingpointscalled tubercles and tuberosities.Somemusclesaredivided by intervening tendons (see illustration above, second from right).Tendonsmayberoundandcord-like,orflatandband-like,consistingofstrongtensile fibresarranged lengthwise.Theyare inextensible, allowing themusclestopullhardagainstthem.Manyarelongerthanthemusclesthattheyserve,suchasintheforearm.APONEUROSESThese are broad, flat, sheet-like tendons, a continuation of broad, flatmusclesthateitherattachtotheboneorcontinueintothefascia.TENDINOUSARCHESFibrousbandsconnectedwiththefasciaeofmuscles.
FASCIAEFibrous laminae of various thicknesses, occurring in all parts of the body,enveloping allmuscles, blood vessels, nerves, joints, organs and glands. Theypreventfrictionbetweenmovingmuscles.
LIGAMENTSFibrous, elastic bands situated at joints where articulated bones connect, orstretchedbetweentwoimmobilebones.
CARTILAGECartilageisconnectivetissuecomposedofcollagen(aprotein).Fibrouscartilageforms the symphysispubis (the jointbetween thepubicbones)and invertebraldiscs.Elasticcartilagegivesshapetotheouterflapoftheear.Hyalinecartilage–themostcommonform–coversthearticularsurfaceofbones(theendsnearthejoints);formstheringsofthetrachea(windpipe),alsothebronchi(airways)ofthelungs;andgivesshapetothelowerribcageandnose.
SKINA tough, self-replenishing membrane about 2 mm thick, which defines theboundary between the internal and the external environments. Human skin isthickestontheupperback,solesofthefeetandpalmsofthehand;itisthinnestontheeyelids.Notonlythebody’slargestsenseorgan,theskinalsoprotectsthebodyfromabrasions,fluidlossandthepenetrationofharmfulsubstances.Andit
regulates body temperature, through perspiration and the cooling effect ofsurfaceveins.EPIDERMISTheskin’stoplayerwiththedermisbeneath,athickerlayeroflooseconnectivetissue.Beneaththisisthehyperdermis,whichisafinelayerofwhiteconnectivefattytissue,alsocalledthesuperficialfascia.
FATFat is thebody’s energy reserve. Its layers soften the contoursof the skeletal-muscularframe.Itisprimarilystoredaroundthebuttocks,navel,hips,innerandouter thighs, front and back of knees, beneath the nipples, on the back of thearms,inthecheeksandbelowthejaw.
JOINTSJointsformtheconnectionsbetweenbones.Infibrousjoints,suchassuturesintheskull, there isnoappreciablemovement.There is limitedmovement in thecartilaginous joints.Themostmobileare thesynovial jointssuchas theknees,wherethebonesarenotfixed.Theprincipalmovementsofthejointsareflexion,whichmeansbendingtoa
more acute angle; extension, straightening; adduction, which means movingtowards the body’s midline; abduction, moving away from the midline; andmedialandlateralrotation(turningtowardsandawayfromthemidline).
1.PLANEJOINTFormedbyflatorslightlycurvedsurfaces,withlittlemovement,suchasthe
instep.2.BALLANDSOCKETJOINT
The spherical edgeofonebonemoves ina spherical excavationof another,likethehipjoint.3.SADDLEORBIAXIALJOINTAllowslimitedmovementintwodirectionsatrightanglestoeachother,like
thethumb.4.HINGEJOINTBendingandstraighteningmovementispossibleononeplaneonly,suchasin
theknee,theelbowandthefinger.5.PIVOTJOINTOnebonemovesaroundanotheron itsownaxis, suchas the radiusand the
ulna.
UNDERSTANDINGANATOMICALTERMINOLOGYTothosewhohavenoknowledgeofLatin,theLatinnamesofthemusclesandbones may be rather off-putting and hard to grasp. However, once youunderstandthat,forexample,anextensorisamuscleinvolvedintheprocessofextension,thatbrevisisLatinfor‘short’andthatpollicismeans‘ofthethumb’,the position, attachment and function of the extensor pollicis brevis musclebecomemucheasiertoremember.ButevenEnglishanatomicalvocabularymaynotbefamiliartoeveryonewho
setsouttodrawthehumanbody.Forthisreason,themaintechnicaltermsusedinthisbook,bothEnglishandLatin,areexplainedhere.
SometechnicaltermsinEnglishDEEP farfromthebodysurface
SUPERFICIAL neartothebodysurfaceINFERIOR lower
SUPERIOR upperANTERIOR relatingtothefrontsurfaceorpart
POSTERIOR relatingtothebacksurfaceorpartLATERAL fartherfromtheinnerlineofthebody
MEDIAL oforclosertothemedianlinedownthecentreofthebodyDISTAL fartherfromthepointofattachmenttothetrunk
PROXIMAL nearertothepointofattachmenttothetrunkPRONE (ofthearmorhand)withthepalmfacingdown
(ofthearmorhand)withthepalmfacingup
SUPINE (ofthearmorhand)withthepalmfacingup
RADIAL onthethumbsideofthearmorhandULNAR onthelittlefingersideofthearmorhand
FIBULAR onthelittletoesideoflegorfootTIBIAL onthebigtoesideoflegorfoot
ALVEOLAR ofthegumsortoothridgeCOSTAL oftheribs
DORSAL oftheback;ofthebackofthehandortopofthefootFRONTAL oftheforehead
HYPOTHENAR ofthemoundofmuscleonthelittle-fingersideofthepalmLUMBAR oftheloins
MENTAL ofthechin
NUCHAL ofthenapeoftheneckOCCIPITAL ofthebackofthehead
ORBITAL oftheareaaroundtheeyePALATINE oftheroofofthemouth
PALMAR ofthepalmofthehandPLANTAR ofthesoleofthefoot
SUPRAORBITAL oftheareaabovetheeyeTEMPORAL ofthetemple
THENAR oftheballofthethumbTHORACIC ofthechest
BONESCALCANEUS theheelbone
CARPUS thewristCLAVICLE thecollarbone
COCCYX thefourfusedvertebraebelowthesacrumCONDYLE aknobattheendofabone
COSTAE theribsEPICONDYLE aknobonoraboveacondyle
thethighbone
FEMUR thethighbone
FIBULA oneofthelowerlegbonesHUMERUS theupperarmbone
ILIUM oneofthehipbonesISCHIUM oneofthehipbones
MALLEOLUS ahammer-shapedprominenceofabone(e.g.intheankle)MANDIBLE thelowerjawbone
MAXILLA theupperjawboneMETACARPUS thebonesofthepalmofthehand
METATARSUS thebonesofthefrontpartofthefoot,exceptthetoesOLECRANON theelbowbone
PATELLA thekneecap
PHALANGES thefingerandtoebonesPROCESS aprojectingpart(alsoEMINENCE)
PUBIS thepubicbone,partofthehipboneRADIUS oneofthearmbones
SACRUM fivefusedvertebraeneartheendofthespineSCAPULA theshoulderblade
STERNUM thebreastboneTARSUS theankle,instepandheelbones
TIBIA oneofthelowerlegbonesULNA oneofthearmbones
VERTEBRA oneofthebonesofthespine
ZYGOMATICBONEthecheekbone
Many bones are named from their shapes: PISIFORM (pea-shaped),CUNEIFORM(wedge-shaped),SCAPHOID(boat-shaped),etc.MUSCLESAs outlined on pages 10–11, among the movements of the joints are flexion(bendingtoanarrowerangle),extension(straightening),abduction(movementaway from the midline of the body) and adduction (movement towards themidline). The muscles involved in such movements are FLEXORS,
EXTENSORS,ABDUCTORSandADDUCTORS.TherearealsoROTATORS.Other muscles named from their functions are LEVATORS and
DEPRESSORS,which respectively raise and lower some part of the body. ATENSOR tightens a part of the body and a DILATOR dilates it. TheCORRUGATORisthemusclethatwrinklestheforeheadabovethenose(thinkof‘corrugatediron’!).Muscles come in various sizes and the relative size is often indicated by a
Latinadjective:
LONGUS long
BREVIS shortMAGNUS large
MAJOR largerMAXIMUS largest
MEDIUS middleMINOR smaller
MINIMUS smallest
Similarlywithregardtoposition:INTEROSSEI betweenbones
LATERALIS lateral,ofortowardsthesideMEDIALIS medial,ofortowardsthemiddle
ORBICULARIS roundanopening
PROFUNDUS deep(oppositetoSUPERFICIALIS)(ForANTERIOR,POSTERIOR,INFERIORandSUPERIOR,seetheEnglishtermsopposite.)
LATINFORMSTHATINDICATE‘OFTHE…’ABDOMINIS oftheabdomen
ANGULIORIS ofthecornerofthemouth
AURICULARIS oftheearBRACHII ofthearm(alsoBRACHIALIS)
ofthehead
CAPITIS ofthehead
CARPI ofthewristCERVICIS oftheneck
DIGITI ofafingerortoe(DIGITIMINIMIofthelittlefingerortoe;
DIGITORUMofthefingersortoes)DORSI oftheback
FASCIAE ofafascia(seebelow)FEMORIS ofthefemur
FRONTALIS oftheforeheadHALLUCIS ofthebigtoe
INDICIS oftheforefinger
LABII ofthelipLUMBORUM oftheloins
MENTALIS ofthechinNARIS ofthenostril
NASALIS ofthenose(alsoNASI)NUCHAE ofthenapeoftheneck
OCULI oftheeyeORIS ofthemouth
PALMARIS ofthepalmPATELLAE ofthekneecap
PLANTAE ofthesoleofthefoot
PECTORALIS ofthechestorbreastPOLLICIS ofthethumb
RADIALIS oftheradiusSCAPULAE oftheshoulderblade
THORACIS ofthechestTIBIALIS ofthetibia
ULNARIS oftheulna
OTHERPARTSOFTHEBODYFASCIA asheetofconnectivetissue(plFASCIAE)
FOSSA apitorhollow(plFOSSAE)
THEFULLFIGURE
In thisfirstsectionwelookat thebodyasawhole, introducingfirsttheskeletalstructureandthemajormuscles,thentheproportionsandthedifferencesbetweenmaleandfemalefigures.Thebonyskeletonisratherlikeinteriorscaffolding,aroundwhich
thesofterpartsofthebodyarebuilt.Ofcourse,fleshandbonearenotseparate since they develop in the womb together, but the skeletonprovides the rigid framework that supports themassofmuscles andviscera. In a newborn, the bone structure is not able to support thebody because the muscles have not developed sufficiently. As thechildgrows,itgainsbothmuscularstrengthandanunderstandingofhowtocontrolitsmovements.Itisimportantfortheartisttoknowwhichbitsoftheskeletonshow
on the surfaceof thebodybecause,whendrawing, ithelps to relatethe fixed points of the figure to the appearance of the more fleshyparts. Understanding the structure of the skeleton is the basicrequirementforaccuratefiguredrawing.Whenyoudrawthehumanbody,youcannotseeexactlywherethe
muscles start and end. However, if you know something about theconfiguration, you will find it makes it easier to indicate the mainshapeofanymusclemoreaccuratelyinyourdrawing.It is a good idea to get some knowledge of the larger, more
superficialmuscles,becausethenyoucanrefertotheminalifeclasstoclarifywhichpartofthebodyyouaretackling.Ifyouhaveagoodteacher,heorshewillknowmostofthelargermusclenames.Onethingthatyouhavetobearinmindwhenyoucometodrawthe
humanfigurefromlifeisthefactthatthemusclesofeveryindividualwillhavedevelopedindifferentways.Apersonwhoisanathletewill
haveamusclestructurethatismucheasiertoseeonthesurfacethansomeonewhohasledamoresedentarylife.Ingeneral,womenhaveathickerlayeroffattytissuethanmen,andsometimesamusclethatisobviousonamanwillbemoresubtleandsofter-lookingonawoman.Then, of course, both men and women may have a more fattydevelopmentoftheirsurfaceareaoverall,whichwillmakeithardertoseehowthemusclesoverlaponeanother.While we usually see just the surface of the human body,
knowledge of what lies beneath the skin helps to produce moresignificant and convincing drawings. At the end of the section weshallseehowmasterartistsoverthecenturies,trainedintheclassicaltradition, have portrayed the human figure in all its wonderfulcomplexity.
Hereweshowthreesimpleviewsoftheskeleton,thefront,thebackandthesideview(alsocalledtheanterior,theposteriorandthelateralviews).Ihavekeptthenumberofbonesnamedheretoaminimum,sincewewillbegoingintogreaterdetailwhenlookingatthepartsofthebodyinclose-up.
Weshowherethemusculatureofthewholebody,soastogivesomeideaofthecomplexityofthesheathsofmusclesoverthebonestructure.Laterinthebook,weshallalsobelookingatsomeofthedeepermusclesinthebody,buthereonlythemoresuperficialmusclesareonshow.
Thedrawingsthatfollowarebasedonamalebody.Ofcoursethereareslightdifferencesbetweenthemaleandfemalemusculature,butnotmuchintheunderlyingstructure.Themaindifferencesareinthechestareaandthepubicarea.Therearealsoslightproportionaldifferencesandwewilllookattheselaterinthechapter.Butthiscompletefigureofthemusclesofahumanbeingwillgiveyouagoodideaastohowthemusclesareplacedoverthebody.
Whenyoucometoexaminethesurfaceofthehumanbody,allthebonesandmuscleswehavelookedatareratherdisguisedbythelayersoffatandskinthat
coverthem.Fortheartistthisbecomesasortofdetectivestory,throughtheprocessofworkingoutwhichbulgesandhollowsrepresentwhichfeaturesunderneaththeskin.Tomakethiseasier,Ihaveshowndrawingsofthebodyfromthefront,back
andside,whichareinawayasdiagrammaticastheskeletonandthemuscularfiguresinthepreviouspages.Because,onthesurface,themaleandfemaleshapesbecomemoredifferentiated,Ihavedrawnbothsexes.Ihavealsoincludeddiagramsoftheproportionsoffigures(seepages28–31)tomakeiteasierforyoutodrawthefigurecorrectly.Icannotstressenoughthattodrawthehumanfigureeffectively,youwill
eventuallyneedtoattendalifeclassatalocalartsfacility.Drawingfromothers’drawingsanddiagramsisuseful,asisdrawingfromphotographs,butyouwillnevermakeentirelyconvincingdrawingsofpeopleunlessyoualsodrawfromlife.
Inthisview,Ihaveagainhighlightedthemostprominentmusclesandpartsofthebonestructurevisibleonthesurfaceofthebody.Thedifferencebetweenthemaleandfemaleshapesisclear,inthatthemaleshouldersarewiderthananyotherpartofthebody,whilethefemalehipsandshouldersareofasimilar
width.Allthesebodyshapesarebasedonanathleticform,becausethisshowsmore
clearlythemainfeaturesofmuscleandbone.
Inthesediagrams,thebasicunitofmeasurementisthelengthofthehead,fromthehighestpointonthetopoftheskulltothebottomofthechin.Thelengthofthebody–fromthetopoftheheadtothesolesofthefeet–issubdividedbythe
lengthofthehead.Totheleftofthemalefigureisthescaleofclassicalproportion,whichmakes
theheadgointothelengthofthebodyeighttimes.Thisisn’tquiteaccurate,althoughtheremaybesometallpeoplewithsmallheadsthatcouldfitthescale.Itwasconsideredidealatonetimebecause,drawnlikethat,thefigurehadacertaingrandeuraboutit,andsowasusedfortheproportionsofheroicandgodlikefigures.
Infact,mosthumanbeingsareclosertooneheadgoingsevenandahalftimesintothebodylength.Thisisthescaleshowntotherightofthemalefigureandonthefemalefigure.Eventhisisanapproximation,becausenoteveryonefitstheproportionquitesoneatly.However,itcanbeappliedtomostfigures.Whatthisproportionshowsisthattwounitsdownfromthetopofthehead
marksthepositionofthenipplesonthechest.Threeunitsdownfromthetopmarksthepositionofthenavel.Fourunitsdownmarksthepointwherethelegsdivide.Bycomparingthesetwodifferentsystemsofmeasurement,youcanseethat
theproportionofonetoeightcouldbemadetowork,buttheproportionofonetosevenandahalfisclosertoreality.
Thesedrawingsshowthechangesinproportionofthehumanbody(male)atdifferentages.Atoneyearold,onlyfourheadlengthsfitintothefullheightofthebody,whereasat25yearsold,theheadwillgointothelengthofthebodyaboutsevenandahalftimes.
Therearedifferencesinstructurebetweenthemaleandfemaleskeletonandbetweensomeofthesurfacemuscles.Overthenextfewpages,Ihaveillustratedthosedifferencesthatcanbeidentifiedfairlyeasilywhendrawingafigure.Ofcourse,bearinmindthatbodyshapevarieswidely.Somefemalefiguresarenearertothemasculineshapeandviceversa.Generallyspeaking,thebonesofafemaleskeletonaresmallerandmore
slenderthanthoseofamaleskeleton.Alsothesurfaceoftheboneisusuallyrougherinthemaleandsmootherinthefemale.Then,takingtheothermoreobviousdifferences,thefemaleribcageismore
conicalinshapeandthebreastboneisshorterthanthemale;thisgivesanappearancetofemaleshouldersofslopingmorethanthemale.Inthemaleskeleton,thethoraxislongerandlarger,andthebreastbonelonger;thismakes
skeleton,thethoraxislongerandlarger,andthebreastbonelonger;thismakestheshoulderslookmoresquareandtheneckshorter.
Anothercleardifferencebetweenthetwosexesisinthedispositionofthepelvis.Inthefemaleitisbroaderandshallowerthaninthemalestructure.Thepubicarchiswiderandthesacrumthrustsbackwardswhiletheupperpartofthepelvisistiltedforwardstoaccommodatepregnancyandprovidethebirthcanal.Inconjunctionwiththis,thefemalethighbone(thefemur)isgenerallyshorterandinclinedmoretowardsthemidlineatkneelevelthanthemalethigh.Theeffectofthisistomakethehipsofthefemalelookwiderinrelationtotheirheight.Otherdifferencesarethatthepatella,orkneebone,isnarrowerinthefemale,
andthefeetshorter.Thisisallinproportiontotheheightofthefullfigure.Justasthelegisslightlyshorterinthefemaleskeleton,soalsoisthearminrelationtotherestoftheskeleton.Thisallbecomesmoreobviouswhenyouseetheskeletoncoveredwithmusclesandfatandskin,whileintheskeletonitselfitisnotquitesonoticeable.Insomecasesitcanbequitedifficulttotellthedifferencebetweenamaleandafemaleskeleton.
INFANTSKULL
Themaindifferencebetweentheinfantskullandtheadultoneisthesmallersizeofthefacecomparedwiththecranium.
ofthefacecomparedwiththecranium.
Theupperandlowerjawsaremuchsmallerduetonothavinganyteeth.Asteethappear,thejawgrows.
Usually,thesurfacelayeroffatismorepronouncedinthefemalethanthemale.
Theskinsurfacetensionsarethecleavagelinesofthehumanskin,orthedirectioninwhichtheskinwillcrease.Musclefibrestensealongbandedpatterns,inordertoaccommodatebodilymovement.Anincisionalongtheselineswillhealwell,becausetheskin’stensionpullsthecuttogether.Acutacrossthemwillpuckerandscar.
Theproportionsyoulearntonpages28–31willnotofcourseapplywhenyoulookatthefigurefromdifferentangles,sincewhatisnearesttoyouappearstobeproportionatelylargerthanwhatisfurtheraway.Youcanseethisclearlyfromthetwodrawingsonthispage.Withforeshortening,theactualrelativesizesofpartsofthebodyaremeaningless.
Inthisviewthelegsandfeetaremuchlargerthanthechestandheadwhich,bycomparison,arealmostcompressedandappeartobeshrinking.
Lookingatthesamefigurefromtheheadend,thelegsbecomeverysmallincomparisonwiththehead,shouldersandchest.
Learningtodrawthehumanfigurefromallanglesistime-consuming;don’texpecttoseeadramaticimprovementinyourskillunlessyoupractiseatleastonceaweek.However,ifyoudoperseverewithsuchregularityyouwillsoonseeyourdiligencerewardedandthisshouldspuryouontomakegreaterefforts.
InthisdrawingafterMichelangelo,youcanseetheextremeforeshorteningof
partofthefigure’srightarm.Whiletheupperarmisheldstraightdown,supportingtheweightoftheupperbody,scarcelyanyoftheforearmcanbeseenasitisdirectedtowardstheviewerandmaskedbythehand.Astheforemostpartofthelimb,thehandlooksproportionatelylargerinrelationtotheupperarm.Whiledrawingthebodyinperspectivemayseemtrickyatfirst,itisonlyamatterofdrawingwhatyoucansee–youreyewillhaveinstinctivelyunderstoodwhatthisdrawingistellingyouaboutthepose.
Renaissanceartiststookagreatdealoftroubletofindbeautifulmodelstoworkfrom.Onceyoulearnthegraceofproportionbytracingorcopyinggreatmasterpiecesyouwillseetheinherentbeautyinallfigures.Obviously,theproportionsinsomefiguresfallalongwayshortoftheclassicalidealdemandedbyRenaissancemasters.Nevertheless,thereisalwayssomecombinationofshapesinthehumanfiguretodelighttheeye.HereIshowdrawingsaftertwoofthegreatmastersofthehumanform,MichelangeloBuonarrotiandJean-AugusteDominiqueIngres.Theseartistsmademanystudiesofthehumanbody,bothadoptingverydifferentapproaches.Michelangelodrewalmosteverymusclethatcouldbeshowninhisdrawings.
Aswellasbeinganartist,hewasalsoagreatsculptor,fascinatedbythewaytheshapeofthefigurewasbuiltup,withmuscleformsclearlyshownonthesurfaceofthebody.Hisapproachwasinfluencedbytherelativelynewscienceof
ofthebody.Hisapproachwasinfluencedbytherelativelynewscienceofdissection,whichtheRenaissanceartistswerebeginningtoexplore.Bythetimewegettothe19thcentury,however,theFrenchmasterIngreswas
endeavouringtoshowhowsubtledepictionsofthehumanformcouldbe,withallthemusculatureverysoftlyindicatedandtonesgraduatedfromoneplacetothenextontheform.Thisslightlymorecosmeticapproachwas,inaway,amoveawayfromtheovertlydramaticmethodsofshowingthehumanformaftertheageofMichelangelo.Nowadays,wetendtousebothapproachestoouradvantage.
Corot’sdrawingisinterestingtothestudentofanatomy,becausealthoughheprimarilyshowssmooth,flowingforms,itisstillpossibletoseethemainshapesofthemusclesandbonestructureunderneath.
Inthis18th-centuryGermandrawingthemusculatureismademoreobviousbythestrong,obliquelightingthatthrowsintorelieftheedgesofthemusclesand
bonesonthesurface.
Signorelli’sfiguredrawingalwaysshowsthelargemusclesveryclearly.Thisstudyofthebackviewofamalefigureshowshowwellheunderstoodthe
muscularityofthehumanform.
Noel-NicholasCoypel’sstudyofthebackofanymphunderastrong,obliquelightmakeseachcurveofthebodystandoutclearly.Noteparticularlythedetailsoftheupperback.
Iwouldnowliketoshowyousomeofthefineststudiesevermadeofthehumanfigureandtheyareallononeparticulartheme.SincetheRenaissance,the
femalenudehasbeenafavouritesubjectforartistsandhereisaselectionforcomparison.
ThefirstisSleepingVenus(c.1508)aftertheVenetianGiorgione(1477–1510)andshowsthegoddessofloveastheidealsleepingbeauty.Giorgionemakesheramostpeaceful,elegantfigure.
ThesecondpictureisafterGiorgione’sfamouspupilandcollaborator,Titian(1488–1576),anothergreatVenetianpainter.TitianpaystributetohismasterintheVenusofUrbino(c.1538).HecloselyfollowsGiorgione’spose,butonthisoccasionthebeautyiswideawakeandlookingdirectlyatus.Forthetimethiswasveryunusualbecausethefemalenudenormallyposedmodestlywithdowncasteyes.ButTitianwasnoordinarypainterandhedrawsusintothepicturewithastrongelementofseductionintheportrayalofhisVenus.
ThethirdoftheserecliningnudesisOlympia(1863),theportraitofaParisiancourtesanpaintedbyEdouardManet(1832–83).ThispayshomagetoTitian’sVenusofUrbinobutManetplacestheyoungwomaninamorechallengingpose.Manetwasthesubjectofmuchcriticismwhenheexhibitedthispicturebecausehedidn’ttrytoconcealthegirl’slifestyleundertheguiseofagoddessornymph.ThismeantthathewaschallengingtheParisianartcriticstorecognizethatreallifewasasmuchthestuffofartasanymythologicalsubjectmatter.Theinterestingthingaboutallthepictureshereisthatalthougheachonemay
beastraightforwardnude,inrealityitrepresentsawholenewwayoflookingatlifeandart.
Thelaststudy,TheNakedMaja(1799–1800)aftertheSpanishmasterFranciscoGoya(1746–1828),isintheeighteenth-centurytraditionofthebacchanteornymph,gazingoutofthepictureatus,relaxedandateaseonhercouch,demandingthatweappreciatehercharms.Butthereisanindicationthatthesubjectofthispictureisnotquiteasdecorousassheshouldbe.Thisisdefinitelyachallengingportrait,andonethatwaspaintedforanotoriouslibertineattheSpanishcourt,ManuelGodoy.Don’tworrythatanyposeyoumightchoosehasbeenattemptedbefore:itis
whatyoudowiththestandardhumanfigureinaparticularsituationthatwillmakeyourdrawingsignificantornot.
Nowthatyouhavelookedatsomepossibilitieswiththehumanfigureinavarietyofpositions,trydrawingfromafamousclassicalfigurepainting,theRokebyVenusbyVelasquez,usingtonetoincreasethethree-dimensionalqualitiesofyourdrawing.Payattentiontothedirectionofthelightsource,asthiswilltellyouwhatis
happeningtotheshapeofthebody.Keepeverythingverysimpletostartwithanddonotconcernyourselfwithproducinga‘beautiful’drawing.Reallybeautifuldrawingsarethosethatexpressthetruthofwhatyousee.1.Sketchinthemainoutline,ensuringthattheproportionsarecorrect.Notethelinesofthebackbone,shouldersandhips.Checkthebodywidthinrelationtothelengthandthesizeoftheheadinrelationtothebodylength.Payspecial
thelengthandthesizeoftheheadinrelationtothebodylength.Payspecialattentionalsotothethicknessoftheneck,wrists,anklesandknees.Allofthemshouldbenarrowerthanthepartseithersideofthem.2.Finalizetheshapeofthelimbs,torsoandhead.Thendrawintheshapesofmusclesandidentifythemainareasoftoneorshadow.3.Carefullymodelindarkerandlightertonestoshowtheform.Someareasareverydark,usuallythoseofdeepestrecession.Thehighlightsorverylightareasarethesurfacesfacingdirectlytowardsthesourceoflight,whichshouldlookextremelybrightincontrasttoanyotherarea.
Whenyouhavefinishedapplyingtone,giveyourfigureaplacetoexistinbyaddingtonestothebackground.Thesewillenhanceyourdrawingbythrowingthestronglydefinedareasoflightforwards,therebyincreasingthethree-dimensionaleffect.
THEHEAD
In the following sectionswe shall explore each part of the body ingreater detail, starting with the head and neck. As in the openingchapter,webeginbylookingatthebonestructureandthengoontostudythemusculature.Theskull,orcranium,ismadeupofseveralbones,althoughbythe
timeanindividualreachespubertymanyofthemhavefusedtogetherinaprocesscalledossification;indoingsotheyprovideasolidcasefor the delicate organs inside. The joins of these bones are calledsutures.Atbirth,theboneshavenotyetknittedtogetherbecausetheymust be flexible during the birth process; and since the brain willgrowquiteabitbeforeadulthood,thesuturesinachild’sskulldonotfusecompletelyforanumberofyears.Themandible(jawbone)growsdramaticallyasthechildmatures,andanadultjawisnoticeablylargerinproportiontotherestoftheskullthanthatofasmallchild.Althoughthemusclesoftheheadarenotverylargeincomparison
withtherestofthebody,theyaresignificantbecausesomanyofthemworktochangeourfacialexpressions.Thefaceisthepartofthebodythatwerespondtomostand,asartists,thechieffeaturebywhichwecapturethelikenessofaperson.Thetopoftheheadisgenerallycoveredinhairandtheartistneeds
todeterminetheproportionof thispartof theheadinrelationto theface,soitisbesttoestablishthehairlinestraightawaybysketchingitin across the forehead and down as far as the ears. The shape andlocationof theeyesarevery important; and the lengthandshapeofthe nose and the disposition of the mouth give us the rest of theexpressiveface.At the end of this section we shall look at the head and face as
depictedbyvariousartists, and there is anexampleofhow tomakeyour own straightforward drawing.We shall investigate the featuresandfacialexpressionsindetaillater,onpages146–161.
Theupperpartoftheskullcontainsthebrainandtheorgansofsightandhearing.Thefrontandrearpartsconsistofthethickestbone,whereimpactsaremostlikely;thesidesoftheheadaremuchthinner.Therearevariousopeningsinthecaseoftheskullsuchasthenoseandearholesandtheeyesockets,whichencompasssmalleraperturesforthepassageoftheopticnervestothebrain.Underneathwefindthenasalcavitiesandtheforamenmagnum,throughwhichthespinalcolumnpassesandconnectionsaremaintainedbetweenthebrainandtherestofthebody.Thelowerpartoftheskullisthemandible,whichhousesthelowerteethand
ishingedatthesidesoftheupperskulljustbelowtheears.Thefirst(milk)teethfalloutduringchildhoodandarereplacedbymuchlargeradultteeth,whichfilloutthegrowingjaw.
Thesearethemusclesthatenableustoeatanddrink,andofcoursetheysurroundourorgansofsight,sound,smellandtaste.Althoughtheydon’thavethephysicalpowerofthelargermusclesofthelimbsandtrunk,theydoplayanimportantpartinourlives.
Ihaveincludedthemusclesoftheneckwiththeheadbecause,inmostrespects,theireffectcanbecloselyalignedwiththeheadstructure.
Thisdrawing,madefromaveryclearanddetailedphotograph,showsthemusclesthatcanbeseenonthesurfaceofamatureman’sface.Thetemporallineshowsclearlyatthetempleoftheforehead,andthe
temporalisandfrontalismuscles,althoughthesedon’tstandoutstrongly,arebeingpulledtightlyacrossthebonestructureoftheskull.Aroundtheeye,theorbicularisoculiandtheprocerusmusclesarevisible.
orbicularisoculiandtheprocerusmusclesarevisible.Aroundthemouthandnosecanbediscernedthelevatorlabiisuperioris
alaequenasi,thecompressornarisandthedilatornaris(bothpartofthenasalis),thedepressorlabiiinferioris,thelevatoranguliorisandthedepressorangulioris.Furtherbackneartheearistheedgeofthezygomaticbonecalledthe
zygomaticarch,withthezygomaticusmajor,whichisthemusclethatstretchesacrossfromthearchtothecornerofthemouth.Alsoonthejawcanbeseenthebulgeofthemassetermuscle.Ontheneck,thetrapezius,thesternocleidomastoidandthesternothyroidcan
beseen.
Herethesamemusclescanbeseenasinthepreviousportrait,alongwithothersincludingthecorrugator,thementalisandthebuccinator.
ThesamegroupsofmusclescanbeseenonthedrawingsbyMichelangeloandPeterPaulRubens.Itisinterestingtonotethatassoonasyoustarttolookforthesemusclesoftheface,theybecomecleareranditiseasiertodrawthemcorrectly.
Inourlastdrawing,Self-portraitfrom1913aftertheIrishartistWilliamOrpen,weseethemainmusclesofthehumanheadagainquiteclearly.Itisprobablyeasiertoseethemonamorematurefaceandonethatdoesnothavetoomuchfleshonit,becauseyoungerormoreroundedfacesdon’tshowthemusclessoclearly.
Nowhaveagoatdrawingaportrait,rememberingthemuscleandbonestructureyouhavelearntabout;achild’ssoftlyroundedfacemakesforaneasystart.Thepositionoftheheadgivessomeideaofthekindofpersonyouaredrawing.Gentleorintrovertedpeopletendtolookdown,whileaggressivepeoplelookuporstraightahead,chinraised,sodrawingthemlookingstraightattheviewerwouldcapturethispartoftheirpersonality.Somepeoplesmileeasily,otherslookdarkerorcooler.Aprofileisoftentheansweriftheexpressionislessconfident.
1.Beforeyoustart,lookattheshapeoftheheadasawholetomakesureyougetthisright.Nowdrawanoutline,markingtheareaofhairandthepositionofthe
thisright.Nowdrawanoutline,markingtheareaofhairandthepositionoftheeyes,noseandmouth.
2.Builduptheshapesoftheears,eyes,nose,mouthandafewmoredetailssuchasthehairandneck.
3.Tofinishthedrawing,spendtimeputtingintheareasoftoneorshadow,thequalityofhairandfabricandthetonalvariationsoftheshadingaroundtheeyes,
qualityofhairandfabricandthetonalvariationsoftheshadingaroundtheeyes,noseandmouthinordertodefinethefeatures.You’llnoticethatthelinesoftonegoinvariousdirections.Thereisnosingle,‘right’wayofdoingthis.Inyourowndrawingsyoucantryoutsingledirectiontoning,multi-directiontoning,shadingaroundandinlinewiththecontoursand,whereappropriate,smudgingorsofteningtheshadinguntilitbecomesasoftgreytoneinsteadoflines.Whatyoudo–andwhatyouthinkworks–issimplyamatterofwhateffectyouwishtoachieve.Softer,smoothertonesgiveaphotographiceffect,whilemorevigorouslinesinjectliveliness.Heretheslightroughnessofshadingemphasizesaboyishunconcernwithappearances.
THETORSO
Thissectionofthebodyisthemostcomplicatedanddifficultfortheartist to comprehend because it performs so many functions andinvolves bones of several different types. The torso is capable ofbending, stretching and twisting in all directions, thanks to themarvellous design and co-ordination of the spinal vertebrae, ribcageandpelvis.Although they are flexible, these structures are also very stable,
owing to the fact that they have to contain and protectmost of themajororgansofthebody.Forinstance,theribsenclosetheupperpartof the torso and house within them the heart and lungs, while thepelvis supports 7.6 m (25 ft) of small and large intestine and thereproductiveorgans.The26spinalvertebraerunfromthebaseoftheskull through the cervical, thoracic and lumbar regions down to thepelviswhere they are immobile in the sacral area between the hips,andendinthecoccyx(fusedtailbone).Thevertebralcolumnencasesthe spinal cord and connects the rest of the body to the brain andnervoussystem.The torso also contains most of the body’s largest broad or flat
muscles,whichhelp tocoverandsupport the ribcage,vertebraeandpelvis.Atthefront,thepectoralsandtherectusabdominiscovermostof the surface area and are easily recognizable in an athletic figure.The shoulder and upper backmuscles are verymuch involvedwiththemovementof thearmsand so it is sometimesdifficult todecidewhere the torso muscles finish and those of the arm begin. This isequally trueof themusculaturesurroundingthepelvisandtheupperlegs.Thelongvalleyofthevertebralcolumn,downthecentreoftheback,isformedbythenumberoflargemusclesfanningoutfromthe
vertebrae and allows us to feel the bony structure underneath thesurfaceoftheskin.
Thethoraxistheareaofthetrunkbetweentheneckandtheabdomen,includingthesternumorbreastbone,the12ribsorcostaeandthe12thoracicvertebrae.Thesemakeupthethoraciccage(theribcage)whichprotectstheheart,lungsandviscera.Belowthethorax,theabdomenismadeupofthelumbarvertebraeorcolumn
andthepelvicbones.
Weexaminethevertebralcolumnbyitselfhere,becauseitissuchanimportantpartofthewholeskeletonthatitneedstobeseenseparately,withoutthedistractionsoftheribsandthepelvis.Notethecurvedform,andthewaythe
partsarelargeratthelowerendandsmalleratthehigherend–abrilliantpieceofnaturalarchitecture.
Themusclesofthetrunkareinthemainquitelargeandfairlyflatinshape.Theyarelayeredovertheribcageandpelvisandcoverthebigjointsofthehipsandshoulders.Therearedeeperlayersofmuscleinthebackthatsometimeshelpto
shapethemoresuperficialmuscles(seepages74–75).
HereIshowthedeepermusclesfirst,andthenthemid-depthones,withthebonestructureofthespinalcolumnontheleft-handside.
Thesurfaceviewofthetorsoisdeceptive,becauseonlythelargemusclesareimmediatelyobvious.Thisisparticularlytrueofthefrontviewsincetheinnerorgansarecoveredbylargeflatareasoftherectusabdominis.Thislayerisinturncoveredbysmoothaponeurosesandfasciae.Onethingthatisclearlyvisible
isthecentrallineofthelineaalbarunningdownthefrontandthespinalgrooveonthebackview.Thesebothservetohighlightthebalancedsymmetryofthetorso.
Noticethedifferencebetweentheratioofthewidthoftheshoulderstothehipsinthemaleandfemaletorso.
Inthisstrong-lookingfigurewithratherwildhair,Tiepolohasdrawnthemusclesofthebackonatintedpaperindarkchalkorcharcoalandhighlightedtheminwhitechalk.Thegroovedownthecentreofthebackisinterruptedbybonybumps,indicatingthespinalvertebrae,andthelowerpartofthescapulaishighlightedontheleftshoulder.Theotherlargemusclesofthebackarefairlyeasytosee,becauseofthemusculardevelopmentofthemodel.Forexample,youcanseethebulgeofthelatissimusdorsithrownintoreliefbythelowermusclesunderneath,theserratusanterior.
Inthisdrawingofawell-roundedwomanfrombehind,quiteafewofthemusclesofthebackarehiddenunderalayeroffat.Whatisclearisthedeltoidmuscleoftheshoulder,thelineofthespinalvertebraeandthegluteusmaximus.Becausethefigureisslightlyturned,thetrapeziusandthelatissimusdorsicanbeseenmoreclearly;thereisalsoaslightindicationoftheedgeofthescapula.Theothertwonamedmusclesareinferredratherthanclearlyseen.
Incharacteristicfashion,Michelangelodrawsthetorsoofamalefigurewithallthemusclesclearlyshownthroughhispenstrokes.Hisfirstlovewassculpture,andhisdrawingsalwayshaveasenseofgrowingoutfromthepaper,likeathree-dimensional,carvedform.Hereyoucanseequiteafewofthebonyprotuberancesoftheskeleton,aswellastheclearlydefinedmusclesofthefrontofthetorso.Michelangelodoesnotleaveoutanythingthatmighthelptoinformtheviewerabouttheshapeandthree-dimensionaleffectsofthebody.
BronzinowasheavilyinfluencedbyMichelangelo,asweremostoftheartistsofthistime,buthealsorespondedtothemuchsmootherdrawingofRaphael,whowasassuccessfulasMichelangelobuthadamuchshorterlife.ThecarefullymodulatedformsinthisdrawingofagoddesshavenoneoftheruggednessofMichelangelo’spendrawing.AspainterattheMedicicourtinFlorence,Bronzinoknewhowtomakehismodelspleasingtotheeye,withaseductivemodellingstyle.However,themainmusclesoftheBronzinotorsoarenotas
obviousasinMichelangelo’sdramaticdrawings,andthegoddessbeingnicelyfleshedout,thedivisionsbetweenthemusclesaremuchlessclearlydefined.
THEARMSANDHANDS
Theupper limbsof the body are structuredon the basis of the longbones of the humerus, the ulna and the radius, with the additionalsmall bones of the wrist and hand. The design of the arm is verysubtle and the hand so flexible and adaptable that almost anymovementinanydirectionispossible.Thesearethelimbsthatallowhumanbeingstohandletools,operatemachinesanddothethingsthatmostotheranimalscannotmanage.Theway that the armswork from the shoulders is quite complex
and so too is themusculatureof thehand;don’tbe surprised if youfind itdifficult to retainall theanatomical information.However,asan artist, your main goal is to gain familiarity with the generalstructureofthearmsandhands,sothatwhenyoucometodrawthem,theywillbeconvincingenoughtogiveyourdrawingsomecredibility.As inprevious sectionsof thisbook, I first giveanoutlineof the
skeleton,thenthemusclesthatsurroundthebonestructure,followedbythesurfaceviewofthelimb.Afterthatcomevariousdrawingsofsimilarviewsofthelimbbymasterartists,andfinallyanexerciseforyou to try – drawing your own hand. At this stage, I will not beshowinganyparticularmovementsofthearmsandhands,norwhichmusclesgovernthem;thesewillappearinalatersection(pages204–233).
Thebonestructureofthearmappearsquitestraightforwardatfirstglance.However,theareasoftheshoulderandthewristarequitecomplexandhelptoallowthemanymovementsofthelimb.
Noticethecomplexityoftheinterleavingmusclesaroundtheshoulderandelbow,andthelongstrandsoftendonspassingthroughthewrist.Thebonestructureonlyappearsatthepointoftheshoulder,theelbowandthewrist,butofcourseonthehand,thebonesofthefingersaremoreobvious.
Whenthearmisstretchedouthorizontally,wecanseetheshapesofthelargermusclesatthesurfaceofthelimb.Herewelookattheoutstretchedarmfromtwoangles:withthepalmfacingup(supineview)andwiththepalmfacingdown(proneview).
BoththesestudiesofmasculinearmsshowtheinterestthattheRenaissanceartistshadinthecarefuldepictionofthebody.Thesedrawingsaretheequivalentofthebestmodernphotographicwork.
Here,ontheotherhand,theartistshaveshownthedifferenteffectofthemoregentleshapesofthefemalearm.Allthetonalareasgivetheeffectofasoftundulationofthemusclesundertheskin.
Aswellascombineddrawingsofthearmandhand,Iamalsodealingwiththehandseparatelybecauseitissuchanintricatepartoftheupperlimb.Thesediagramsofthebonesofthehandseenfromfourdifferentanglesarewellworthstudying,soyouwillbeabletorecognizethemthroughthecoveringofmuscleandskin.
Notethatthethumb(likethebigtoe)ismadeupofjusttwophalanges–proximalanddistal.Unlikethefourfingers,ithasnomiddlephalange.
Thehand,beingthepartofthebodythatsetshumanskillsapartfromthoseofalltheotheranimals,isaverycomplexstructureofoverlappingmusclesandtendons.Theseallowthefingersandthumbtoperformverycomplicatedandsubtlemotions,enablinghumanstoconstructandhandleanenormousnumberoftools(includingthepencil,ofcourse),extendingtheirrangeofactivitiesfarbeyondotherspecies.
Themaindifficultyindrawingthemusclesofthehandisthatthemostsignificantonesaresituatedinthearmandareconnectedtothehandbylongtendons.Therearesomemusclesinthehanditself,buttheytendtobehiddenunderthesurfacepadsofthepalmandsoarenotveryevident.Themostclearlyseenmusclesarearoundthebaseofthethumbandontheoppositeedgeofthepalm.
Thefemalehandisusuallysofter-lookingandwithmoretaperedfingersthanthemale.Theknucklesofthemalehandtendtolookmoreprominentandthefingersaresquarerinshape.Butdon’ttakethisforgrantedinyourdrawing:sometimesthistypicalshapecanbereversed.
Thefollowingdrawingsaftermasterartistsshowthehandfromvariousdifferentangles.Theygiveagoodideaofthecomplexityofthissmallbutvitallyimportantpartofthehumanbody.
Thisexercisestartswiththesimpletaskofdrawingaroundtheoutlineofyourownhand.Justplaceyourhandflatonthepaperandthencarefullydrawallaroundtheshape,makingsurethatthepencilpointdoesnotgettoofarawayfrom,ortoomuchunder,theedgeofyourhand.
Liftyourhandcarefullyoffthepaper,keepingitflatandinthesamepositionasbefore,thendrawinallthewrinkles,bumpsandhollowsthatyoucanseeinthesimplestwaypossible,andofcoursethefingernailstoo.Youwillhaveafairlygoodrepresentationofyourownhand,matchingitforsizeandshape.Nowhaveagoatdrawingitinthesamepositionbutwithouttracingaroundtheedgeofit.Doestheseconddrawinglookasgoodasthefirstone?
Thenextstepistoholdyourhandinadifferentshape,forexampleshowingthepalminsteadoftheback,orwithapointingfinger,aclenchedfistoranyothershapeyouwishtotryout.Takeyourtimedoingthis,becausetheeffortyouputintotryingtobefaithfultotheshapesthatyouseeisthemostvaluablepartofthisexerciseindrawing.
Drawinghandscanbetrickyatfirst,butasyouarefamiliarwiththelookofyourown,thisisaneasyintroduction.Donotworryifyourearlyattemptsarealittleroughintechnique–thisisnormalifyouareabeginner.Yourskillwilldevelopfromrepeatingexercisessuchastheseasmanytimesasyoucan.
THELEGSANDFEET
Thissectionisquiteextensive,startingwiththelegsandgoingontodealwith the feet.Not only dowe show the lower limbs from fourdifferentanglesbutalso thedifferencebetweenthemaleandfemaleversions.Sincetheysupporttheentireweightofthebody,ourlegsandfeet
needtobestrongerandlargerthantheupperlimbs,whichiswhytheycompriseabouthalftheoverallheightoftheaverageperson.The knee and ankle joints are just as complex as the elbows and
wrists, but because of their weight-bearing facility they areconstructedmoresturdily.Anklesstillhavetobequiteflexiblebutthebonesofthefeet,unlikethehands,formarathermoresolidplatform.Thelowerlimbsmustcombineextremeflexibilitywithpowerand
theirmusclesareusuallywelldeveloped.Thepointatwhichthelegsjointhetorsoisimmenselyimportantwhenitcomestothemobilityofthebody.Thismeansthatalthoughthegroinandhipareaisstronglybuiltandheavilymuscled,itisalsoamazinglysupple,ascanbeseenin the movements of dancers and gymnasts.We will explore theseactionsingreaterdetailinalaterchapter(pages234–269).
Theskeletonofthelowerlimbiscomposedofnoticeablylonger,strongerbonesthantheupperlimb.Thefemuristhelongestandlargestboneinthehumanbodyandisintheclassicshapethatwethinkofwhenwevisualizeabone,comprisingapowerfulstraightshaftandbulbousendswhichhelpjoinittothebonestructuresofthehipandknee.
Liketheupperlimbs,thelegsarewrappedinlong,layeredmusclesthathelptogiveflexibility.However,becauseoftheincreasedstrengthneededtosupporttherestofthebody’sweight,thelegmusclestendtobelongerandbigger.Ihaveincludedthebandoffasciarunningdownthesideofthelegoverthe
muscles(thefascialataandtheiliotibialband)andthebandofRicherwhichholdsthemusclesinatthefrontofthethigh.
Thegroupoftendonsthatrundownthebackofthelegtothekneearecollectivelyknownasthehamstrings.Thesearethetendonsofthebicepsfemoris,thesemitendinosusandthesemimembranosus.
Seeingthelegfromthesurfacegivesnorealhintofitscomplexityunderneaththeskin.Onthewhole,thelargermusclesaretheonlyoneseasilyseenandtheonlybonestructurevisibleisatthekneeandtheankles.Howeverthetibia(shinbone)createsalong,smoothsurfaceatthefrontofthelowerlegthatisclearlynoticeable.
Sixdrawingsoflegsareshowninthissection,threemaleandthreefemale.ThemalelegsarefromstudiesbyRaphaelandMichelangeloandarealldrawnin
ink.Theinkgivesacertainsharpnesstothedefinitionofforms,whilethefemaleversions–byIngres,vonCarolsfeldandRubens–aredrawninpencilandchalk,whichgiveasofter,rathermoresubtleeffect.
Aswiththehandinthepreviouschapter,Iwilldealwiththefootseparatelyfromtheleg,asitisquiteacomplexfeature.Itisnotsuchafamiliarpartofthebodyeither,aspeopletendtokeeptheirshoesonwhenwalkingaboutinpublic.
onwhenwalkingaboutinpublic.
Themusclesofthefoothaveseveralcomplexlayersthatarenoteasilyseenonthesurface,nordowehavemuchopportunitytoexaminethesoleofthefoot,soitisnotsofamiliartous.
Examplesofthefootdrawnbywell-knownartistshaveprovedmoredifficulttofindthanotherpartsofthebody,becausedetailedfeettendnottofeaturevery
stronglyinpictures,andthenumberofspecificfeetdrawingsisratherlimited.So,asIhavefoundexamplesfrommoremodernsources,youmaynotbefamiliarwithsomeoftheseartists.However,theyarecertainlygoodartistswhohavedrawnthefootveryaccurately.
THEHEADINMOVEMENT
Inthissectionwereturntothehead,toseehowitmaybedrawnfromour anatomical knowledge. We look at it, quite literally, fromdifferent angles and relate various expressions to particular facialmuscles.Themainthingis tostartwithitsoverallshape.Weareallusedtoconcentratingonthefeaturesoftheface–particularlytheeyesandmouth – because this is wherewe read people’smoods. But itmeanswe tend todisregard the restof thehead, itsoverall structureandaspect.Inordertodrawitproperlyweshouldstartwiththebasicshapeandignoreanydistractions.Then, having worked at the shape of the head, the next thing to
considerismovementofthefacialfeatures.Thejawishighlymobile,givingexpressiontotheentireface.Buteventheslightestmovementsofthelipsandeyesplaytheirpartinconferringexpressions.Weshallbelookingindetailatthemusclesinvolvedinexpressing
a whole range of emotions, from anger to contentment. Familiaritywith the muscle structure underlying the face is very useful forcapturing the character of a human subject accurately. So, carefulinvestigationofwhatexactlyhappenstoallthesefeaturesisimportanttoourstudies.
Theheadisoftenobservedturningfromfullfacetowardsaprofileview.Lookingatthefullface(1),botheyesarethesameshape,themouthisfullydisplayed,andthenoseisindicatedchieflybythenostrils.Asshowninourdiagram,whentheheadturns,thefeaturesremainthesamedistanceapartandstayinthesamerelationshiphorizontally.However,astheheadrotatesawaytoathree-quarterview(2),webegintosee
theshapeofthenosebecomingmoreevident,whilethefarsideofthemouthcompressesintoashorterline,andtheeyefarthestfromourviewappearssmallerthanthenearerone.Continuingtowardstheprofileorsideview(3),thenosebecomesmoreand
moreprominent,whileoneeyedisappearscompletely.Onlyhalfofthemouthcannowbeseenand–giventheperspective–thisisquiteshortinlength.Noticehowtheshapeoftheheadalsochangesfromarathernarrowshape–longerthanitisbroad–toquiteasquareone,wherewidthandlengtharealmostthesame.Wecanalsoseetheshapeoftheear,whichatfullfacewashardlynoticeable.
Next,weshalllookattheheadinanothersequencethatopenswiththefullface,butthistimetheheadwillbeliftedbackwardswiththechintiltingup,untilverylittleofthefaceisseenfrombelow.Noteatthebeginningthatthefrontviewgoesfromthetopoftheheadtothe
tipofthechin,andthefacialfeaturesareallclearlyvisible.
Now,aswetilttheheadbackwards,weseelessoftheforeheadandstarttorevealtheundersideofthejawandthenose.Theendofthenosenowseemstobeabouthalfwaydowntheheadinsteadofthree-quarters,asitwasinthefirstdiagram.Theeyesappearnarrowerandthetopoftheheadisinvisible.
Onemoretiltoftheheadshowsanevenlargerareaunderneaththejaw,andthemouthseemstocurvedownwards.Theundersideofthenose,withbothnostrilsveryclearlyvisible,startstolookasthoughitispositionedbetweentheeyes,whichareevenmorenarrowednow.Theforeheadisreducedtoasmallcrescentshapeandthecheekbonesstandoutmoresharply.Theears,meanwhile,aredescendingtoapositionlevelwiththechin,andtheneckisveryprominent.
Onefurthertiltliftsthechinsohighthatwecannowseeitscompleteshape;andthenose,mouthandeyebrowsareallsoclosetogetherthattheycanhardlybeseen.Thisangleoftheheadisunfamiliartous,andisonlyusuallyseenwhensomeoneislyingdownandwearelookinguptowardstheirhead.Notehowtheheadlooksvastlydifferentfromthisangle,appearingasamuch
shorter,compactedshape.
Theseexamplesshowvariationsonviewingtheheadfromslightlyunusualangles,andyoucanseehowtheyallsuggestdifferentexpressionsofthebody’smovement.Althoughthemodelsforthesedrawingswerenottryingtoexpressanyparticularfeelings,theveryfactofthemovementoftheheadlendsacertainelementofdramatothedrawings.Thisisbecausewedon’tusuallymoveourheadswithoutmeaningsomething,andtheinclinationoftheheadonewayoranotherlooksasthoughsomethingismeantbytheaction.
Leaningbackseenfrombelow
Leaningforwardseenfromabove
Leaningbackseenfrombelow
Chintiltedupseeninprofile
Three-quarterview,headtiltedtowardsviewer
Three-quarterviewseenfrombelow
Three-quarterviewseenfromsamelevel
Three-quarterviewfromthefront,seenfromalmostthesamelevel
Three-quarterviewseentiltedforwardfromabove
Frontviewseenfromabove
Profileseenfromaslightlyrearview
Profileturningtowardthree-quarterview
Slightlyangled,seenfrombelow
Tiltedback,seenfrombelow
Herewehaveafewexamplesafterarangeofartistsoftheheadseenfromdifferentangles.Anumberofthedrawingsthatfollowareafteramodernartist,LouiseGordon,whospecializesinanatomicaldrawingsandhasproducedseveralanatomybooksherself.Herdrawingsareparticularlyaccurate,andIhaveendeavouredtoreproducethemascloselyaspossible.
ThefirstisaremarkableportraitbyanunknownartistofMarkGertler(1891–1939),himselfanartistwhobecamewellknownintheperiodbetweenthetwoWorldWars.Thedrawingshowsthemostpopularposeforaportraithead,thethree-quarterview.Thisisaverycarefuldrawingoftheface,clearlyshowingthemainsetsofmusclesonayoungmalehead.
ThesecondportraitisafterLouiseGordon,ofanelderlyman.Oncemore,itisathree-quarterview,butthistimeseenfromslightlyabove.Themusclesarewelldefinedandcanbeeasilyidentified,ifyouhavedoneyourhomework.
ThethirdexampleisbythegreatmasterPeterPaulRubens.Itshowsayoungwoman,three-quarterviewagain,butwithherheadinclinedforward.Onetouchingdetailisthewaythefullcheeksofthegirlrespondtothepullofgravityassheleansforward.
NowwehaveanotherstudybyLouiseGordon,andthefirstoftheseisofagirlwithherheadtiltedbackandalittletooneside.Notehowthenoseoverlapsthefareye.Themouthiscurved,andbecauseoftheanglethehalffurthestfromusisshorterandpartlyhidden.Ifyoulookclosely,youcanevenseehowthecurveofthelensontheirisoftheeyeactuallyshowsagainsttheuppereyelid.
AfterLouiseGordonYounggirllookingupseenfrombelow
ThelastofLouiseGordon’sdrawingsshowsthebackofthemodel’shead;theanglegivesaclearviewoftherearoftheneck.Ithasagreatdealincommonwiththenextdrawing,byMichelangelo,ofaheadseenfromthebackbutwiththenecktwisted,sothatweglimpseabitofthefacialform.Thesedrawings,fromtheirvariousangles,servetoshowwhythewholeshape
oftheheadhastobetakenintoaccountwhendrawingpeople’sfaces.
AfterLouiseGordon
AfterMichelangelo
Nowwemoveontotheothergreatchallengeofdrawingthehead:capturingexpression.Hereareaseriesofexpressionsshowingthedominantmuscles.Checkthemandthenpersuadeyourfriendsorfamilytomakesimilarfaces,andseeifyoucanidentifythemusclesresponsible.
Thenextsixdrawingsareinthenatureofaquiz,totryoutyournew-found
expertiseinidentifyingmusclesofthehead.1.Hereisamanwitheyeswideopenandmouthopenaswell.Whichmusclesaredoingthis?
2.Thismanhashisforeheadwrinkled,eyesnarrowedandmouthpursedintoan‘O’shape.Whichmusclesareinoperationhere?
3.Nextaretwofacesofmenlaughingorgrinning.Whichmusclesareoperatinghere?
4.Nowwehavetwowomen,bothsmiling,butonemoreopenlythantheother.Aretheyusingthesamemusclesorisonewomanbringingdifferentmusclesintoplayfromtheother?
Thesearetheanswerstothequestionsonthepreviouspages.First,trythemoutwithoutlooking,toseehowyourmemoryisworking.
Hereweshowtheindividualfeaturesoftheface:theeye,themouth,thenoseandtheear,givingsomeinformationaboutthenormalformationofthesefeatures.Whatwewillshowisthebasicstructureofthesefeaturesandtheirmostobviousshape,butbearinmindthatthefeaturesofindividualsdovary
quitedramaticallysometimes.
Firstnotethatthenormalpositionoftheeye,whenopenandlookingstraightahead,haspartoftheirishiddenundertheuppereyelid,andtheloweredgeoftheirisjusttouchingthelowerlid.
Notethetendencyoftheeye’sinnercorner(medialcanthus)tobeslightlylowerthantheoutercorner(lateralcanthus),tohelpteardrainage.
Aspreviouslystated,thereareenormousvariationsintheshapesofthesefeatures,andthesepicturesshowonlyafew.However,theirbasicstructureisthesameandtheartistneedstograspthisgeneralizedinformationbeforeexploringthedetaileddifferences.
Becausetheyaresointimatelyconnected,itisdifficulttomaketheheadlook
naturalwithoutdrawingthenecktoo.OnthefollowingpagesIshowthebonesoftheneckaswellasthe
musculatureinordertomakethestructureasclearaspossible.
THETORSOINMOVEMENT
The torso and head are two sections of the human body that mostartistsareinterestedindrawing,chieflybecauseoftheirsubtletyandthechallengeofrenderingthemconvincingly.Ofthetwo,thetorsoislessfamiliar,becausewedonotusuallyseeittotallyunclothed.Themainskeletonisinthreeparts:thespinalvertebrae;theribcage
withtheshouldergirdle,fromwhichthearmsdepend;andthepelvisfromwhichthe legsdepend.Thenumerousmusclesstretchedacrossthe skeleton are extremely difficult to draw, owing to the way thatlayersofmuscleandfatoverlieoneanotheranddisguiseagooddealofthebonestructure.Thischapterwillfeaturediagramsofthedeepermuscles,butonlytoshowhowtheyaffecttheappearanceofthemoresuperficialones.Thesignificantthingaboutthetorsofromanartist’spointofview
isthatalthoughitlookslikeaprettysolidpieceofwork,itisactuallyhighly mobile. It can bend forwards, backwards and sideways, andstretch out and contract to some extent. It can also twist around,enabling the shoulders to face sideways from the hips. Because thelargemusclesinthebackandthefrontofthetorsoaresoprominent,itisusuallyeasytoseethemworking.Howevertherearenotsomanyseen on the surface and some of these are affected by musclesunderneaththem.Look out for the differences between themale and female torso:
whereasthemusclesareverypronouncedonanathleticmalefigure,the female shape is smoother and large muscles like the pectoralismajorarenotsovisibleunderthemammaryglands.
Becausesomuchoftheskeletonishidden,itmaybedifficulttodifferentiatebetweenmuscleandbone.However,listedbelowarethebonesthatarevisibleonmostbodiesofaveragebuild.Theremaybesomepeoplewithmoredevelopedareasoffattydepositthatdisguisethelessobviousones,butusuallythefollowingbonescanbeseen:•Clavicle•Sternum•Partsofthescapula•Sevencervicalvertebrae•Firstandtwelfththoracicvertebrae,incertainpositions•Firstandtwelfthribs•Pubis•Iliaccrest•Iliactuberosity•AnteriorsuperioriliacspineForanartist,recognizingthesebonypointsonthesurfaceofthebodyisveryuseful,sincetheymakegoodmeasuringpoints.Unlikethemusclesandfattyparts,theydonotmove.Lookouttooforthesuprasternalnotch:thisisthespacebetweenthetwo
clavicleswheretheymeetthemanubriumortheupperpartofthesternum(breastbone).Itisausefulmarkerformeasuringtheheadandshouldersbecauseitremainsatafixedpointatthebaseoftheneck.Thenotchisvisibleonthevastmajorityofhumans.
ABDOMINALMUSCLESflextorsoforwardsintocurledposition,straighteningarchoflumbarvertebrae.Compressvisceratoforceexpiration,orstraininchildbirthanddefecation.Thethreelayerscreatestrongwallsoneithersideoftheabdomen.
DELTOIDcontractionofentiremusclewillraisearmtohorizontalplane.Partialcontractionwillresultinpullingthearmbackwardorforward.
ERECTORSPINAEGROUPmadeupoftheLONGISSIMUS,theSPINALISandtheILIO-COSTALIS.Lifttorsowhenrisingfromstoopedposition.Straightenspine,extendspinebackwardsortoeitherside.Drawpelvisbackwardsandupwards.Helpsupporttheweightofthehead.SometimesreferredtoastheSacrospinalis.
INFRASPINATUSrotatesarmoutwardsandbackwards.INTERNALandEXTERNALOBLIQUEflextrunk.Isolatedactionofone
INTERNALandEXTERNALOBLIQUEflextrunk.Isolatedactionofonesideturnsanteriorsurfaceoftrunktothatside.Bendsspinalcolumnlaterally.Co-operateswiththeotherabdominalmuscles.Simultaneouscontractionofmusclesofbothsides,resultsinforwardbendingoftrunk.Ifchestisfixed,pelvisisbroughtintoflexion.Constrictsabdominalcavity,ribsarecompressedandpulleddownwards.
LATISSIMUSDORSIthrowsbackshoulders.Drawsarmbackwardsandtowardsthecentreline.Rotatesitinwardsandlowersit.Ifshouldersarefixed,itraisestrunkandsuspendsit.
LEVATORSCAPULAEsteadiesscapuladuringmovementsofthearms.PECTORALISMAJORdrawsarmforward,rotatesitinwardsandlowersarm.
QUADRATUSLUMBORUMholdsfirmthetwelfthribandpullslumbarregionofthespinetoitsownsideandhelpsstraightenorraisepelvis.
RECTUSABDOMINISflexestrunk.RHOMBOIDSMAJORandMINORelevate,rotatescapula.Drawittowardsthemedianline.
SEMISPINALISCAPITIStwodeepneckmusclesbeneathtrapezius,wheretheyhelptodrawheadbackwardsorrotateittoeitherside.
SERRATUSANTERIORdrawsscapulaforwardsandlaterally.Helpstrapeziusinraisingthearmabovethehorizontalplane.
SERRATUSPOSTERIORMUSCLESsteadytheerectorspinaegroup.Superiorpairelevateupperribs,helpingustobreathein.Inferiorpairareexpiratory,depressinglowerribsaswebreatheout.
SPLENIUSCAPITISpullsheadbackwardsandsideways,rotateshead.SPLENIUSCERVICISpullsneckbackwardsandsideways,rotatesatlas(topvertebra)alongwithhead.
SUBCLAVIUSfixesandpullsclavicledownwardsandforwards.SUBSCAPULARIS(beneathscapula)rotatesarminward.SUPRASPINATUSraisesandrotatesarmoutwards.TERESMAJORraisesarmforwardsorsidewaysfromtrunk.Rotatesarminwards.
TERESMINORrotatesarmoutwards.TRAPEZIUSextendshead,inclinesittoonesideandturnsheadinoppositedirection.Middlepartliftsscapula.Inferiorpartlowersscapula.
Therearemorethanahundredmusclesinthetorso,andtheytendtobepaired
oneithersideofthebody’smedialline,andlayeredingroups.Aseriesofdividedmusclessupportandarticulatethespine.Therearebroad,thinsheetsofmuscleenfoldingtheabdomenandthepelvis.Thick,heavymusclesgivestrengthtotheshouldersandhips.Thediagonallyarrangedmusclesoftheribcagehelpwithbreathingandtheflexibilityoftheuppertorso.Ontheoppositepage,Ihavedetailedthemajormusclesofthetorsoandsome
ofthemovementstheyproducebycontractingorflexing.Tryperformingsomeofthesemovementsandfeelingyourownmusclesatwork.
InthisdrawingafterLouiseGordonyoucanseethetorsobendingtotherightandextendingontheleftofthebody.Notehowthenormallyhorizontallinesoftheshoulders,thewaistandthehipsarenowtiltedinoppositedirections.
Thisdiagramhelpstoclarifythemusclesalongthespinalvertebrae,showninthreecolumnsoverlayingeachother.Thethreemusclesoftheerectorspinaegroupareshownontheright.
Bodybendingtotheleft:spinalmusclescontractingoneside
Bodybendingback:spinalmusclescontractingonbothsides
SIDEVIEW:THETORSOCURLED
Thisinterestingviewofthebackandshouldergivessomeideaofthecomplexityofthemuscles,particularlynoticeablearoundthemovingpartsofthejoints.Thetriangleofauscultationbehindthescapulaisusedbydoctorsforlisteningtothe
triangleofauscultationbehindthescapulaisusedbydoctorsforlisteningtothelungsusingastethoscope.
Thestatuesquequalityofthetorso,seenfromtheback,givesanimpressionofstrengthandsimplicity.However,beneaththeskin,aswehaveseen,itiscomplex,althoughthelargemuscleshelptokeeptheoverallformsimple.
Drawingthetorsoofahumanbeingwithoutshowingalltheotherlimbsisalmostlikedrawingalandscape.Lightthrowstheundulatingshapesintorelief,likerollinghills.Thesetwoviewsshowthetorsowiththeshoulderstwistedonewayandthe
hipstheother.
Thisselectionofmasterdrawingsshowshowwelltheseartistsknewtheiranatomydespitethelackofmedicalknowledgeatthetime.Thedefinitionofthemusclesandbonestructureundertheskinisbeautifullyindicatedintheseworks,andtheyareworthstudyinginordertoseehowcarefullytheshapesundertheskinwerereproduced.Aperiodofintenselifedrawing,withthehelpofan
anatomybooklikethis,soonmakesyouawareofthemultiplicityofsubtleshapesthatshowthemselvesonthesurfaceofthehumanbody.
AfterMichelangeloThisisadrawingfora‘Deposition’,showingthedeadbodyofChristbeingloweredfromthecross.
AfterRaphaelThisdrawingshowsthemaletorsotwisting,sothatpelvisandshouldersarenotinline.
Thefrontviewofthetorsoalsohasastatuesquequality,partlyduetotheeffectofthemusculature.
AfterSebastianodelPiombo(1483–1547)
Thefollowingthreedrawingsofthemaletorsodemonstratetheflexibilityandstrengthofthesectionbetweentheribcageandthepelvis.
OverthenextpagesIhaveshownmoretorsoshapesaftermasterartists,givingdynamiceffectsthroughthetwistingandturningoftheshouldersandhips.
THEARMSANDHANDSINMOVEMENT
The diagrams and drawings of arms and hands in this chapter willgiveyousomeideaoftheextraordinary,subtlemovementsthat theycan achieve.Most of our work and skill in handling all manner ofthings are thanks to the flexibility and strengthof these parts of thebody.Ihaverotateddiagramsoftheunderlyingmuscleandbonestructure
with drawings of the samemovements as seen from the surface. Inmany cases you can actually observe themusclesmovingunder theskin,providedthearmisnottooheavilycoveredinflesh.Students of anatomy can help their understanding by flexing and
relaxingthemusclesintheirownarms.Observationthroughtouchingand feeling is often as useful as the visual kind. In this book, I canonlybegintoshowtherangeofmovementspossibleinthearmsandhands.Itisworthrememberingthatthemusclesoftheupperarmaffectthe
lowerarmandeventhefingers.Aswithotherpartsof thebody, theconnections are complex and it is difficult to isolate even simplemovementstoonlyonesetofmuscles.Studyof thesecomplicatedmuscle systems isnoteasy,butworth
theeffortbecauseoftheextrainsightitgivesusintotheworkingsofthebody.
Becauseofthecomplexattachmentofthearmtothetorsoviatheshoulder,wenowexamineitinsomedepth.Thesediagramsshowhowthemusclesarelinkedtothebonestructureandhowtheyallshowonthesurfaceofthearm.
BICEPSBRACHIIflexeselbowjointandsupinatesforearm.BRACHIALISflexesforearm.CORACOBRACHIALISflexesandadductsshoulder.DELTOIDpullslimbforwardwhenarmraisedlevelwithshoulder.Raisesandholdsarmhorizontal,anddrawslimbbackwardswhenhorizontal.
INFRASPINATUSandTERESMINORhelptorotatearmbackwards.LATISSIMUSDORSIpowerfullydrawsthearmbackwards.PECTORALISMAJORextendsarmanddrawsitacrossthefrontofthetorso.
PECTORALISMINORholdsscapulaagainstribcageandraisesribsduringforcedbreathing.Italsopullsshoulderdownandforwards.
RHOMBOIDSMAJORANDMINOR(beneathtrapezius)drawscapulatowardsthemedianline.
SERRATUSANTERIORpullsshoulderforwardandgivesforcetopunch.Preventsshoulderbladefromswingingtoside.
SUBCLAVIUSfixesandpullsclavicledownwardsandforwards.SUBSCAPULARIS(beneathscapula)rotatesarminward.SUPRASPINATUSraisesandrotatesarmoutwards.TERESMAJORwithLATISSIMUSDORSIextends,adductsandrotatesarminwards.
TENDONANDAPONEUROSISOFTRICEPSflattenbackofarmaboveelbow.
TRAPEZIUSraisesandlowersshouldersanddrawsheadtoeitherside.TRICEPSBRACHIIextendslimb.
Notehowthesemusclesfitunderandovereachother,formingastrongmassthatenablesthearmtomoveeasilyinanydirectionwithoutdamage.Allthemusclesaffecteachotherwhenflexingorcontracting,whichtranslatesasa
‘rippling’effectonthesurfaceofthearm.Thisisparticularlyvisibleinathletesandweightlifters.
THEMUSCLESOFTHELOWERARMANDHOWTHEYWORK
ABDUCTORPOLLICISLONGUSextendsandabductsthethumb.ANCONEUSextendsforearm.BRACHIORADIALISflexeselbowjoint.
BRACHIORADIALISflexeselbowjoint.LONGEXTENSORMUSCLESonposteriorforearmpassintothebackofhand.
EXTENSORDIGITORUMextendsfingers(notthumb);EXTENSORDIGITIMINIMIextendslittlefinger.EXTENSORCARPIULNARISextendswrist,adductshand.EXTENSORPOLLICISBREVISextendsproximalphalanxofthumb.EXTENSORINDICISextendsforefinger.EXTENSORCARPIRADIALISBREVISextendsthehandatthewrist.EXTENSORCARPIRADIALISLONGUSextendswristonsideofradius.EXTENSORPOLLICISLONGUSextendsthethumb.FLEXORCARPIRADIALISflexesandrotateshandinwards.FLEXORCARPIULNARISflexeswristonsideofulna.FLEXORDIGITIMINIMIBREVISflexeslittlefinger.FLEXORDIGITORUMPROFUNDUSflexesmiddleanddistalphalangesoffingers(notthumb).
FLEXORDIGITORUMSUPERFICIALISflexesmiddleanddistalphalangesoffingers(notthumb)andwrist.
FLEXORPOLLICISLONGUSflexesdistalphalanx.PALMARISLONGUStheweakest,leastsignificantmuscle,sometimesmissinginoneforearm,flexeshand.
PRONATORQUADRATUScausespronationofradius.PRONATORTEREScausespronationofforearm,helpsinflexionofforearm.
SUPINATORtheshortestextensor,rotatesradiusoutwardsonitsownaxis.
THEMUSCLESOFTHEHANDANDHOWTHEYWORK
Notethattherearenomusclesinthefingers,onlybonesandtendons,tiedbyfibrousbands.Thesmallfattypadsontheendoffingerscarrybloodandnervesandcushionflexortendons.
ABDUCTORDIGITIMINIMImoveslittlefingeroutwards.ABDUCTORPOLLICISBREVISdrawsthumbforwardatarightangletopalm.
ADDUCTORPOLLICISdrawsthumbtowardspalm.DORSALINTEROSSEIabductfingersfrommidlineofhand.
FLEXORandEXTENSORRETINACULAenabletendonsofhandtochangedirectionatwrist.
FLEXORPOLLICISBREVISflexesproximalphalanxofthumb.LUMBRICALESflextheproximalandextendthemiddleanddistalphalanges.
OPPONENSDIGITIMINIMIdrawsfifthmetacarpalforwardsandinwards,tohollowthepalm.
OPPONENSPOLLICISallowsoppositionofthumb.PALMARMUSCLESliebeneathpalmaraponeurosis(thickenedfascia)holdingskintomusclesandbonesbelow.
PALMARINTEROSSEImovefingersinwardtomidlineofhand.
Herearefourviewsofthelowerarm,palmup,showingthelayersofmusclefromdeepest(1)tomostsuperficial(4).
EXTENSION
FLEXION
Adductorpollicisacting
Thetwoopponensmusclesacting
Itiswellworthstudyingthemovementsofthehandindetail,astheycanbeveryexpressiveandcapturingthemaccuratelywilladdalottoyourdrawing.Themovementsofthehandaremainlyproducedbythemuscleshigherupthe
arm.Whenyoumoveyourownhand,noticethethemusclesofyourforearmorupperarmwheretheactionoriginates.Lookoutfordetailslikethepadsonthepalmofthehandandthefrontofthe
fingerswhichpushoutwhenthehandisclosedintoafist.
MOREPRECISEHANDMOVEMENTSHoldingapencil
Holdingasmallobject
Pointing
Whatisclearishowflexibleandsensitivethehandsare,beingabletomakelarge,strongmovementsanddetailed,preciseones.Thefollowingrangeofmovementsarejustafewofthehundredsofactionsthehandcanperform.
Pushing
Holding
Holding
Clenching
Clutching
Grasping
HoldingandarranginghairOverthefollowingpagesIhavedrawnseveralimagesofthearmandhandaftermasterartists.Notethedifferenceinmuscularitybetweenportrayalsofthemaleandfemalearm.
Herearesomemoreexamplesofveryclearlydrawnmusculature,whichIhavenotannotated.Seeifyoucanidentifythevariousmusclesshown.Refertothedetaileddiagramsofmusclesandthedrawingsonthepreviouspagestocheck
yourresults.Pencilinyourideasbeforecheckingandseehowmanyyougetcorrect.Thisexerciseiswellworthdoing.
AfterRubens
AfterFrançoisBoucher(1703–1770)
AfterEugèneDelacroix(1798–1863)
THELEGSANDFEETINMOVEMENT
Our lower limbs are probably themost powerful parts of the body,having the largest bones and the strongest muscles. This is nosurprise,sincethelegsnotonlysupportthetotalbodyweightbutalsohavetopropelitalongintheworld.Thehingeingofthelegsontothetorsoisverystronglysupported,
bothintheshapeandconstructionoftheskeletalstructureandinthecompleteness of the muscle system that holds it all together andallowsittomove.Legsandfeetarelessdelicateintheirmovementsthanourarmsandhands,butcommensurablystrongerandharder todamage.Thismeansthatthelowerlimbsarelesspliableandsensitiveintheirmovementsthantheupperlimbs,sacrificingflexibilityinthecauseofgreaterstrength.Despitethelowerandupperlimbsbeingbasicallysimilarinform,
thefeetaremoresolidandtheirmovementslesssubtlethanthehands,which have to perform somanymore complex tasks. Nor does thekneejointhavequitethesamerangeastheelbow,ortheankleasthewrist. The toes are clearly less dexterous than the fingers, despitebeing constructed along similar lines, but they are also considerablystronger.So what is most evident in the lower limbs is the power and
strength, and the ability to support the whole body mass. Allmovementsofthelegsandfeetaresimple,butstronganddistinctive.
Thethighextendsdownonelong,strongbone(thefemur)fromthepelvis–wheretheballandsocketjointofthehipconnectswiththetorso–tothekneejoint,wherethetwolowerbonesofthelegmeetit.Themusclesystemsarecloselyboundaroundthesejointsandaregenerallylargemusclesthatcoverthelongbonestructureentirely.Thepelvis,whichwehavealreadystudied(seepage70),hasanicely
hollowedshapeoneachside,intowhichtheroundedtopofeachfemurfits.Italsocontainsthetwiniliaccrests,towhichareattachedthepowerfulmusclesconnectingthelegstothetorso.
ADDUCTORMAGNUS,ADDUCTORBREVISandADDUCTORLONGUS:simultaneouscontractionofthesemusclesresultsinmovingthightowardscentreline.
BICEPSFEMORISflexesandthenrotateslegtowardscentreline.GEMELLUSSUPERIORandGEMELLUSINFERIORrotatethighoutwards.
outwards.GLUTEUSMAXIMUSextendsfromthighontofixedtrunk.Whenlegisfixed,trunkisbentbackwardsbyitscontraction.Itextendshipjointwhensubjectclimbsstairsorrisestoerectpostureafterstooping.
GLUTEUSMEDIUSrotatesthighinwardsandoutwards.GLUTEUSMINIMUSrotatesthighinwardsandoutwards.GRACILISflexesandrotateslegtowardscentreline.ILIOPSOASwhentrunkisfixed,flexesandrotatesfemurinwards;whenlegisfixed,flexestrunk.
PECTINEUSmovesthightowardscentrelineandflexesit.QUADRATUSFEMORISrotatesthighoutwards.QUADRICEPSMUSCLESthesearetheVASTUSINTERMEDIUS/LATERALIS/MEDIALISandtheRECTUSFEMORIS;theyextendandflextheknee.
TENSORFASCIAELATAEstretchesfascia,elevatesandmovesthighoutwards.
RECTUSFEMORIS(seequadriceps)extendskneejoint.SARTORIUSmovesthighawayfrombodyandrotatesitsideways,andflexeslegatkneejoint.
SEMIMEMBRANOSUSflexesandthenrotateslegtowardscentreline.SEMITENDINOSUSflexesandthenrotateslegtowardscentreline.VASTUSMUSCLES(seequadriceps)extendandflextheknee.
MUSCLESOFTHELOWERLEGANDHOWTHEYWORK
EXTENSORDIGITORUMLONGUSstraightensfourlessertoes.EXTENSORHALLUCISLONGUSstraightensgreattoe.EXTENSORRETINACULUM,SUPERIORANDINFERIORenabletendonsofthefoottochangedirectionattheankle.
tendonsofthefoottochangedirectionattheankle.FLEXORDIGITORUMLONGUSbendssecondtofifthtoes,helpsinbendingfoot.
FLEXORHALLUCISLONGUSbendsbigtoe(hallux)andthroughthisthefoot.Takespartinrotationoffoot.
GASTROCNEMIUSextendsfootdownwards.PERONEUSBREVISraisesoutsideedgeoffoot.PERONEUSLONGUSbendsandturnsfootoutwards,supportslateralsideofarch,steadieslegonthefoot,especiallywhenstandingononeleg.
PERONEUSTERTIUSraisesthefootupwardsandoutwards.PLANTARISweaklyflexesankleandkneejoint.POPLITEUSbendsandthen,rotateslegtowardscentreline.SOLEUSextendsfootdownwards.TIBIALISLONGUS(ANTERIOR)straightensfoot,raisesfootarch.TIBIALISPOSTERIORstraightensfoot,turnsfootinwards,supportsfootarch.
Likethehand,thefootisacomplexstructureofoverlappingbone,muscleandtendons.Thefootislessflexiblethanthehandbutstronger,andtheareaaroundtheankleandheelhasmuchlargerbonesthanthewrist.Mostofthemusclesarefoundunderneaththebonesofthefoot,andthetoesaremainlyboneandfatty
pads.
MUSCLESOFTHEFOOTANDHOWTHEYWORK
ABDUCTORHALLUCISmovesbigtoeoutwards.ABDUCTORDIGITIMINIMImoveslittletoeoutwards.ADDUCTORHALLUCISmovesbigtoeinwards.EXTENSORDIGITORUMBREVISstraightenstoes.EXTENSORRETINACULUM,SUPERIORANDINFERIORenabletendonsofthefoottochangedirectionattheankle.
DORSALINTEROSSEIDeep-seatedmusclesthatmovethetoesapart.FLEXORDIGITIMINIMIBREVISflexeslittletoe.FLEXORDIGITORUMBREVISflexessecondtofifthtoes.FLEXORDIGITORUMLONGUSflexessecondtofifthtoes.FLEXORHALLUCISBREVISflexesbigtoe.FLEXORHALLUCISLONGUSflexesbigtoe.LUMBRICALESflexproximalphalanges.Invisiblefromsurface.OPPONENSDIGITIMINIMIpullsfifthmetatarsalbonetowardssole.PLANTARINTEROSSEIaredeepmusclesthatmovethird,fourthandfifthtoestowardssecondtoe,andflexproximalphalanges.
QUADRATUSPLANTAE(FLEXORDIGITORUMACCESSORIUS)helpsinflexingtoes.
Theleginmovementisquiteflexiblebutwithoutthemoredetailedmovementsofthearm.Theemphasisisonstrengthandpowerfulmovementsthatcarrythe
wholebody.Overthefollowingpagesarevariousviewsoflegsperformingsimplemovements:notethesmootherappearanceofthefemalelimbandtheclearermusculatureofthemale.
Inthesedrawingsaftermasterartists,Ihaveonlygiventhenamesofsomeofthevisiblemusclesandbonestructure.Itwouldbeagoodexercisetoseewhat
othersyoucanidentify,usingthediagrammaticinformationinthepreviouspages.Thiswillhelpyoutomemorizetheterms.
THEMOVINGBODY
InthissectionIpresentthewholebodyengagedinaction,particularlyin sporting activities. The figure drawings are taken from severalsources,anumberofwhicharephotographicbecause,ofcourse,thisistheonlywaytofreezethemovementinmid-actioninordertoseewhathappens.Someofthefiguresarenude,butgenerallyspeakingitispossibletoseetheshapeofthebodywellenoughunderclothing.Unlike in themainpart of thebook, I havenot labelledprecisely
themusclesinplay.However,Ihavegiventhenamesofthepartsthatare obviously being used and you will know where to look up therelevantinformation.Onthewhole,welearnquickerwhenwemakethe effort to look up the names for ourselves, rather than alwaysfindingthemattachedtothedrawings.I have chosen the type of sports that clearly show themuscles in
action, such as running, jumping, climbing, wrestling andweightlifting.Itisveryinterestingforanartisttowatchsportspeopleand observe what happens to the musculature as they move. Thisinformationisdoublyvaluablewhenyoulaterstudyaphotographofthe action, becauseyourdirect experiencedoes change thewayyoulook at the still image. Your memory can help to give greaterverisimilitude to a drawing that is done from a photographicreference,soifyouhavetousestill images,donotneglect towatchtherealthingfromtimetotimeinordertoimproveyourdrawing.
Thefollowinggroupoffiguresdemonstrateshowtoobservethehumanformandsimultaneouslytoanalysewhatishappeningtotheplacingofthebodyasyoudrawit.
Startoffbyvisualizingalinefromthetopoftheheadtothepointbetweenthefeetwheretheweightofthebodyisresting–thisisitscentreofgravity.Oursystemlabelsthisline(fromheadtoground)aslineA.Next,takethelinesacrossthebodythatdenotetheshoulders,hips,kneesand
feet.Thewaythattheselineslendbalancetotheformtellsyoualotabouthowtocomposethefigure.Thesystemlabelstheseasfollows:theshoulders,lineB;hips,lineC;knees,lineD;feet,lineE.Then,notetherelationshipbetweentheelbowsandthehands,althoughthese
arenotalwayssoeasytosee.Thesystemhereis:theelbows,lineF;hands,lineG.Sonow,asyouglancedownthelengthofthefigure,youreyeautomatically
notesthedistributionofthesepointsofbalance.Concentratingyourobservationsinthisway,youwillfinditmucheasiertorenderthefigurerealistically.Thefirstfigureisstandingandthedistributionofthevariouslevelsofbalance
canbeseenquiteclearly.Theonlyonethatisabitdifficulttorelateto,islineF,linkingthetwoelbows.Thesecondfigureisalsostanding,althoughtheshouldersandhipsaredifferentfromthefirst.Nevertheless,itisstillfairlyeasytoseehowthepointsrelatetooneanother.
Thethirdfigure,stillstandingbutsideways-onthistime,makessomeofthebalancingpointslesssignificant.Thehips,forexample,areonebehindtheothersotheydon’tregistermuch.Thehandsaretogether,sothatsimplifiesthataspect.Buttheremainingpointsareimportanttoobserve,inordertogivetherightkindofbalancetothefigure.
Thelaststandingfigureusesallofthepoints,exceptforthehandsandtheknees,whichareonebehindtheotherinbothcases.
Now,wehaveasittingfigureinwhichthemainlineAisshortenedtocovertheupperpartofthebodyonly,becausethisiswherethebalancinglinestops.However,therestareobviousenough,althoughthelinesconnectinghandsandelbowsactuallycutacrosseachotherinthispose.
Intherecliningpose,themainbalanceliesbetweenthelinethatgoesasfarasthehip,andalinefromshouldertoelbow.Ihavenotindicatedthelatterinordertoavoidoverloadingthediagram.
Thecrouchinggirlisrathercomplexbecausethelinepassingthroughthebodyisnotthemainbalancingpoint;inthiscase,itrunsstraightdownfromthehead,pastthekneestothefeetandhands.Thebackfootisalsohelpingtokeepthebalance,bypushingthelowerpartofthebodyupwards.
Thisbendingfigureillustratestheprincipleofthecantilever,wherethefeetplantedapartandthepositionofthearmontheknee,supportingtheback,
combinetokeepthefigureuprightdespitethehorizontalangleoftheupperbody.Buttodrawtheposeconvincingly,itisstillimportanttoregisterthebalancingpointsandthepositioningoftheotherpairsoflimbs.
Thekneelingmanholdsasimilarposition,inwhichthearmconnectingwiththefloorandthebackfootarebothpartofthebalancingsystem.
Nowwewilllookatsomemoredynamicposes.First,thebodyleapingthroughtheair,anactionwhichinvolvesallthelimbsandtheheadaswellasthetorso.Everythingisadjustedtokeepthebalanceandmakesurethatwhenthebodylandsbackonthegrounditwillnotdamageitself.Thisgirlisleapinginaforwardspringandhasthegraceofadancer;manyof
thesefigureshavebeendrawnfromphotographsspeciallytakentohelpartistsandillustratorstorenderbodiesinmotion.Themusclesmostclearlyseeninthisdrawingarethoseintheupperlegsandacrossthechestandribcage.
Theleapingmanisobviouslyonhiswaydownfromahigherleveloraveryhighjump.Notehowheisconcentratingonhislandingplace.Themusclesmostnoticeableherearethoseinthelowerlegsandalongthefrontandsideofthetorso.
Thenextdrawingsshowmodelsbendingandstretching,which,althoughnotaveryenergeticmovement,doesbringmanyofthemusclesintoplay.Thegirlbendingsidewaysisstretchingherthighmusclesaswellasallthemusclesdownonesideofhertorso.
Thegirlbendingovertotouchtheflooratherfeetisbothstretchingherlegmusclesandthoseofherback.
Thestandingmodelisstretchinghertorsodownonesideandhasplacedherfeet
insuchawayastomakeherlegspointindifferentdirections.Notethedifferentmusclesbeingusedinthearms.
Themodelsittingcross-leggedandstretchingherarmsaboveherheadisshowingveryclearlythebonyribcageandherkneejoints.
Thenextthreeposesmakeitlookasifthemodelsaredancing,usingtheirbodiesinawaythatmakesthemostoftheoppositionofthearmsandlegs.Theirtorsosarealsoturnedtoshowhowthemusclesarebeingused.Likesport,danceemploysexaggeratedmovement.Normallythebodywouldnotbeworkedasthoroughlyasthis.
Nowwecometoclimbing,oneofthemoreextremesports,whichreliesontremendousmuscleco-ordination.Itisalsothesportwhichcallsmostuponyour
senseofbalanceandtheabilitytogripwellwithyourhandsandfeet.Observethegreattensionshowninthebodywhenitisclingingtoadifficultrock-face;noticethemusclesinthearmsandback.
Threemoreclimberswiththeirlegsstretchingouttoencompassthespacebetweenfootholds.Inthefirstfemaleclimber,itispossibletoseehowthelegs,armsandbackmusclesarebeingworked.
Thepopularsportoffootballprovidesuswithmanyexamplesofenergeticmovement,althoughtheplayers’sportingstriponlyrevealsthemusclesinthe
legsandarms.Thefirsttwoplayers,onetacklingtheother,demonstratejusthowpowerfultheactioncanbeincompetitivesports.
Thenextthreefootballersshowthemovementsinvolvedinkickingaballwheninplay.Themovementoftheplayeratthebottomrightisverycontrolledandalmostacrobatic.
Thenextfourpicturesshowthebalanceandeffortrequiredwhenmovingfastandtryingtocontrolaballwithyourfeetatthesametime.Noticehow,inevery
case,theplayersareusingtheirlimbstokeepthebodyinmovementandbalancedatthesametime.
Thelastfootballpictureisoftwoplayersfallingafteracollisiononthefield,anditisclearthattheirbalancehasgoneandtheirbodiesaretryingdesperatelytocounterthissomehowwiththemovementsofthelimbs.
Wenowexamineathletesjumpingashigh,asfarandasfastastheycan.Notehowthebodyperformstomatchandcounterbalancetheeffortsofleaping.
Theathletethrowingthediscustwistshisbodyandswingshisarmsinordertogetmaximumpowerintohisthrow.
Thefourrunnersillustratethebody’seffortstogainspeedalongalevelsurface,pumpingthearmsandlegstokeepthemmovingasfastaspossiblewhile
remainingbalancedandcontrolled.Twomorejumpers,withadifference,becauseheretheyarehelpedbyapoletoleapevenhigherthannormal.Themusclesthathelpthehandstogrip,andtherestofthebodytoswingupwards,areshownundergreatstress.
Nextweseeacoupleofwrestlingpairs,strainingtoupsettheiropponentwithoutlosingtheirownbalance.
Theweightliftersinthenextthreepicturesaregoodexamplesofmuscleperformanceunderpressure.Notehowthefacialmusclescomeintoplaytoo.Watchingweightliftingisoneofthebestwaystoseeclearlyhowthemusclesbehavewhenactivatedinextremesituations.
ThispictureofasmithwieldingasledgehammershowsGreiner’sthoroughnessininforminghimselfofthemusclemovementsinthebody.Astudylikethisisveryinformativeandwouldbemostusefulinproducingafinishedpainting.
ThedrawingontheleftistakenfromoneofGreiner’scommissioneddrawingsfromlife.Lookatthedetailinthedepictionofthebackmuscles,andinthebentarmandleg.Thisdisturbingdrawing(below)ofawomanbeingpulledalongbythehair
showsthebodyconvulsedwithpain:herstomachistensedandherarmsare
showsthebodyconvulsedwithpain:herstomachistensedandherarmsareraisedinanefforttofreeherself.
ThefirstdrawingbyIngresisofayoungmanbendingdramaticallydowntogathersomethingup,whilelookingbackwards.Theseconddrawingisofanymphstretchingupwards,showingthetensionin
herbodyasshedoesso.Ingresdoesn’tdefinethemusclesverysharply,preferringasmootheroveralllooktohisfigures.Nevertheless,itisobviousenoughwhichmusclesarebeingindicatedinthesedrawings.
Thenextdrawingshowsamanliftingachairabovehisshoulderashewalksforward.Thearmmusclesareparticularlyobvious.ThefinalIngreslifestudyshowsamanreachingdowntoliftsomethingfrom
theground.Thestretchingofthelegsandarmsbringsintoplayallthemusclesofthelimbs.Ashappensinmanylifedrawingsbyaccomplishedartists,Ingreshasdrawn
extradefinitionsofthefeetinthestandingposeandthestretchedarminthedrawingbelow.Theseworkingshelptoclarifywhatisactuallyhappeninginacomplexpartofthepose.
complexpartofthepose.
LIFEDRAWING
This chapter points out the benefits of practising life drawing forartists,aswellassomeofthethingstoexpectandtolookoutfor.Asapractisingartistmyself formanyyears, Ihave foundfrequentstagesofdrawingfromlifeabsolutelynecessarytokeepimprovingmyownability. It does not seem to matter how often you practise, the factremains that it helps you to improveyourwork, even after years ofstudy.Soalthoughabooklikethiswillgiveyoualotofinformationabout
thehumanbody,itisessentialforreallygoodresultstodrawfromlifeasoftenaspossible,inordertobecomefamiliarwithwhathappenstothemusclesandbonestructureofthebodyindifferentcircumstances.Itusedtobepossibleforartiststoattendmedicaldissectionsofbodiesinordertounderstandtheirinnerworkings,butthatisratherdifficultnow and will not be necessary unless you intend to investigateanatomyinsomedepth.Ifyoujoinalifeclassatyourlocalart instituteoradulteducation
centre,youwillhavethechancetodrawallkindsofmodelsusingavariety of techniques. The tutors in such places are generally wellqualifiedtogiveyouaneffectivecourseindrawingthehumanbody,soyourtimewillnotbewasted.Afterreadingthisbook,youwillbeabletoidentifymanyofthebonypartsandthevisiblemusclesofthebodywhenyouseeitinitsnaturalstate.Ifyoucanvisualizewhereamusclebeginsandends,itismucheasiertodrawwhatyoucanseeofit–andyourknowledgeof thestructureof thebodywillalsomeanthatthetutorwillbeabletodescribeexactlywhereyouneedtolook,becauseyouwillbetalkinginthesameterms.
Thefirsttwoexamplesarebothdoneinafairlyclassicalstyle,butwhereasoneissetinasortoflimbowithnobackgroundaroundit,theotherisplacedinareal-lifesetting,whichisaLondonartstudio.So,inthefirstdrawingtherearenooutermarks,nopointsagainstwhichtomeasurethebodyshape.Inthesecond,therearethechair,theverticallinesandtheshelvesinthebackground,whichallhelptoestablishthepositionofthefigure.Abackgroundisanadvantagebecauseitconvincesusofthespacearoundthe
model,andmakesmoresenseofthedimensionsofthebodyitself.Manystudentsdonotattempttoincludethesurroundingsettingformanyweekswhentheystartlifedrawing,butifyouhavethetimetoputitin,itwillhelptoinformyouastowhetherthedrawingisaccurateornot,andthatisonethingyouneedtoknowifyourworkisgoingtoimprove.Itisbettertomakemistakesandbeawareofthemthantodraw,nomatterhowbeautifully,withoutsomeobjectiveunderstandingofthesetting.Ofcourse,thetutorwillinformyoueventually,butyouwillneedtostartnoticingwhatishappeningyourself.
Whenyoubeginlifeclassesyoumayfinditdifficulttocompleteadrawingquickly,butthetutorwillquiteoftenmakeyoustartwithseveralveryshortposes,takingmaybeonlyaminuteortwo,toaccustomyoutodrawinginstinctively.Thiscansometimesbeabitdamagingtoyourself-confidence,butdonotbedownheartedbecauseeventuallyyouwillbeabletoproduceadecentresultinasurprisinglyshorttime.Itdoestakepractice,andthemoreyoudothe
betteryoubecome.Thesethreeposeshaveallbeencompletedinonetofiveminutes,andyoucan
seehowtheapproachesaredifferentbuteffective.Youwillprobablybeencouragedbyyourtutortousemanydifferentmediums,whichisalltoyoureventualadvantage.Itisindrawingatthisspeedthatyourknowledgeofthehumananatomystartstohelpyougetitright.
Whenbeginnersstartlifedrawing,theyoftentaketheslowandpainstaking
approachofverydetailedworking,whichaprofessionalwouldnotdo.So,onemethodyoumustlearnishowtoblockinlargechunksofthefigure,ignoringthedetail,inordertogetabetterideaofthewholesolidmassmorequickly.Thefirstexamplealsoshowshowyoumayignorethecurvesofthebodyto
producearathersculpturalinterpretationofthemassesofform.Thishelpsyoutoproduceamuchstronger-lookingdrawingandiseasiertomeasurefrompointtopoint.Thesecondexampleisnotsochunkyandsomecurvesarevisible,but
neverthelessthemainpointisthatitproducesanimpressionofthebulkoftheform,usingverylittleinthewayofdetail.
Thenextstudyisquitedifferentintechnique,executedwithagraphicpenfine-liner.Thisisadaringthingtodoifyouareabeginner,becauseeverymarkyoumakeisobvious,anditisnotpossibletoeraseinthenormalway.Butifyouperseverewithyourstudies,itisinfactaverygoodwaytodraw,asitmakesyoumoreawareofyourimperfectionsandalso,asyouimprove,itgivesyoutheconfidencetomakemistakeswithoutcringingwhenothersseethem.Awordofwarning,however:itisextremelytime-consuming,soyouwillneedagoodlongpose.
Whenyoudrawthesamemodelfromdifferentanglesatdifferenttimesyougraduallybecomeaccustomedtotheconstructionofthatparticularbody.Thisisveryuseful,especiallyifyourdrawingsarealldonefairlyclosetogetherintime.Youbegintorecognizetheparticularshapesandproportionsofyourmodel,whichhelpsyoutoidentifythedifferentpartsofthebodymoreeasily.Herearethreestudiesofoneofmyfavouritemodels,aBraziliangirlmuchin
demandforlifeclasses.Theseposesshowherfromthefrontsittinginachair;fromthefootend,reclining;andsittingwithherbacktomebutreflectedinamirror.Thesethreedrawingsandseveralothershaveenabledmetogetaveryclearideaofherbodystructure,andhowthemusclesworkontheskeleton.
Inmydrawingsforthisanatomybook,Ihavechosenfiguresofalmostperfectproportionsintermsofthewaythatthemusculatureisdistributedoverthebonestructure,andalsoofasimilarsizetotheclassicalnorm.Inactualfact,whatthemodelforyourlifeclasswilllooklikeisanybody’s
guess,notleastbecausearttutorsseemtodelightinbookingmodelsofasmanydifferentshapesandsizesaspossible.Aswithourfirstexamplehere,youmightgetayoungmanwhoisskinnyand
angular,sothattheskeletonbeneaththemusclesisverymuchmoreobviousthaninanaveragefigure.Thismeansthatyougetplentyofpracticeindrawingbonestructurebutthemusclesarehardertomakeout.
Inthesecondexample,theyoungwomanhasarotundbuild,whichpresentsyouwithquiteadifferenttaskwhendrawingher.Herethebonestructureisonlynoticeableatthewrists,handsandfeet.Eventhejointsoftheelbowandkneearefairlywellcovered,sotheprincipalproblemistoascertainthemusclesthatlieunderthesmooth,solidforms.Thisvarietyisalltothegoodifyouaregoingtolearntodrawproperly,butit
canbedifficultatfirst.Whateverthemodelislike,thechiefconcernofthelifeartistisusuallytorepresentwhatheorsheseesasaccuratelyaspossible.However,donotforgetthattherearedifferentlevelsofaccuracyindrawing,andthemainthingfromthepointofviewofanatomyistodiscoverhowwellyoucanidentifythestructureundertheskin.
PUTTINGITALLTOGETHER
Valuableandengrossing though it is todrawthenudehumanfigurefrom life, observing all the structures of muscle and bone that youhave learnt throughout this book, in realitymost of the figures youdraw will be clothed. Even so, your knowledge of anatomy willinform the way you describe their bodies and the way the clothesadorn them;everydrawingyoumake,whether itbeasingleportraitor scenes of several figures, will gain in authenticity from theunderlyingexpertiseyoucancontribute.In this final chapter, we shall look at clothing – the textures of
differentfabricsandhowtheydrapeandflowover thehumanform.There followsa simpleportrait inwhichyoucanpractisedrawingaclothed figure before going on to consider how you will set yoursubjects within a format before you embark on making a finishedpicture.Next, you will be ready to start working on an extended portrait
project, from initial rough sketches and studies of your model’sindividual features to a fully realized drawing, showing the humanfigure in convincingly three-dimensional form – the kind of projectthat will teach you how to make portraits that sum up not just thesitter’sphysicalcharacteristicsbuttheirpersonalitiestoo.Finally, we shall address the tricky feat of making successful
compositions using groups of figures, both formal and informal andinteracting in various ways, from ball games to affectionate familygatherings.
Thehandlingofdraperyandclothingisnotparticularlydifficult,butitdoesrequiresomestudyinordertobeclearabouthowmaterialsbehaveandwhathappenswhentheyarecoveringthebody.Theresultsfromyourstudycan,ofcourse,beusedasabackgroundforstilllife,butthemainpurposeoftheseexercisesistoteachyouhowfoldswork.Howmaterialsbehavedependslargelyonthetypeoffabric.Withpracticeyouwillcometounderstandthosedifferences.
Ausefulexerciseforlearningaboutthebehaviourofclothingistochooseaniteminasoftfabric–suchaswoolorsilk–anddrapeitoversomethingsothatitfallsintovariousfolds.Nowtrytodrawwhatyousee.
1.Drawthemainlinesofthelargefolds.Whenyouhavegottheseaboutright,putinthesmallerfolds.
2.Inordertocapturethetextureofthematerial,putinthedarkesttonesfirst,andthenthelessdark.Makesurethattheedgesofthesharpestfoldscontrast
andthenthelessdark.Makesurethattheedgesofthesharpestfoldscontrastmarkedlyintoneattheedges.Inthesofterfoldsthetoneshouldgraduallylightenintonothing.
Trydrawinganarminasleeveoralegintrousersandcarefullynotethemainfoldsandhowthebendinthearmorlegaffectsthem.Insleeves,thewrinklescantakeonanalmostpatternedlook,liketrianglesanddiamondshapes
alternating.1.Startbyverysimplyputtinginthemainlinesofthecreases.Notehowonthejacketthefoldsandcreasesappearshorterandsharperacrossthesleeve,whereasonthetracksuittheyappearlongerandsofterdownthelengthoftheleg.
2.Shadeinwherenecessarytogivethedrawingsubstance.
3.Thepatternsonthesesleeveslookalmoststylized,partlybecausethematerialisabitstiff.
Nextwelookathowthemovementandactionsoftheweareraffecttheappearanceofclothing.Ofcourse,howanitemofclothingbehaveswilldependonthetypeofmaterialofwhichitismade,soyouneedtobeawareofdifferentpropertiesandcharacteristicsandhowtorenderthemrealisticallyinvarioussituations.
Averysimplemovementofagirlpullingonherjacketproducesallsortsofwrinklesandcreasesinaratherstiffmaterial.Thecreasesatthebendofthearmarerelativelysoft,however,whichgenerallyindicatesanexpensivematerial.AstheAmericanRealistpainterBenShahnremarked,‘Thereisabigdifferencebetweenthewrinklesina$200suitanda$1,000suit.’(Thiswassaidinthe1950s,sothepricesarerelative.)Whathewasremarkingonwasthefactthatmoreexpensivematerialsfoldandcreaselessmarkedlyandthecreasesoftenfalloutafterwards,whereasasuitmadeofcheapermaterialshaspapery-lookingcreasesthatremainaftertheclothisstraightened.
Theclothingwornbythisfigure(right)hangssoftlyinfoldsandsuggestsalightweightmaterialsuchascotton.Theshapeoftheupperbodyiseasilyseenbutthetrousersarethickenoughtodisguisetheshapeoftheleg.
Thisdrawing(left)wasmadefromapictureofadancerplayingapart.Thebaggycotton-likematerialhasaslightlybobblytextureanditsloosenessinthesleevesandlegsservestoexaggeratehismovements.Boththeactionandcostumereinforcetheeffectoffloppyhelplessness.
Abitofcleverposingbyafashionphotographerwasresponsiblefortheoriginalfromwhichthedrawingbelowwasmade.Themodelwasactuallyphotographed
lyingonthefloorwiththedressspreadouttomakeitlookasthoughshewasmovinginasmooth-flowingdance.Thephotographwastakeninthe1930s,beforethebenefitsofhigh-speedcamerasandfilm,andrepresentsanimaginativewayroundatechnicalproblem.Itprovesthatyoucancheattheeye.
Thesturdygirldanceraboveisswirlingalengthofthin,lightsilkenmaterial.Themovementofthehairandgarmenttellyouquiteabitabouthermovementsandthematerialityofthehairandcloth.
Drawingasimpleclothedfigurelikethiswillhelpyoutopractisewhatwehavelearntaboutthewaymaterialcoversthebody.Trytokeepyourdrawinglooseandsimpleatfirst.1.Drawthesimplestoutlinepossible.Withthefirststageofyourdrawing,alwayssimplifyruthlessly.
2.Blockineachmainshape,ensuringthatwhatyoudrawisanaccurate
2.Blockineachmainshape,ensuringthatwhatyoudrawisanaccuratedescriptionofwhatyousee.
3.Blockinthetone,thenputindarkerandstrongershadowstoemphasizetheshape.
Thebestwayistodrawfromlife,butifyouseeanattractiveposeandthemodelcannotstayputforlong,workingfromaphotographissomethingtofallbackon.
Whenyouaregoingtodrawaportrait,yourfirstconsiderationistheformatofthepicture.Thisisusuallythenormalportraitshape,tallerthanitswidth,butofcoursethismightnotalwaysbethecase,andyoushouldfollowyourownideas.IntheexamplesIhavechosen,I’vestucktotheuprightformatinordertosimplifytheexplanation.Theideaofthesepicturesistogivesomethoughttothewaythatyouusetheformattodeterminethecomposition.Youmightchoosetodrawtheheadaloneorincludetheentirefigure.
Thefirstexampleshowsthemostconventionaltreatmentofthesitter,occupyingacentralpositioninthepicture,showingthetophalfofthefigurewithasimplebackgroundsuggestingtheroominwhichsheissitting.Thereareprobablymoreportraitsshowingthisproportionofthesitterthananyother.
Inthesecondpicture,Ihavegoneinclosetothefaceofthesitterandthebackgroundisjustadarktone,againstwhichtheheadisseen.ThefeaturesareasbigasIcouldgetthemwithoutlosingthewholehead,andalltheattentionisontheface.
Thenextpictureshowstheotherextreme,thefull-figureportrait.Inthis,thefigureisstanding,withthesurroundingroomshowninsomedetail,althoughthisdoesnotalwayshavetobethecase;itcouldbeanemptyspaceorperhapsanoutdoorscene.Thefull-lengthportraitisoftenatourdeforcefortheartistinvolved.
Hereweseeafigure,notquitecomplete,buttakingonamorehorizontal
Hereweseeafigure,notquitecomplete,buttakingonamorehorizontalposition.Thiscouldbedonejustaswellinalandscape(horizontal)format,butcanbemosteffectiveinthevertical.Inthisexample,thespaceabovethesitterbecomessignificantandoftenfeaturessomedetailtobalancethecomposition,likethepictureshown.
Adoubleportrait–suchasaparentandchild–createsitsowndynamic.Allyouhavetodecideishowmuchofeachfigureyouchoosetoshow,andwhichpersontoputinthecentreofthecomposition.
Thefinalexampleisaportraitofthesitterandhisdog.Puttingpetsintoaportraitisalwaystricky,buttheansweristodrawtheanimalfirstandthentheowner.Beforeyoustartyouneedtodecidewhethertheanimalisamereadjunctorthecentrepiece.Therearemanywaystoapproachthedrawingofaportraitandthisstageof
considerationiscrucialtothefinalresult.
Thisexerciseentailsquiteabitofdrawingandyouwilllearnalotaboutyourmodel’sappearancebyspendingawholesessiondrawingandredrawinghimorherfromasmanydifferentanglesasyouthinkwouldbeuseful.
SKETCHESOFTHEHEADIchoseasmysittermyeldestdaughter,whohassatformeoften,likeallofmy
Ichoseasmysittermyeldestdaughter,whohassatformeoften,likeallofmyfamily.Notonlythat,sheisanaccomplishedartistherself,sosheknowstheproblemsofdrawingfromlife.Thissympathywithyourendeavoursisuseful,asmodelsdogetboredwithsittingstillfortoolong.
Iworkedmywayroundmysitter’sheadbydrawingherfirstfromthesideorprofileview,thenfromamorethree-quartersviewandfinallyfullface.Inowhadagoodideaastothephysiognomyofherface.
NextItookmoreaccountofthelighting,drawingherfull-faceandthree-quarterface,bothwithstronglightcastfromtheleft.
ThenItriedveryevenlightingthatreducedalltheshadowstotheminimum.
Herethelightilluminatesonlyonesideofherface,makingastrongshadowthatdividesthefaceinhalf.
SKETCHINGDIFFERENTPOSESNowyouneedtospendsometimedrawingthesitterfullorthree-quarterlengthinordertodecidehowmuchoftheposeyoumightwanttodraw.
FirstIdrewmydaughterstanding,withherarmdrapedacrossamantelpiece,
FirstIdrewmydaughterstanding,withherarmdrapedacrossamantelpiece,whichgavemeathree-quarterfigure.
NextItriedasideviewofherkneelingontherug,whichmadequiteanicecompactshape.
ThenIaskedhertositinabigeasychairwithherlegscrossed.Noticehowsheislookingoutofthepicture.
Idrewacoupleofposesofhersittingonalargesofa,onemoreorlessstraightontomyangleofviewandonewheresheleansoverontothearmrest.
Therefollowedtwomorestandingposes,onethereverseofthefirstwithherreflectionshowinginthemirror,andtheotherofherjustleaningonthewallwithherhandsinherpockets.
Twomorevariationsonseatedposescamenext.Noticehowallthesedrawingsaremuchlessdetailedthanthefacedrawings,becausehereIwasjustlookingforaposeandIwasnotworriedaboutwhetherthefacewasaccurate;thepositionwaseverything.
DRAWINGTHEFEATURESINDETAILOnceyouhavedecidedupontheposeyouneedtoturnyourattentiontothedetailsofthesitter’sface,takingeachofthefeaturesandmakingdetaileddrawingsofthem.
drawingsofthem.Istartedbydrawingjustoneeye.Thisisadifficultthingtodo,asthemodel
willfindyourconcentratedstarealittledaunting.However,itisalsoveryrevealingastohowcarefullyyouhaveobservedtheeye.Havingdrawnmydaughter’seyedirectlyfacingme,IthendrewitfromaslightanglesothatIgotasideviewofit.Ididthiswithbotheyes,thendrewthemasapairtoseehowtheylookedtogether,aswellasthespacebetweenthem.
NextImovedontothemouthanddrewittwoorthreetimes,exploringthefront,sideandthree-quarterview.
FollowingthatIdrewthenose,firstinprofile,thenfromthefrontandalsowiththeeyesandmouthtogetanideaofhowtheylookedinrelationtoeachother.
Asmymodelhadquitelonghairhidingherears,Ididnotdrawthelatterbutwentstraightontodrawingthehairfromseveralangles,oneofwhichwouldprobablyappearinthefinalportrait.
Inowhaddrawingsofthehead,theposeandallthefeatures,soIwaswellsetuptobeginmyportrait.
CHOOSEYOURCOMPOSITIONWithmydrawingsgatheredtogetherandmymodelrefreshedandreadytositformeagain,IfirsthadtochoosetheposeandthendrawitupinassimpleawayaspossiblebutwithalltheinformationIneededtoproceedtothefinishedportrait.Idecidedtoplaceheronalargesofa,legsstretchedoutandhandsinherlap,withherheadslightlyturnedtolookdirectlyatme.Thelightwasallderivedfromthelargewindowtotheleftandsohalfofherfacewasinsoftshadow.
Ithenspenttimedrawingherinsomedetail,butwithoutanyshading,tocreatemycartoon.ItriedtomakeitascorrectasIcould,butitdidn’tyetmatterifthedrawingwasnotquiteasIwanteditbecausethepurposeofthecartoonwastoinformmeastowhatIneededtodotomakethefinalpieceofworkthebestpossibleportraitthatIcouldmanage.Whenartistsintraditionalatelierswerepaintingalargecommission,theyoftendrewupthewholethingfull-sizeinanoutlinestatefromwhichtoproducetheirfinalpainting.
outlinestatefromwhichtoproducetheirfinalpainting.
1.FirstIdrewupaquicksketchthattoldmewhereeverythingwouldbeplaced.Thisalmostexactlyechoedtheshapeofmycartoon,whichIhadinfrontofme.
2.Then,stillusingmycartoonasaguide,Idrewupacarefuloutlinedrawingofthewholefigureandthebackgroundsettinginsomedetail.ThiswasthelaststageatwhichIcouldintroduceanychangesiftheywerenecessary.
3.NextIbegantoputinthemainareaoftoneevenly,usingthelightesttonethatwouldappearonthefinishedarticle.
4.IcouldnowbuildupallthedifferenttonesuntilIhadproducedaconvincingthree-dimensionalportraitthatlookedlikemysitter.Thismayhavestruckyouasquitealongprocess,butifyoutakeallthistroubletomakeyourownportraitsthechancesarethatnotonlywillthesitterbepleasedwiththeresult,sowillyou.
Drawingafigurecompositionisquiteamajortask,butifyougoaboutitinasystematicwayyouwillnotfindittoodifficult.Thefirstthingistodetermineyourformat–Idecidedthatminewouldeitherbeashortrectangleorasquareshape.
Asyoucansee,Ihadthreepossiblecompositionsinmind.Onehadamanlyingonthegrasswithagirlkneelingnexttohimandanothermanrunningtowardsthem.
Thesecondwasoftwomenandagirlinaroomtalkingorarguing.
Finally,Idecidedthatthisideaofsomeyoungpeopleplayingballonthebeachmightbethebestwayofdoingmyfigurecomposition.
IaskedsomepeopletoposeexactlyasIwantedandtookphotographsofthemsothatIcouldusetheirfiguresinmyfinaldrawing.IalsodrewupeachfigureseparatelytoensurethatIhadallthenecessaryinformation.
ThenIroughedoutthecompositionagain,onlythistimewithoneofthemeninaslightlydifferentpose,movingforwardinsteadofstandingwithhislegsanchoredtotheground.Thisoftenhappens–afterconsiderationoftheoverallshapeofthepicture,youfindthatitcouldbeimprovedbysomejudiciousalterations.
1.Withreferencetoallmyextrainformation,InowbeganamorecarefuldrawingofthebackgroundandtheoutlinesofthefiguresintheposesIhadchosen,correctinganymistakesatthisstage.
2.OncethepicturewasclearlydrawnupIbegantoputintonetoshowwherethesungaveshadowstothefigures.IkeptthetoneaslightaspossibleasIdidnotwanttoputinheavytonesuntilIwassurethatthelighttoneworkedasawhole.
3.Nowthedarkertonescouldgoin,butsparingly,otherwisethewholedrawingwouldgetabitheavyanddark.Toavoidoverdoingthem,Ikeptsteppingbackfromthedrawingtoseehowthetonalvaluesworked.Thelongcastshadowsonthesandhelptoanchorthefigurestothegroundandsuggestthatthesunissettingandthetimeislateafternoon.
Compositionally,Renoir’sBoatingPartyisamasterlygroupingoffiguresinasmallspace.Thescenelookssonaturalthattheeyeisalmostdeceivedintobelievingthatthewaythefiguresaregroupedisaccidental.Infact,itisaverytightlyorganizedpieceofwork.Noticehowthegroupsarelinkedwithinthecarefullydefinedsetting–bytheawning,thetableoffood,thebalcony–andhowonefigureineachgrouplinkswithanother,throughproximity,gestureorattitude.Let’slookatthevariousgroupsindetail.
GroupA:Intheleftforegroundisamanstanding,leaningagainstthebalconyrail.Sittingbyhimisagirltalkingtoherdogandinfrontofherisatableofbottles,plates,fruitandglasses.Itisobviouslytheendoflunchandpeoplearejustsittingaround,talking.
GroupB:Justbehindthesetwogroupingsareagirl,leaningonthebalcony,andamanandwoman,bothseated.
GroupC:Intherightforegroundisathreesomeofagirl,amansittingandamanstandingwhoisleaningoverthegirl,engagingherinconversation.
GroupD:Inthebackground,twomenaretalkingearnestly,andtotherightofthemcanbeseentheheadsandshouldersoftwomenandayoungwomaninconversation.
Inthecontextofportraits,‘group’meansanythingotherthanoneperson,andthegroupyouwillmostoftenbeaskedtodrawisjusttwopeople,usuallywithacloserelationshipwitheachother.
ThefirstexampleIshowhereisamotherwithherlittlegirlonherlap,whichcreatesanicetightcomposition,andaslongasthechildwillstaystillforlongenoughthere’snorealproblemwithsuchadrawing.Obviously,onceyou’vesketchedinthemainshapesofthetwofiguresyoucanthendrawthechildfirstasquicklyaspossible,andwhenheorshewantstomoveyoucanthenconcentrateonthemother.Theotherthingaboutthiscombinationoffiguresisthatyouonlyreallyhavetosatisfythemother;thechildusuallyispleasedwithanyrepresentationthatisevenslightlyhuman!
anyrepresentationthatisevenslightlyhuman!
Thesecondtypeofgroup,probablyloversoramarriedcouple,isabitmoretrickybecauseyouwillwantacloseconnectionbetweenthetwopeople,buttheymayfinditdifficulttositsocloseasinmyexampleforanylengthoftime.Entwiningfigurescanmakeagoodcomposition,butdependingonyourspeedofexecution,youmayfindthattheyfinddifficultyinholdingtheintimatepose.
Thenextgrouphasprogressedtothreepeople.Thefirsttrioistheobviousoneofacoupleandtheirchild.Thetwoadultssitnexttoeachotherandthechildisinthecentreofthecomposition,linkingthetwolargerfigures.
Thesecondtrio(above)istwobrothersandtheirsister,arrangedinamuchlessformalcompositionthanthoseshownsofar.Thisisnotusuallydifficultwithsiblingsunderacertainagebecauseofthesortofrelationshiptheytendtohavewitheachother.Theyprobablywillnotmindalessconventionalposebecausetheywilltreatitasasortofgame.
Thelastofthesegroups(left)isofthreefemalefriends,whoaredrawnasthoughinterruptedoutonajaunt.Posedagainstabackdropoftrees,theymighthavebeencaughtoncameraastheywereonadayoutinthecountry.Quiteoftenaphotographofthecompositionisagoodidea,supplementedwithcarefuldrawingsofeachpersonwhichyoucandoindividuallylateron.
HavingdecidedthatIwoulddrawmyyoungestdaughterandherfamilyinagroupcomposition,Ifirstmadeaquicksketchoftheminposition.Ialsotookphotographs,asthelittleboyandthebabyobviouslywerenotgoingtoposeforlong.Thisisabasicoutlineofshapesandproportions.
1.NextIdrewamorecarefullinedrawingusingmysketchesandphotographstogettheshapesandfeaturescorrect.Atthisstage,anyalterationscanstillbeeasilymade,butyouaretryingtoendupwithadefinitivedrawing.
2.Next,Iputinallthetoneandtexture.Thetextureoftheflowerysofathattheyaresittingonisimportantaswellasthemaintoneoftheclothingandfeatures.
3.Then,withmostofthedrawinginplace,itistimetobuildupthetoneandtextureanddefineeverythingforthefinalwork.Asyoucansee,therewasnostronglyangledlight,everythingbeingquitewell-litfrominfront.Thepatternonthesofaisimportantasitisanattractivesettingforthefiguresandhelpstoholdthecompositiontogether.Mostofthestrongertonesarebasedonthelocalcolouroftheclothesastherearenoverystrongshadows.Thefaceswerealldrawnseparately,whenthemodelscouldstaystillforawhile.
InthisinformalfamilygroupafterDameLauraKnight(1877–1970),theartistLamornaBirchstandsholdingontoatreetohelpsupportoneofhisyoungdaughters,tuckedunderhisarm.Hisotherdaughtersitsastrideanotherbranchofatreeoverintheright-handsideofthecomposition.Behindisariverandmoretrees.Itmusthavebeenquitedifficulttokeeptheseposesforlong,anditmaybethatDameLaurareliedonphotographicreference.
HereisaverycomplexfigurecompositionafterHenrideToulouse-Lautrec(1864–1901)thatincludesmanyofthehabituésoftheMoulinRougeinParisin1892.Thelargebalconyedgewhichcutsacrossthelowerleft-handcornergivesamovementthroughthepicture.Thenyouseeagroupofpeoplearoundwhatisprobablyasmalltable,whichisnotvisible.Intheforegroundisayoungwomanlitfrombelow,whileinthebackgroundvariouspeoplestandaroundinthelargerspace.
Index
anatomicalterminology11-13arms
female93lower214-17masterartists94-5,226-31movement210-13,218-19muscles88-91,206-9,214-17skeleton86-7,206-9upper206-11
back184-91Barocci,Federico94bending278-81bodyseefullfigurebodysurface22-7bones8,12seealsoskeletonBoucher,François231Boulogne,Louisde264Bronzino,Agnolo83Carolsfeld,JuliusSchnorrvon124Carracci,Annibale261cartilage10children30-1,34climbing284-7clothing320-3Corot,Camille42Coypel,Noel-Nicholas45dancing282-3Delacroix,Eugène231Domenichino269ears161eyes158-9,334face
facedetails158-61expressions146-57
fasciae10fat10,36feet
female131,132male130,133masterartists134-5,260-9muscles128-9,250-2skeleton126-7surfaceviews253
femalearms93bodysurface23,25,27fatdistribution36feet131,132hands93,104-5legs118,120-1,254-5pelvis35proportions29skeleton33skull34torso78-9,179-81,188,190-1
framing326-7Freud,Lucian59,106,107fullfigure
balanceandpose272-5bendingandstretching278-81bodysurface22-7climbing284-7dancingandposing282-3leaping276-7masterartists40-7,302-5muscles19-21perspective38-9practicedrawing48-9proportions28-9
skeleton16-18sports288-301
Giorgione46glutealmuscles240-1Gordon,Louise143,144-5,171,186-7Gossaert,Jan197Goya,Francisco47Greiner,Otto302-3groupportraits344-51hair335hands
female93,104-5male92,102-3masterartists106-7movement221-5muscles88-91,100-1,214-17,220practicedrawing108-9skeleton86-7,96-9,220
headdifferentangles138-42masterartists59-61,143-5muscles56-8practicedrawing62-3skull34,52-4,66-8
hips237-9Ingres,JeanAuguste41,106,124,304-5Jacobs,TedSeth95,135joints10-11,244-5knee-joints244-5Knight,DameLaura350leaping276-7legs
female118,120-1,254-5glutealmuscles240-1lower246-9male119,120-1,256-9masterartists122-5,260-7
muscles114-17,237,246-9skeleton112-13,236-7upper236-7
LeonardodaVinci232lifedrawing306-17ligaments10male
arms92bodysurface22,24,26feet130,133hands92,102-3legs119,120-1,256-9pelvis35proportions28skeleton32skull34torso76-7,178,180,189
Manet,Edouard47Michelangelo39,40,60,82,122,192,198,227,262,266,268Mignard,Pierre199Mola,PierFrancesco226mouth160,334musclesarms88-91,206-9,214-17
back184-5feet128-9,250-2fullfigure19-21gluteal240-1hands88-91,100-1,214-17,220head56-8hips238-9legs114-17,237,246-9neck57,71-5,163-5propertiesof9terminologyfor13thighs238-9,242-3torso71-5,170-1trunk71-5
Natoire,Charles-Joseph228,260neck
muscles57,71-5,163-5skeleton162
nose161,335Orpen,William61Passarotti,Bartolommeo200pelvis35,70perspective38-9Peters,JohannAntonde202Piombo,Sebastianodel194Pontormo,Jacopoda267portraits
composition336-43framing326-7group344-51posing331-3sketchesfor328-30stepsin324-5
posing282-3,331-3proportions28-31Prud’hon,PierrePaul196,226Raphael95,122,193,195,229rectusabdominis172-3Renoir,Pierre-Auguste344-5ribcage174-5Rubens,PeterPaul60,125,143,203,230,233,263,269Salgado,Antonio226Sanzio,Raphael94Sheppard,Joseph134shoulders186-7,206-9Sickert,Walter81Signorelli,Luca44skeleton
arms86-7,206-9feet126-7female33
fullfigure16-18hands86-7,96-9,220legs112-13,236-7male32neck162torso66-70,168-9
skin10,37skull34,52-4,66-8sports288-301stretching278-81Stuck,Franzvon201tendons9-10thighs238-9,242-3Tiepolo,GiovanniBattista80Titian46,107torso
female78-9,179,181,188,190-1male76-7,178,180,189masterartists80-3,192-203moving176-81muscles71-5,170-1rectusabdominis172-3ribcage174skeleton66-70,168-9
Toulouse-Lautrec,Henride351trunk71-5,80-3Velasquez,Diego48-9vertebralcolumn69seealsospineVolterra,DanieleRicciarellida229Watteau,Jean-Antoine228
Thiseditionpublishedin2011byArcturusPublishingLimited26/27BickelsYard,151–153BermondseyStreet,LondonSE13HACopyright©2011ArcturusPublishingLimited/BarringtonBarberAllrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,withoutwrittenpermissioninaccordancewiththeprovisionsoftheCopyrightAct1956(asamended).Anypersonorpersonswhodoanyunauthorisedactinrelationtothispublicationmaybeliabletocriminalprosecutionandcivilclaimsfordamages.
MobiISBN:978-1-78828-322-9AD001884EN
Specialthankstothelivingartistswhoseworkisreproducedinthisbook:LouiseGordon,LucianFreud,TedSethJacobsandJosephSheppard.