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RESEARCH METHODS

Lecturer: Dr. Samuel C.K. Buame,

Lecturers Message

As human beings, we are always struggling to provide for our needs by putting in

place structures, systems, institutions that will help in harnessing resources towards

the satisfaction ofourneeds.

Thus,itis necessary toinvestigate, analyze and provideinformation aboutourselves,

ourorganizations,ourway ofdoing things sothat wecan take gooddecisions about

thevarious things that affectourlife.

Thus, to me as the author of this material, research, essentially, is about trying to

understand things, factors, events, issues and causes that affect our life, either

positively ornegatively.

Readon!!!

PROLOGUE

Facts do not simply lie around waiting to be pickedup. Facts must becarvedoutof

thecontinuous web ofongoing reality, must beobserved within a specified frameof

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reference, must be measured with precision, must be observed where they can be

relatedtootherrelevant facts. Allofthis involves methods.

Oneofthe most frustrating things for students is writing thesis andresearch reports.

Students often have problems understanding the importance of theory and

methodology in writing goodreports. This frustration is moreduetothe absenceof a

suitabletextthatthey can use as a guideto methodology issues in theirproject work

is. The messageofthis bookis that scientific methods are a question ofconsciousness

and awareness, and should not be seen as difficult, strangeorunnecessary.

Purpose

Students need to understand the basic methodological approaches to their area of

study and project work, assuring them of confidence and purpose. The idea in this

bookis tolet students understandthatthereis no best method forresearch andthat

thechoiceof methoddepends upon theresearch problem,theresearch design andthe

purpose fortheresearch.

To help students getridofthe myth thatresearch is too scientific andunnecessary in

their areas of study. It is also intended to help them understand the language and

approach of science and research. It will assist them in understanding how properly

structured and arguedreports can be moreconvincing andvalidthan reports basedon

a practical approach orcommon sense. Somehow, a scientific approach andcommon

sense have much in common. Thescientific approach, however,is a more systematic

andcontrolledtreatmentofcommon sense. A layperson uses theories and concepts

butin a loose manner.

Students are to understand that a conscious (scientific) approach is the most

appropriate for research and problem-solving projects. This means making students

understand that before beginning research on a project, they must be awareof what

they aredoing: they havetoclarify forthemselves and forthereadertheperspective

they have chosen. They must identify who should benefit from the study. In other

words, they must learn how to formulate a problem, how to choose a particular

method and how to argue and motivate. They must alsolearn how to write a valid and

reliable report, which is used for the purpose of research (in the academia) and for

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managers (as practitioners)ordecision-makers (as policy-makers): Sothis writeup is

about:

j Explaining how tocope with research problems,j Explaining different types of research, the role of the researcher and the

importanceof methods and models,

j The practicalities ofresearch, such as problem formulation,relating theresearchto previous studies, choosing a suitable methodology, presenting results, and

finding anddrawing conclusions,

j A discussion of different methods ofdata collection and analysis, qualitative aswell as quantitative, andtheiradvantages anddisadvantages.

j How to testthe assumptions necessary forthe method and technique being used,and whether these assumptions are valid: in other words, validation of methods

and models and notonly validation of hypotheses.

j The practical issues around research in various disciplines, providing somepractical guidelines for questionnaire development, interviewing and report

writing.

Suggestions are warmly welcome!!!

1. WHY STUDY RESEARCH METHODS?

Most schools and universities require their graduates as well as undergraduate

students to write a thesis, a long essay orpresent a term paper.

j Whereveryourresearch projectlies on this continuum, you shouldundertake yourresearch with rigour. Todothis you will needto pay careful attention totheentire

research process.

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Topics

1. Introduction :Thesis/Long Essay as a requirement forgraduation; Choosing aresearch topic and ProposalWriting

2. Epistemology: Research and Scientific Method: The Philosophical andscientific bases ofresearch

3. Basic Elements of Research: Research problems, hypothesis, models andconcepts

4. The Research Design: Methodological Consideration

5. Sampling Methods, Questinnaire Design & Admin.

6. The nature and sources ofdata: Primary andSecondary, Data Collection

7. Interviewing; planning and administration

8. Results: Analysis of Data,Editing, Missing Values, Coding, Interpretation,Discussions

9. ReportWriting : The Mechanics thereof

PART II: Quantitative Methods and Analysis: Suggested Topics

j Basic Statisticsj Samplingj Graphic Representation of Statisticsj Measures of Central Tendency

j Distributions of Samples of SampleMeans

j Shapeof Distribution Meansj Confidence Intervals for single mean

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j Measures of Dispersionj Probability: Deduction about

Sample from a known Population

and means oftwo population etc

Methodology and Method defined

Methodology is understoodto bethe general principles behindresearch, whereas

methods arethe practicaltechniques usedtoundertakeresearch. The methodology of

any research underpins thevalues and assumptions that form therationale forthe

research. It alsodirects thecriteria thattheresearcherchooses touse forcollecting

andinterpreting data. Methodology therefore provides thelink between techniqueandtheory (Buraway 1991:271).

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The Research Question/Topic or Issue

Research topics come from 3 main areas ofconcern;

1. Theoreticalconcerns2. Practical problems3. GeneralEnquiry orexploration

Theoretical concerns has todo with a practical theory which seeks to explain some

aspectof social phenomenon orbehaviour.

Practical problems have to do with a situation where your organisation find it

difficult in a particular area e.g. managerial time consciousness etc. Explore why

thereis such a problem, what arethe possible solutions.

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1. It is important the topic chosen to beclear and specific. A common mistakestudents make is that they want to investigate everything including

researchers.

2. The topic statement is an encapsulation of the dependent and independentvariable or mediating factors you want to capture or capture Dependent

variablechanges as a resultof something. So the thing that is influencing this

dependent variable is the independent variables eg. the exchange rate is a

dependent variable and it changes as a result of the demand for foreign

currency by Ghanaians businessmen.

A Propositional Statement is a:

1. Broad statementof possibilities2. Itestablishes rangeofrelationships orcausative factors3. Testablei.e. what was found. Whetherfindings acceptable?

Whetheryou see HYPO orpropo depends on thetopic andthevariables within it

(inherentvariables)

Choice of Research topics: Relevance

Two main relevancies to take into account or consider:

1. Relevantto yourarea of specialisation and management atlarge2. RelevanttoGhana

NB: Therecould somecross-overtopics: E.g.Marketing of Banking Services.Your

backgrounddescription willtell what yourfocus is.

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i. Identify a broad area ofinterest which should be narroweddown to amanageabletopic (fullofexcitementto you).

ii. Select a topic thereofiii. Sources: Classroom lectures, Seminars,library, Journals, Newspapers,

from seniorresearchers and friends

j Always start from your own personal interest andprejudice

j Topic related to your area of studies and relevant to yourcountry

j Dontreject a suggestedtopicthatis interestingiv. Decideon the approachv. Formulate a planvi. Collectinformationvii. Analysedataviii. Present findings

RESEARCH PROPOSAL(Readtheillustration below)

Very often every research process begins with a RESEARCHPROPOSAL (i.e. a plan

of action). This is to be submittedto yourSUPERVISOR forfurtheradviceetc.

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FORMAT FOR PRESENTATION

Formulating the Topic:

Thetopics must becrisply and pithily stated. Avoid words such as: implication of ;

the impact of; the effect of. AvoidLong running titles. Seek advice from your

lecturers orsupervisors

Examples -

Democracy and Economic Development in Ghana

Name of Student

Lotta/Kwasi Ghanason

Level or Programme

MBA/MPA Year

Supervisor

Nameof Supervisor

The Main Outlines of the Proposal Itself

The proposal must havethe following headings

1. Background Description: Issues and Problems relating the pre-conceptions ofthearea ofresearch,including justification forthe area of study.

2. Statementofthe Problem orProblem Definition: the focus ofthe study

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3. Objectives/Aims ofthe study4. Hypothesis orResearch Questions?

j Hypothesis (propositions, postulations, assertions,verifiable statements (hypo= Greek word meaning, beneath,underlying

j Research Questions: Interrogatives (except asking why) In research, an object,event, situation,conceptoridea becomes an

objectofENQUIRYorstudy.

Learn to ask questions about yourobjectof study: What search forclarifications Who identification of agents,oraffected people How request for description of a process: demand for an

explanation

When aspects oftime Why causalorpurposiveexplanations Which for identity and for decisions, compare and contrast,

evaluative

How far,to whatextent, how significant, how much?

5. Significance (Importance) of the study: To the academia, practitioners, generalpublic, assignors

6. Scope andLimitations: Time, space and context7. Methodology

j Sources ofdata Primary and secondaryj Data Collection instruments: questionnaire, face to face, observation,

population, sampling

j Choiceoforganisations, key informantsj Secondary sources: all kinds ofrelevant publications journal, annualreports,

newsletters, newspapers etc with properreferencesj Data analysis methods qualitative/ quantitative, interpretive, statistical

factoranalysis, SPSS (Stat. Package forSocial Studies)

8. Literature Review: Towards the positioning of yourstudy,Theoretical framework - conceptual framework - theories and models to be

used as analyticaltools

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9. Chapterdisposition: Organisation of the work Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4,5etc.up tosay 7 (if necessary). Into how many chapters are you going toorganisethe study;

and whatis the focus ofthevarious chapters?

10.Timetable: Scheduleof activities: Gantt ChartBudget: Equipments needed

Thesis or dissertation

A dissertation or thesisis a document submitted in support of candidature for a

degreeor professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings. Insomecountries/universities,the wordthesisora cognateis used as partof a bachelor's

ormaster's course, whiledissertationis normally appliedto a doctorate.

The term "dissertation" can also mean, more in general, a treatiseon some subject,

withoutrelation toobtaining an academicdegree. Theterm "thesis" can also mean the

centralclaim of an essay orsimilarwork.

The word "thesis" comes from a Greek word, meaning "position", and refers to an

intellection proposition. "Dissertation" comes from theLatin dissertti, meaning

"discourse."

Presentation style and structure

A typicalthesis has a tableofcontents a body,comprising thevarious chapters, and a

bibliography or(moreusually) a references section.

Long Essay Evaluation (Examination ofthethesis)

jRelevance of the topic MBA/MPA admin. Programme 5marks

jOrganisation, structure andlayoutof study 5marks

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jEvidence of familiarity with relevant literature, concepts,terms,theories orbackgroundofthe study 10marks

jMethodology, sampling,data gathering etc. 10marksjData management and analysis of findings 20marksjAcknowledgement of sources of information, appropriate

referencing 5marks

jLanguage clarity ofexpression,correctusage, punctuation,spelling,etc 10marks

jEvidenceoforiginality in thinking 10marksjMain findings andcontribution to knowledge 15marksjConclusions andrecommendations - 10marks

3. NEED TO REVIEW EXISTING BUT RELEVANT

LITERATURE

1. Needed forderiving yourconceptual framework,2. To familiariseoneself with theexisting body of knowledge (models,theories and

controversies) in the area

3. To position yourown studies4. To findout whatcontribution onecan maketotheexisting body of knowledge 5. Summarize alltheviews and state yourposition,if possible.

NB: Research is supposed to be cumulative

Any discussion of theories, concepts and models must be summarised and its

relevance related to your area of study (research)

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j A critical review of the literature is necessary to help you develop a thoroughunderstanding and insight into previous research that relates to your research

question(s) and objectives. Your review will set your research in context by

critically discussing and referencing work that has already been undertaken,

drawing out key points and presenting them in a logically argued way and

highlighting those areas where you will provide fresh insights. It will lead the

readerinto subsequent sections of yourprojectreport.

j There is no one correct structure for a critical review, although it is helpful tothinkofit as a funnelin which you start at a more generallevel before narrowing

down to yourspecificresearch question(s) andobjectives.

j Literature sources can be divided into three categories: primary, secondary andtertiary (e.g. indexes, abstracts, catalogues, encyclopaedia, dictionaries,

bibliographies,citation indexes). In reality,thesecategories often overlap. Your

use of these resources will depend on your research question(s) and objectives.

Some may useonly tertiary and secondary literature. Forothers you may needto

locate primary literature as well.

j When planning yourliterature search you needto:- haveclearly definedresearch questions andobjectives;- definethe parameters of yoursearch;- generate key words and search terms;- Discuss yourideas as widely as possible.Techniques to help youin this include brainstorming andrelevancetrees.

j Yourliterature search will beundertaken using a variety of approaches in tandem.These willinclude:

- searching using tertiary sources andtheinternet;- following up references in articles you have already read;- Scanning and browsing secondary literaturein yourlibrary.- Get familiarwith thevarious Internet Search Engines: Lycos,Google,Yahoo,

Info search, Alvista etc.

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Once obtained, the literature must be evaluated for their relevance to your research

question(s) andobjectives. Each item must beread and noted. Bibliographicdetails,

a briefdescription of the content and appropriate supplementary information should

also berecorded.

THE FINAL REPORT - Sample Cover Page

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA

ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF PROMOTIONAL INSTITUTIONS ON WOMEN

ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN GHANA - THE CASE OF NBSSI AND GAWE

BY

KAFUI THOMFORD OKYERE MAHAMA

A LONG ESSAYSUBMITTED TO UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS

SCHOOL OF ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, IN PARTIAL

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FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A

MASTERSDEGREE INPUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

JUNE, 20XX

DECLARATION (separate page)

I hereby declare that this study is my original piece of research conducted between

September, 2007 and May 2008 under the supervision of Dr. S.K. Buame of the

Schoolof Administration, University ofGhana,Legon.

In Places where references of other peoples work have been cited or their news

adopted, full acknowledgements have been given. No partof this project work has

eitherbeen presented wholeorin partto any otherinstitutions forany award.

---------------------------------------------- ------------------------------

KAFUI THOMFORD MANAHA DR. S.K. BUAME

(STUDENT) (SUPERVISOR)

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DEDICATION (separate page)

To my parents Attah K. Thomford and Rosa Thomford, allof blessed memory, andto

my Husband,GeorgeK. Mawuko forhis encouragement andunderstanding.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (separate page)

Thanking all who have helped you in the process of the research.

Example:

The successful completion of this study would not have been accomplished without

the guidance,co-operation and supportof some people.

My profound gratitude goes to my lecturer and supervisor Dr. S.K. Buame of the

School of Administration, for availing his expertise, suggestions, advice, comments

andconstructivecriticisms tothecompletion ofthis write-up.

A special noteof appreciation also goes tothe Directorand staffof NBSSI especially

Mrs. SelassiWemegah of the womens department, Mrs Irene Otooof the Business

Advisory Centre and the driver Mr. Samuel K. Amoesi who took me round the

beneficiaries andensuredthat mostofthe questionnaires wererecovered.

I am also indebted to all beneficiaries whose willingness to complete the

questionnaireoffered methe neededdata to accomplish this study.

I am also indebted to all beneficiaries whose willingness to complete the

questionnaireoffered methe neededdata to accomplish this study.

The following people are also worth mentioning forthe support,encouragement and

pieces of advice that spurred meon to go through this Masters Programme: George,

Grace,Kwame, Baaba and Maggie.

Finally, I wish to extend my sincerest appreciation to Mrs. whoseuntiring effort

and skills was abletotype andcomeout with this beautiful write-up etc,etc.

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ABSTRACT (separate page)

Abstractis like an Executive summary andit must make mention ofthe following:

1. Whatthe study is about,2. Theresearch questions,3. The methodused,4. The main findings in brief,5. Any caveat?6. Any recommendations as to how the findings should be interpreted,

understoodorapplied?

Length: From half a pageto a full page (Should not betoolong).

Rememberitis asynopsis.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

DECLARATION i

DEDICATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

ABSTRACT iv

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS v

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, DIAGRAMS vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Backgroundofthe Study

1.2 Statementofthe Problem 4

1.3 Purposeofthe Study 7

etc

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW 16

2.1 The ConceptofEntrepreneurship

2.2 Women andEntrepreneurship in Ghana

2.3 Policies Affecting Women

etc,tothelastchapter

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

(Remember to write the respective page numbers)

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LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 2:1 Participation ofWomen in some NBSSI Training

Programme (1991-95)

Table 2:2 Activities Engagein by Women

Table 2:3 Repayment PerformanceofLoan Beneficiaries in Greater

Accra (1991-95)

Table 4:1 Recovery of Questionnaire

Table 4:2 Personal Particulars of Beneficiaries

Table 4:3 Responses on ImpactofEntrepreneurship Training Programmes

Table 4:4 Factors that shouldinfluenceETPs Design

Etc.

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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS (in alphabetical order)

ACW - Africa Centre forwomen

AFWE - African Federation ofWomen Entrepreneurs

AFRC - Arm Forces Revolutionary Council

AGI - Association ofGhana Industries

AMT - Achievement Motivation Training

BAC - Business Advisory Centre

CPU - Central Production Unit

DAWS - Development And Womens Studies

DED - German Development Agency

DWM - 31st DecemberWomens Movement

EDP - Entrepreneurship Development Programme

ENOWID -

ETP - Entrepreneurship Training Programme

EQUIP - Entrepreneurship Quality Improvement Programme

FDA - Foundation of Democracy in Africa

FIDA -

GAWE - Ghana Association ofWomen Entrepreneurs

GEPC - Ghana Export Promotion Council

GIMPA - Ghana Instituteof Management and Public Administration

GIC - Ghana Investment Centre

G NCC -Ghana National Chamberof Commerce

IFWE - International Federation ofWomen Entrepreneurs

ILO - InternationalLaborOrganization

IYB - ImproveYourWorkshop

Masu - Mutual Assistance SusuLimited

MSE - Micro and Small-ScaleEnterprise

NANBPW - National Association of Negro Business and Professional

Women

NBSSI - National Board forSmall-Scale Industries

Etc.

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MAKING REFERENCES (see further illustrations below)

This is also a very important aspectofthereport. It must follow thelaiddown

conventions andone must beconsistent as to approach adopted. Approaches could be

Cambridge (UK)ortheHarvard/Vancouver(North America/US). The Differences

lies in wherethe yearis placed eitherattheendorjust afterthe Author(s) name.

Illustrations:

Harvard Approach (this is the most fashionable)

Ackroyd, S. and J. Hughes, (1992)Data Collection in Context,London,Longman.

v Cambridge Approach

Ackroyd, S. and J. Hughes, Data Collection in Context,London,Longman. (1992)

References/Bibliography

Referencing is in two parts. The in-textcitation is normally done in the text and the

listofreferences which is normally attheendofthereport, and gives details ofthein-

textcitation.

There aretwo ways oflisting thereferences:

1. List of references this refers to sources of materials cited in the text. Anymaterial used for the preparation of the report but was not cited in the text

cannot be partofthelistofreferences.

2. Bibliography this refers tothe listof all sources ofinformational materialsused for the preparation of the report whether cited in the text or not. An

example is the bibliography at the endof this book. It is a bibliography and

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not a referencelist because mostofthe sources ofthe sources ofthereferences

were notcitedin thetext.

For Textbooks:

The nameofthevarious authors in Alphabeticalorder:

Surname Name, initials,

year, title, (either underlined or in Italics)

place of publication, and publishers

Now study therestoftheExamples:Ackroyd, S. and J. Hughes, (1992)Data Collection in Context,London,Longman.

Bryman, A. (1988)Quantity and Quality in Social Research,London, Unwin Hyman.

Jones, R. and M. Pendlebury (1988)Public Sector Accounting,London: Pitman

Publishing.

Prebisch, R., (1959),Towards a NewTrade Policy forDevelopment, UN, New York.

For Journals:

Alphabeticalorder:

Name,initials, year, title, In Name of Journal, Vol. Series, pp 1-22, place Illustration:Afejuku, D.H. (1983) A Comparative Study of ConsumerProtection Laws and

Practices in Britain and Nigeria,Mimeo1, University of Benin.

Buame, S.C.K., (2000) Entrepreneurship and International Business Strategies,The

Journal ofManagement Studies, SOA /UGBS UG,Legon, Vol. 15, No. 1,

January pp34-51.

Samuelson, P.A. (1962), TheGains from Trade Once More,Economic Journal,

December.

1Mimeo (i.e. printedcopies from stencils). The samereferencing forworking papers,lecture notes etc.

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Other Sources

i. Constitution ofthe RepublicofGhana - 1992ii. Financial Administration Decree (FAD) (SMCD 221 of 1979),iii. Financial Administration Regulations (FAR) (L.I. 1234 of 1979).iv. DepartmentofHealth andHuman Services, Stateof Tennessee.v. TheEpidemiology ofHIV in the Midsouth.Annual Public Health Reviews.

1999, 23:51-65.

vi. FAO, Production Yearbook, Various Years

Webography

http://www.ghanamail.com.gh//

http://cit.org.by/fp/en/smap.htm

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Making References in the body of the Essay as

you write

Forexample:

1. According to Mensah (2002) ..

2. hopes forimproved health outcomes in HIV haveresultedin a significantreduction in mortality (McDonald & Kuritzkes, 1977; Hogg et. al., 1997)

STYLES AND FORMATING FOR REFERENCING

There are many styles or formats for referencing. These include MLA (Modern

Language Association), APA (American Psychology Association)

APA REFERENCING FORMAT

bibliography page,entitled References, andtype yourpaperin APA format.

Footnotes:

Used forfurtherclarifications;,references;

Itcan be attheendof--- every page (pagewise),orendofeach chapter(chapterwise),

attheendofthe wholereport. The most fashionable, however,is pagewise. Adopt

one at a TIME. Do NOT mixup

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Solving problems in organizational set up

Business Organizations: factors that influence - profitability, survival, efficiency,

motivation of workers, corporate image and social responsibility, organizational

change and restructuring, customer satisfaction, strategic management,

environmental scanning etc

Public Organizations: bureaucraticefficiency,effectiveness, public satisfaction, public

order, good governance,impactof policies, programmes, projects etc

Management Information Systems: Essence of information to management and

decision making, Systems Analysis and Design, Data collection, analysis,

management, storage and retrieval, application of information systems, e.g.

Decision Support System (DSS); Transaction Processing Systems (TPS); Office

Automation Systems, (OAS); Executive Information Systems, (EIS).

Health Organizations: maintenance of public health, cure, preventions, insurance,

safety, efficacy of drugs, lifestyles and health, Institutional and Organizational

structures

Research in Accounting Accounts: budgetary controls, accountability,elimination of

waste

How Research helps us to improve upon our knowledgeResearch should giveus this empiricalinformation ordate sothat wecan arrive at

these principles and buildorimproveupon anysystemthatis supposedto serveour

interest.

To advancein ourresearch,itis doneeitherby testing orbuilding theory.

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What makes research scientific

1. systematic2. methodological3. rigour4. conventional5. value free,unbias6. seperating subject from object

Theessenceof making research scientific is toensure: validity (internal andexternal,

reliability,replicability, generalizability,

SO:

1. Sciencerepresents the stateofthings in ourworldin terms oflaws,theories andprinciples that govern the world,the animate andinanimate world.

2. It alsorefers tothe present stateof how ourworldis changing

3. It represents the processes by which we learn about and how we investigatephenomenon in all areas of human existence.

4. It alsorefers tothe present stateofunderstanding in the world.

Overthe years scientist adopted a unique methodthatis known as research method.

Systematisation

Scientific Research is moreof systematisation

1. Systematicobservation of phenomenon

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2. Systematic analysis ofthecharacters ofthe phenomenon that youobserved.

3. Systematic synthesis of the observation and of the analysis. Synthesis is theprocess of pulling backtogetheryourobservation and youranalysis.

The final process has a basic aim of solving a problem,describing the natureofthings

sothat youcan understandthe natureofthings governing, as that youcan ultimately

understandthe analysis.

Afterthe synthesis and youunderstanding it,it should be possible forsomeoneelseto

carry outthe same process and having similarresults.

In principletherefore, we needto apply thesein any field.

Research uses this scientific method through vigorous data gathering, information to

discover new findings,to and interpretation andto help us revise what we know and

to apply what we know to solving human practical problems.

Aims of Research -

Here we areconcerned about how you state youraims andthe words touse:

Forinstance,to -:

Explore anddescribe Examine (Investigate and Analyse) Evaluate Analyse Provide moreunderstanding/ explanation

jj Study of Relatedissues: Structure, hierarchy,efficiency all as socialconstructs

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VALIDITY

y Constructvalidity(externalvalidity)y Internal validityy Consistencyy Repeatabilityy Reliability

GENERALIZATION: A modeofreasoning in which a claim about a group orsetofevents is basedon detailed knowledgeof many ofthoseobjects orevents.

Itcan betheoretical or analytical generalizations

Looking formeaningful generalizations usually involves two processes well known to

both scientists : INDUCTION and DEDUCTION

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1.RESEARCH DESIGNThe way a research is designedinfluences the process ofdata collection and analysis.

What is Research Design?

Itis the way in which theresearcherstructures data gathering anddata analysis. How

youcollect yourinformation and how you analyse yourinformation.

Research design is the basic frameworkoutlining the interrelationshi ps between the

various research activities requiredin ordertoeffectively address thecentral stages of

a projecttoensurethattheresearch willeffectively address theresearch question.

Longitudinal Research Design

Key design is data collection overtime

Research identifies time frame, T1, T2, T3, T4 andcollects data atthesetimes.T1 e.g. investigating motherhood

T2 e. g. nine months into pregnancy etc

Needto investigate how something is changing overtime,ratherthan how it is now.

This may be a Cross-Sectional Research

Needtoidentify independent variable anddependent variable andthe aim isto see how/why time as a factor as well as other factors thatchange with time

impacttheobjectorissueunderinvestigation.

Itis useful forstudying a numberofthings such as exchangerates movements,

company growth, attitudechange. How to look at them over a periodoftime

and whatvariables may haveimpactedthe movementorgrowth.

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Case Study Research Design

This is a focused,thorough and holistic way ofinvestigating into 1 or2 personsor institution. Looking into something into great depth. It is a detailed

investigation.

Mistake made by students case study.

A case study examines entirely of a sample, collects a variety ofdata, maybeovertime, but focuses on a particular issuee.g. workerattitudes in a particular

company.

You may find yourself managing a longitudinaldesign with case study design.

Information collected must be detailed may involve a combination of bothquantitative and qualitativedata e.g.

Survey Design

Key aspectofthe survey design is thatthe sample size must be largee.g. about 100,

unless the entire population itself is less. You cannot apply case study when the

population sample sizeis about a thousand.

May investigate a wide or limited range of variables across as much of thepopulation possible.

Seeks representativeness and possibility to generalize.

E.g. unemployed baseline study

- Sexual behaviour of students? Need to carry out a massive survey to get theinformation.

- Deposit mobilization rate in the banking sector? Must as much ofthe bankingpopulation to be sureofthedata collected

- Uses Questionnaires.

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Cross Sectional Design

This seeks toexaminetheissue across possiblethe sample strategy that may beavailable. Look at an issue across a particulargroup of people. Cutting across

thedifferentissuein the population

E.g. productivity in an organisation by looking atdirectors, managers,operative

Data arethereforecollected across sectionally

Analysis aims at finding differences and or similarities between the differentsub-samples within the population. You may need to carry out some kind of

statisticaltest.

Experimental Design

Useful fortesting hypothesis and fordetermining theimpactof an independentvariable anddependentvariable

It involves careful manipulation ofvariables e.g. change a shift pattern to seetheimpacton production lineoutputchanges.

It is important to define and specify dependable variable and independentvariablevery carefully. You are saying that what you saidis actually thething

thatis happening. Observation ofimpact must beclosely monitored, quantified

and measured

Analyses wouldinvolve statisticaltests.

Field/Observational Design

This is a process ofdirectobservation of phenomena in the setting in which itoccurs, by researcher.E.g. researcher collects data about behaviour of stock

brokers on the floor of GSE. Use of micro credits extended by a bank to

fishmongeratKeta orKommenda. Needto gotheretoobserve.

Researcherhas to beclearof whatis being observedorlooked for. Clearas to how thecollecteddata is to be analysed.

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Market Research

Aim is to help an organisation understandits marketin terms of;

Thedefinition of market is very important. Any place that you aredoing business

Market. In forms of:

- The behaviourofits consumers- Productlifecycle- Competition profiles and behaviour,etc. Data arethen appliedtoinform company strategySo a research can be:

i. Descriptiveii. Exploratoryiii. Causaliv. Experimentalv. Comparative - this permits generalisation

RESEARCH STRATEGY

This comprises a bundleof skills, assumptions and practices thatresearchers employ

as they move from theirparadigm totheempirical field. They connect youthe

researcherto specific methods ofcollecting and analyzing empirical materials.

Research strategies are merely tools; itis theresearchers responsibility tounderstand

thevariety available anddifferent purposes ofeach strategy,to appreciatein advance

theraminifications of selecting one methodoveranother.Each strategy offers a

particularandunique perspectivethatilluminates certain aspects of a reality more

easily than others and produces typeofresults more suited forsome applications than

others.

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EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

The goalof an exploratory study is todevelop pertinent hypothesis and propositions

forfurtherstudies. An exploratory study can use any ofresearch strategies

AnotherWHAT question which is a form ofhow many/much e.g.what have been

theoutcomes from a particularmanagerial, governmentalreorganization. This type

ofresearch favors ARCHIVALorSURVEY Strategies

WHAT questions of who and where questions pertaining todescription and

examination of peoples attitudes,orincidenceofdiseases favorsurvey.

On theotherhand questions of how and why are moreEXPLANATORY and

likely toleadtotheuseof CASE STUDIES,HISTORIES andEXPERIMENTS.

how andwhy the Akwatia riots started?Each Strategy has peculiaradvantages and

disadvantages. Thetableis by no means comprehensive; it provides a beginning guide

forresearch planning.

CASE STUDY (see Yin on case study)

A case study constituteoneofthe several ways ofdoing social scienceresearch. They

areused when how and why questions are being posed, when theinvestigatorhas

littlecontroloverevents and when focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within

somereal-lifecontext. Itcan beEmbeddedorMultidimensional.

Itis used settings like:

- policy, political science- community psychology and sociology- organisational and management studies- city andregional planning research, such as studies of plans, neighborhood,or

public agencies and,

theconductof a large proportion ofdissertation andtheses in the social sciences.

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Thecase study allows an investigation toretain the holistic and meaningful

characteristics ofreal-lifeevents such as individuallifecycles,organization and

managerial processes, neighborhoodchange,internationalrelations andthe

maturation ofindustries.

Different types of Research: An Overview

Bases ofclassification

- Sourceofdata anddata collection methods- layoutoftheresearch- aim oftheresearch- scopeoftheresearch- thetime- typeofthedata fortheresearch

Types of Data Collection

Type of Research Method Available Methods

1. Experiment Laboratory work2. Survey Structuredinterviewing, questionnaire3. Ethnography Unstructuredinterviewing,

Participantobservation, fieldresearch

4. Secondary data Government statistics,documents,Books,disclosure analysis

Ethnography and Research

Ethnography is a qualitative research and refers to the use of qualitative methods

which involvetheresearchers participation in thelives ofresearch communities. This

usually takes the form ofobservation fora given periodoftime. Such participation is

qualitative because the research method allows the ethnographer to observe events

andconversations as partofeveryday life as well as ask questions through informal

interviews and observation. The ethnographer is in a position to collect data from

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multiple sources which may berelevant to theresearch topic and Atkinson 1995:1).

Ethnography thereforeis linked with specificresearch methods that allow analysis of

communities and groups considered as individual entities. The ethnographer is best

placedto study theuniqueness ofculturethrough recording how different groups live,

interact,communicate and socialize.

Today many people aretalking about quantitativeresearch as that is the best way of

doing research. Quantitativeresearch is good: butitis a meredata reducing technique.

Remember, mostoftheearliergreatresearchers wereethnographicin approach.

Source of Data and data collection methods

Sourceofdata is dividedinto PAPER AND PEOPLE.

On one hand,documentary sources include: books, articles,research reports,journals,

diaries,radio, TV,letters.

On theotherhand,data from peoplecomethrough: Interviews, Questionnaires and

Observations

Also, sourceofdata can bedividedinto PRIMARY DATA as may becollected by the

researcherhimself and SECONDARY DATA as collected by otherpeople.

TERTIARY: from encyclopedia,lexicons

The Types of Data Sources

Photographs with detailedcaptions, Fieldwork notebooks,

Research diary, Tape Recordings, Videorecordings, Copies of secondary data documents,

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Maps anddiagrams,

Transcripts,

Exploratory Research

What factors caused a certain phenomenon

This is alsocalled preparatory research aimed at:

- precise problem formulation,often expressedin hypothesis- to help theresearcherin coming out furtherresearch questions,- to help theresearcherknow orfindout whatis already known in the area- toenable him comeout with a betterresearch question, aim, methods,

analysis etc.

Exploratory researches aredonethrough:

j experimentinterviews,j literaturereview and,j field studies

Exploratoryresearch shoulddifferentiated from pilot studies which is small-scale

research as to findoutif a biggerstudy orprogram can becarriedout (essenceis to

ensure quality and minimizecost).

Exploratory studies are 1. To satisfy theresearchers curiosity anddesire fora better

understanding, 2. Totestthe feasibility ofundertaking a morecomprehensive study,

3. Todevelop methods to beusedin a morecomprehensive study, 4. To formulate a

problem formore preciseinvestigation

Descriptive Research: Ethnographic methods

This can vary. Describing

working environmentin a particularorganization, how does the school board function production process in particularfactory, how the parliament functions,

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Evaluative Research

This is to assess,orevaluatetheeffects of particularpolicies,laws, programs,

schemes ormethods etc. Towards recommendations forimprovementoradoption

elsewhere.

Measures taken Study TheEffects (what aretheunderlying

Causal Relations mechanisms?)

The social andeconomiccontexts.What arethecriteria forevaluation?

The Scope of the Research

Totalresearch - involving alltheunits in the population

Sampleresearch - studies only certain aspects oftheunit.

Scoperelates to how deep orwideoneis looking atthings.

The Time Dimension of the Research

Historical: What has happened? Orwhat will happen?

Normally, most studies have to berelated to their historicalcontext and with a look

intothe future.

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7. SOME ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Codes of Ethics

Most professional groups, such as sociologist, psychologists, anthropologists,

physicians etc., have developed specific codes of ethics which state proper and

improper behaviour andrepresent a professionalconsensus on ethics. It is expected

that researchers will uphold ethical standards as part of their participation in

professionalcommunity.

Ethics in socialresearch is,therefore, believedto be a matterof principled sensitivity

totherights ofothers. Being ethicallimits thechoices socialresearchers makein the

pursuit of knowledge. Most ethical concerns in social research literature generally

revolve around questions of harm, privacy, consent deception and confidentiality,acknowledgement.

TheGhanaian environmentis,on the whole, not a very good forresearch:

1. Itis difficultto geteasy access torelevantinformation2. Governmentofficials are wrongfully reluctantto giveoutinformation3. Private firms hide behind secrecy and wariness ofcompetition not toco-operate

with well-meaning researchers

4. Healthy and mutually nourishing linkage between Industry and the Academiarathernon-existent

5. Modes ofcommunication telephones, addresses are notvery reliable6. It is just expensive, tiring and frustrating to conduct research in information

deficient society

7. Interview Responserates areratheron thelow side

Researchers are therefore required to be very crafty, tolerant persistent and

sacrificing.

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Avoid the following:

1. Deception2. Manipulation3. Plaglarism (plaglarise)4. Any shortcuts orfasttracks approaches

j Access andethics arecritical aspects fortheconductofresearch.

j Different types and levels of access have been identified which help us tounderstand the problem of gaining entry: physical access to an organisation;

access to intended participants; continuing access in order to carry out further

parts of yourresearch orto be abletorepeatthecollection ofdata in anotherpart

oftheorganisation; cognitive access in orderto get sufficiently closeto findout

valid andreliabledata.

j Feasibility has been recognised to be an important determinant of what youchoosetoresearch and how youundertaketheresearch.

j Strategies to help you gain access to organisations and to intended participantswithin them have been described anddiscussed.

j Research ethics refer to the appropriateness of your behaviour in relation to therights ofthose who becomethe subjectof yourworkorare affected by the work.

j Potential ethical issues should be recognised and considered from the outset ofyour research and beone of the criteria against which you research proposal is

judged.

j Ethical concerns are likely to occur at all stages of your research project: whenseeking access,during data collection, as you analysedata, and when youreport

it.

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j Qualitative research is likely to lead to a greater range of ethical concern incomparison to qualitative research, although all research methods have specific

ethicalissues associated with them.

j Ethical concerns are also associated with the power relationshi p between theresearcher and those who grant access, and the researchers role (as external

researcher, practitioner-researcherorinternalconsultant).

8. PREPARING FOR DATA COLLECTION

j Yourchoiceof sampling techniques is dependenton the feasibility and sensibilityofcollecting data to answeryourresearch question(s) and address yourobjectives

from theentire population. Forpopulations of50 orunderthereis often no need

to sampleif you areconsidering probability sampling.

j Choice of sampling technique or techniques is dependent on your researchquestion(s) andobjectives:

- Research question(s) and objectives which need you to estimate statistically

the characteristics of the population from a sample require probability

samples;

- research question(s) andobjectives thatdo notrequire such generalisations canmakeuseof non-probability sampling techniques.

j Factors such as the confidence that is needed in the findings, accuracy requiredandlikely categories foranalyses will affectthe sizeofthe samplethat needs to be

collected:

- Statistical analysis usually requires a minimum sample sizeof 30;

- Research question(s) andobjectives thatdo not require statistical estimationmay need farsmallersamples.

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j Sample size and the technique used are also influenced by the availability ofresources, in particular financial support and time available to select the sample

andcollect,enterinto a computerand analysethedata.

j Probability sampling techniques all necessitate some form of sampling frame, sothey areoften moretimeconsuming than non-probability techniques.

j Where it is no possible toconstruct a sampling frame you will need touse non-probability-sampling techniques.

j Non-probability sampling techniques also provide you with the opportunity toselect your sample purposively and to reach difficult-to-identify members of the

population.

j For many research projects you will need to use a combination of differentsampling techniques.

j All yourchoices will bedependenton yourability to gain access toorganisations.The considerations summarised earlier must therefore be tempered with an

understanding of whatis practically possible.

Personal Interviews

j Participantobservation is a method in which researchers participate in the livesand activities ofthose whom they are studying. Itis usedto attemptto gettothe

rootof whatis going on in a widerangeof social settings.

j You may use the participant observation method in a student placementor youmay already be a memberof an organisation, which willenable youto adoptthe

roleofthe practitioner-researcher.

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j Participant observation means that you adopt a number of potential roles,differentiated by thedegreeto which youridentity is concealed from the subjects

of the research and the degree to which you participate in he events you are

studying.

j Participantobservation must avoidthetrap of mere story telling. The purposeistodevelop theory.

j A prevalent form of data analysis used in participant observation is analyticinduction, which may lead to an initial hypothesis being re-developed more than

once.

j Structured observation is concerned with the frequency of events. It ischaracterised by a high levelof pre-determined structure and quantitative analysis.

j A choice may be made between off-the-shelf coding schedules and a schedule,which youdesign for yourown purpose. Alternatively you may decide touse a

hybrid.

j The main threats toreliability andvalidity inherent in structuredobservation aresubjecterror,timeerror,,timeerrorandobservereffects.

j In-depth interviews aredifficulttoconduct properly.j Interviews can be differentiated according to the level of structure and

standardisation

j Youcan usein-depth and semi-structuredinterviews toexploretopics andexplainotherfindings.

j Yourresearch design may incorporate morethan onetypeofinterview.

j In-depth and semi-structured interviews can be used in quantitative as well asqualitativeresearch.

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j There are situations favouring in-depth interviews, which willlead youtousethismethod. Apart from the natureof yourresearch strategy,these arerelatedtothe

significance of establishing personal contact; the nature of your data collection

questions; andthelength oftimerequired from those who providedata.

j Data-quality issues, your levelofcompetence andlogistical andresource matterswill all need to be considered when you use in-depth and semi-structured

interviews.

j Apart from one-to-one interviews,, you may consider using group interviews.There may be particular advantages associated with group interviews, but these

areconsiderably moredifficultto managethan one-to-oneinterviews.

Questionnaires

j Questionnaires collectdata by asking peopletorespondtoexactly the same setofquestions. They areoften used as partof a survey strategy tocollectdescriptive

and explanatory data about attitudes, beliefs, behaviours and attributes. Data

collected are normally coded and analysed by computer.

j Yourchoiceof questionnaire will be influenced by yourresearch question(s) andobjectives and the resources that you have available. The four main types are

postal,delivery andcollection,telephone and structuredinterview.

j Beforedesigning a questionnaire you must know precisely whatdata you needtocollectto answeryourresearch question(s) and meet yourobjectives. One way of

helping toensurethat youcollectthis data is touse a data requirementtable.

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attitudes/answers to questions then phrase those questions so that someone with a

consistent pointofview will answeryes to some and notoothers.

Ifthe questionnaireincludes questions of a sensitive nature, placethese attheendof

the questionnaire. Respondents are less likely to abandon completion if they have

already answered mostofthe questions. Socio-demographic questions areoften more

sensitivethan you mightexpect.Youcan splitthem intotwo parts with non-sensitive

onecoming early (e.g. gender,job title) and sensitiveones at the end (e.g. income,

religious affiliation).

Covering Letter or Verbal Introduction to the Questionnaire

Forpostal surveys you will needto write a covering letter. Forstructured interviews

you will need to prepare a verbal introduction. This is your chance to explain the

questionnaire and persuadethe potentialrespondenttocompleteit andreturn it.

Keep it as succinct as possible/

Only giveinformation thatis needed.

Useclear, preciselanguage.

Preparing towards the Interview

Under your methodology describe vividly the following:

Population: Consists of all the members. It study will yield results of

parameters.

Sampling is the selection of a part to represent the wholeor a subgroup of the

population. The sample yields results ofstatistics.

Sample Frame: e.g. women orchildren of a largerpopulation

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Bias: This is when some members have a greaterchanceof being selectedthan others.

Sampling frame: A completelistof population - from a census,register,listof students

oremployees,orotherofficialrecordora map which shows all the plots,villages or

schools forsampling.

Sampling Approaches

Sample Size Determination

Sampling fraction being largeenough is not all.Letthe standarderror formula guide

yourchoiceof sample size. Ifthe population is large,the finite population correction

(N-n)/N is closetoone andthe precision ofthe sampleresultis seen todependon n,

the sizeofthe sample, not n/N,the sampling fraction.

A large sample size, however, is not sufficient to guarantee the accuracy of the

results. Although, for a given design, an increase in sample size will increase the

precision ofthe sampleresults (cf SE formula),it will noteliminateorreduce any bias

in the selection procedure. Therefore, the size of the sample size is not in itself

enough toensurethat all will be well.

A. Non-probability sampling:

Accidental (sampling of convenience) anyone met by chance oranyone who is handy. Sometimes a situation ofvolunteerism arises

wherethose havethechanceof being included may refuse.This may

be presumedto becreating bias.

Quotas accidental butlooking forcharacteristics Convenience Sampling Purposive Used for community studies or case studies e.g.

villages,communities orsamples that aretypicale.g. Nima

Snowball - good forsocial networks and groups of people who arewidely dispersed

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Types of Research Interviewing

Interviews can takethe form of formal andinformaltalks between theinterviewerand

intervieweeinvolving asking questions andlistening tothereplies. There aredifferent

types of interviewing used in social research and each is used to find information.

There are four main types of interviewing distinguished by the degree of structure

imposed on the interviewing format. Social Science andHumanities research often

uses a combination of these types of interviewing to gather more accurate

information.

The Structure or Standardized Interview

In a structured interview, questions are arranged prior to the interviews and are

standardized in the form of a questionnaire. Thesecan be aggregated and quantified.

Examples are marketresearch and publicopinion polls. The questionnaire structures

theinterview-giving the sameorderand wording forallinterviews. Often, answers are

given in the form ofexamples tochoose from, which implies thatrespondents can fit

into predetermined boxes or categories. This method allows for comparability of

respondents. This typeof interviewing tends to be with survey research. (May 1993:

92)

The Semi-Structured Interview

Unlike the structured interview the semi-structured interview allows the interviewer

more freedom to modify the sequence of the questions to be asked to change the

phrasing or wording and addexplanations orclarifications if necessary. This can be

useful when we want more specificordetailedinformation. Theinterviewerhas more

freedom to probe beyond simplistic answers. In semi-structuredinterviews we give an

opportunity to the interviewees to answeron theirown terms rather than within the

standardized constraints of a structured interview. However, the semi-structured

interview still provides a greater structure for comparison of interviewee responses

than an informal interview. The semi-structured interview is in a sense a half-way

mark between the highly structured andtheinformal.

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Unstructured or Informal Interview

What differentiates this form of interview from the structured or semi-structured

interview is its open-ended approach. Basedon a listoftopics which the interviewer

wishes respondents to discuss, questions are flexible and phased as the interviewer

wishes. They can be askedin any orderthatis appropriate atthetime ftheinterview.

Context in this type of interview is very important. It is the most informal form of

data collection and is often rich in context, which is why it is associated with a

qualitative approach. Since interviewees are permittedtotalk about subjects in terms

oftheirown frameofreference itis importantthatthe meanings andinterpretations

that individuals attribute to the events and relationshi ps are understood so that the

researcher can gain a greater understanding of the subjects point of view (May,

1993).Life histories andoral histories are included in this type of interviewing. In

contrastto structuredinterviews which do not allow respondents toexpress theirown

opinions in a manneroftheirchoosing,unstructuredinterviewing values the freedom

todo so and stresses thevalueof meaning above generalization (May 1993:94).

Group Interviewing

Group interviewing is a valuable and useful type of data collection enabling the

researcherto focus on a particulargroup of peopleconsisting of8to 12 individuals. In

this typeofinterviewing thetopic should bedirected anditis up totheinterviewerto

maintain the focus so that thediscussion does notdeviate from the main topic. The

researcheraims toencourageinteraction in the group.

8. HANDLING SECONDARY DATAWe usually define secondary data as those data (either quantitative or qualitative)

which others have collected or created, and which are being made available to a

differentuser. Thus governmentdata sets, official publications, annual

reports, and many texts such as policy statements-all count as

secondary data.

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Panel and Longitudinal Studies

Panel means tocollect information from the same sampleon more than occasion. It

begins as a randomly selected sampleof the survey population. Information is the n

sought from this sample atintervals. Onecan study trends here. A panel study nearly

always measures changes with greater precision than does a series of independent

samples ofthe same size.

j Data that have already been collected for someotherpurpose, perhaps processedand subsequently stored, aretermed secondary data. There arethree main types of

secondary data: documentary, survey andthose from multiple sources.

j Mostresearch projects require somecombination of secondary and primary datato answer our research question(s) and meet your objectives. You can use

secondary data in a variety of ways. Theseinclude:

- to provide yourmain data set;- to providelongitudinal (time-series)data;- to provide area-baseddata;- tocompare with,orsetin context, yourown research findings.

j Any secondary data youuse will have been collected fora specific purpose. Thispurpose may not match thatof yourresearch. In addition,the secondary data are

likely to beless currentthan any data youcollect yourself.

j Finding the secondary data you require is a matterofdetective work. This willinvolve youin:

- Establishing,ifthe sortofdata yourequire arelikely to be available;- locating the precisedata.

j Once located you must assess secondary data sources to ensure their overallsuitability foryourresearch question(s) andobjectives. In particular, you needto

pay attention tothe measurementvalidity andcoverageof hedata.

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j You must also evaluate the precise suitability of the secondary data. Yourevaluation should include both reliability and any likely measurement bias. You

can then make a judgementon the basis ofthecosts and benefits ofusing thedata

in comparison to alternative sources.

j When assessing cost and benefits you need to be mindful that secondary data,which are notcompletely reliable andcontain some bias, are betterthat nodata at

al ifthey enable you partially to answeryourresearch question(s) and meet your

objectives.

10. PLAYING WITH DATA: TOWARDS DATA PRESENTATION AND

ANALYSIS

DATA ANALYSIS

Data analysis is a dynamic and creative process. Throughout analysis, researchers

attemptto gain a deeperunderstanding of whatthey have studied andcontinually refine

theirinterpretations. Researchers alsodraw on theirfirst handexperience with settings,

informants,ordocuments to make senseoutofthedata. In any data analysis you are

seeking themes in terms what the respondent has talked about (given his cultural

knowledge, beliefs,values).

Researcherthen categorizes it andrearranges thedata afterinvestigating the interiors

(states of mind) and exteriors (description of social settings)

Itcan bedone both qualitatively and quantitatively.

In management/organizational studies one has used both innovatively.

All qualitative studies contain rich descriptivedata

Seeing things from therespondents points ofview (walking in theirshoes)

In theoretical studies researchers try to provideunderstanding of sociallife beyondthe

particularpeople and settings studied.

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Substantive area ofenquiry includes, e.g. schools, prisons,juvenile delinquency, and

patientcare. Formaltheory orarea ofenquiry refers toconceptual area ofinquiry

such as stigma, formalorganizations, and socialization deviance

Analyticinduction: trying todevelop andverify ortest propositions aboutthe natureof

sociallife.

Interpretations and presentations are normally qualitative

Qualitativedata (softdata)relating to attitudes,values,opinions,

Quantitative (harddata)

Analysing Qualitative Data

j Qualitativedata is basedon meanings expressed through words. Itresults in thecollection of non-standardiseddata which requires classification, and is analysed

through theuseofconceptualisation.

j The process of qualitative analysis involves thedevelopment ofdata categories,allocating units of your original data to appropriate categories, recognising

relationshi ps with and between categories of data, and developing and testing

hypotheses to produce well-groundedconclusions.

j The process ofdata analysis anddata collection is necessarily an interactiveone.

j There are a number aids which you may use to help you through the process ofqualitative analysis, including interview, observation, document and interim

summaries, self memos and maintaining a researchers diary.

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j Different qualitative analytical strategies can be identified,relatedtousing eitherpredicted theoretical explanations or a grounded theory approach. The use of

these strategies has implications for the procedures involvedin the analysis of

qualitativedata.

j Quantifying somecategories of qualitativedata may help youto analysethem.

j The use of computer software can help you to perform four basic and usefulfunctions during qualitative analysis,related to: project management; coding and

retrieval; data management; and hypothesis building andtheorising.

Analysing Quantitative

Quantitative Techniques arejustdata reduction tools.

It is necessary to contrast analytical induction with enumerative induction that

provided merecorrelations andcannot account forexceptions to statisticalrelationships

j Data forquantitative analysis can becollected and subsequently coded atdifferentlevels of numerical measurement. Thedata type (precision of measurement) will

constrain thedata presentation, summary and analysis techniques youcan use.

j Data are entered for computer analysis as a data matrix in which each columnusually represents a variable andeach row a case. Yourfirstvariable should be a

uniqueidentifierto facilitateerrorchecking.

j All data should, with few exceptions, be recorded using numerical codes tofacilitate analyses.

j Where possible you shoulduseexisting coding schemes toenablecomparisons.

j Forprimary data you should include pre-setcodes on thedata collection form tominimise coding after collection. For variables where responses are not known

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you will needtodevelop a code book afterdata have been collected forthe first50

to 100 cases.

j You shouldentercodes foralldata values,including missing data.

j Thedata matrix must bechecked forerrors.

j Your initial analysis should explore data using both tables anddiagrams. Yourchoice of table or diagram will be influenced by your research question(s) and

objectives, the aspects of the data you wish to emphasise and the level of

measurement at which thedata wererecorded. This may involveusing:

-tables to show specificvalues;

-barcharts, multiple barcharts and histograms to show limits (highest andlowest

values);

-line graphs to show trends;

-piecharts and percentagecomponent barcharts to show proportions;

-scattergraphs to show relationships between variables.

j Subsequent analyses willinvolvedescribing yourdata andexploring relationshipsusing statistics. As before, your choice of statistics will be influenced by your

research question(s) andobjectives andthelevelof measurement at which thedata

wererecorded. Youranalysis may involveusing statistics such as:

- The mean, median and modetodescribethecontroltendency;

- Theinter-quartilerange andthe standarddeviation todescribethedispersion;

- Chi squaretotest whethertwovariables are significantly associated;

- T-tests and analysis of variance (ANOVA) too test whether grou ps are

significantly different;

- Correlation and regression to assess the strength of relationshi ps between

variables;

-regression analysis to predictvalues.

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j Longitudinal data may necessitate selection different statistical techniques suchas:

-index numbers to compare trends between two or ore variables measured in

differentunits oratdifferent magnitudes;

-moving averages andregression analysis todeterminethetrend and forecast.

j Qualitativedata is basedon meanings expressedthrough words. Itresults in the

11. THEORIES IN ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT (Public or Private)

Examples:

y General Systems theory [Autopoesis (self-reproduction and references);self-reflectivity]

y Agency Theoryy Exchange Theoryy Networktheoryy Contingency Modelsy Organisatonal Metaphorsy Symbolismy

Deconstructiony Organizational Change andLearning (Double and SingleLoops)y Resource Dependencyy Population Ecology and Adaptabilityy Institutionaltheoryy Bureaucraciesy Public Choicey Etc.

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12. WRITING THE FINAL REPORT

This is basically concerned with packaging and presenting theresults of yourstudy

according to academicconventions.

j Writing is a powerful way ofclarifying yourthinking.

j Writing is a creative process, which requires therightconditions ifitis to producesuccessfulresults.

j Your project report should have a clear structure which enables you develop aclearstoryline.

j Your report should be laid out in such a way that our reader finds all theinformation readily accessible.

j You shouldtry todevelop a clear, simple writing style, which will makereadingthereport an easy andenjoyableexperience.

j Spelling and grammaticalerrors should be avoided.

j Dont thinkof your firstdraft as your last. Be prepared to rewrite your reportseveraltimes until youthinkitis the best youcan do.

SO,

If we areto write well we needto know what we aretalking about. In orderto findout

what, precisely, we aretalking about we needto write.

In writing we bring knowledge into being, werecord and preserve it.Writing is the

seed,the fruit andthe pickleofourunderstanding.

Good academic writing actually creates new knowledge and new meaning.

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Itcan be an agonizing exercise. Reading and writing may goon simultaneously. The

writing is addedto, subtracted from,reshaped,cancelled, andreading.

There are fourelements whoserelationship needs to be balancedin orderto bring this

(good writing) about.

TheWriter The Objectof analysis ordiscussion (content) The Reader The formal properties ofLanguage andinstitutionalconventions

Getting the balance might welldependon how you,the writer,respond in particular

circumstances and partly on those traditions of expression and scholarshi p which

grow up within certain disciplines, schools ofthought within disciplines and within a

particularcollege anduniversity departments.

Thecharacteristics ofthe fourelements:

Writer: Your own point of view must emerge, not as a mere opinion but as aJUSTIFIED JUDGEMENT.

You need to treat your subject matter as comprehensively and precisely as theessay topic demands.You must read widely and from the range of information

andideas create a unifiedview.You mustreadcarefully anddo yourbestto make

yourlanguageclarify theinformation andideas you findin yourbooks.

You must present yourworkin the appropriate fashion foracademicreaders. Thismeans that you will have to learn certain CONVENTIONS of academic writing

which are attimes quitedifferent from what you may beusedto.

Finally, the textof your essay needs to forge a coherent unity from the diverseelements oflanguage andthoughtthat goto makeit. Itis in many ofthedetails of

yourtextthat yourpurposeis realized. An essay is not merely a vehicle forideas,

butis itself (whateverthediscipline) a pieceofliterature.

But fundamentaltothis whole process is youruseoflanguage:- words, grammarand

discourse.

Avoid:

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unnecessary repetition long sentences very long orvery paragraphs Watch out spelling mistakes, punctuations and grammaticalerrors.

Structure of the Report

Common Format/Layoutofthe Final Report

Title Page-Indicatethe following:

1. Title to be pithy and informative: it can be of two parts the first setting out todefine andconfinethe problem: the second part more apt and short

2. Topicoftheresearch/study/paper3. Nameofthe author(s)4. Name of the organization where the report has been prepared and for what

program

Table of Contents:

1. Lists ofcontents and page numbers

2. Headings and subheading

Headings serve as theoutlineof the report and should be clear, meaningful and

consistent.We often number headings to highlight different heading levels, but

numbers are not necessary. It is possible tousedifferent styles of type to make

these levels explicit. One way is touse the heading styleused in this book. The

most important aspect is not to use too many levels of heading, as the reader

should be able to differentiate easily between different levels of heading and

subheading.

3. Tables4. Figures

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Table of Contents (A Format)

Page

SUMMARY

Declarations i

Dedications ii

PREFACE/ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

1. Introduction 11.1 Purposeof Study 31.2 Research Problems 31.3

2 Theoretical Framework/AnalyticalFramework etc.2.12.22.3

1. Executive Summary (Synopsis)Necessary to have an Executive Summary

1. It should be self-sufficient: a kindof synopsis2. Highlighting the wholereport3. Dont add anything new4. It shouldconvey tothereaderthe gistof whatis in thereport

2. Introduction and Problem Statement

Introduction might bedifficultto write becauseit must address multipleobjectives. It

must:

a) Createreaderinterestin thetopicb) Establish the problem thatleads tothe studyc) Placethe study within thelargercontextofthe scholarly literatured) Reach outto a specific audience

Therefore:

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1. What arethe main issues orresearch questions to be addressed? In social scienceresearch problems arise from: - difficulties, issues and current practices. That

problems arise from deductions from theory,related literature,current social and

politicalissues, practical situations and personalexperiences.

2. Present whatthereport/study is about3. What is the purpose of the study? It establishes the direction of the study. Use

words like: PURPOSE, INTENT, OBJECTIVEe.g. The purposeofthis study is

.

To DESCRIBE, PROVIDE UNDERSTANDING OF, To DEVELOP,

4. It should provide the reader with the necessary information to understand andcomprehendtherestofthe study

5. It shouldtell why one is studying a particular problem and whatcan beexpectedto be foundin therestofthereport

6. DefineorClarify allunfamiliarterms andconcepts7. Some accountof what has been donein the area should be presented (Essenceof

Literature Review)

8. How is thereport/study organized9. AlsoLimitations and Significanceofthe study

3. Theoretical background (Survey of previous work or Historical review) ---

Literature Review

Herethetheoretical backgroundtothe problem area as well as tothe study design is

presented. If we areusing hypotheses ora priori assumptions,there has to be a proper

reasoning with the help of previous studies and findings. Depending upon theresearch

orientation, as covered in Chapters 2 and 3, the importanceof theory and its use is

different. Itis thereforeimportantto beconsistentin ourreport and we shouldcheck

this section with ourresearch orientation anddesign.

4. Methodology

Describe how the whole study has been conducted, the processes, the difficulties

faced and how handledetc. Reliability Issues, Validations, population and sampling.

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5. Findings or Empirical Study (Results or Analysis)

j Discussions: Commenton results,interpretthem anddraw appropriatedeductions.Conclusions derived from your own work: relationship with that of others, and

speculation on wheretheconclusions mightlead.

j B y order of occurrence.Here you present the findings chronologically. This isparticularly suitable when you are working with case studies,orwhen you have a

process or longitudinal approach: for example, when explaining the process of

negotiations and factors influencing this process

j By criteria or topics. You may use yourown headings for example, from thequestionnaireorproblem statement as a formatto presentthe findings.You may

have some criteria on what affects what for example, independent and

dependentvariables which can beused as headings to presentthe findings.You

might numberyourresearch questions orhypotheses as l, 2, 3..andthen discuss

each ofthesein the same sequence.

j B y order of location.You can present your findings from different parts of thecountry or world in different sections and use these as headings: for example,

findings from the south, east or central parts of the country, or findings from

differentcountries orcontinents.

j Graphic Illustration. Charts, graphs andtables

6. Conclusions and Recommendations

7. Footnotes (Variations include 1. Page wise, 2. Chapterwise, 3. Attheendof thewholereport)

Be sparing in the use of footnotes

8. Bibliography or Reference

Bibliographies are lists of books (and other material) on a particular subject and

should include at least all the sources that have been cited in the report. A list of

references,on theotherhand,includes only those sources cited and should notinclude

books and other material not cited in the report. Bibliographies and reference lists

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should be in alphabetical order with authors surnames coming first. (According

toHarvardorVancouverstyle)

If there is no author, the issuing organisations name should come first in the

alphabetical order: for example, the European Commission or, in the case of an

editorial in a periodical,The Economist. In thecaseof a reference to an article in a

periodical,the authors name shouldcome first.

Others technicalities, e.g.

Et al: Rohlin,et al, 1988, p 47

Ed: Deku,ed, 1989, p 60

Op. cit: Bulla op cit. OrBulla, 1980,op cit.

Ibid.

Definitions, Delimitations, Significance

Defineterms andconcepts sothatreaders can understandthecontext which the words

are being usedortheirunusualorrestricted meaning.

Another parameter for a research study establishes the boundaries, exceptions,

reservations and qualifications inherent in every study: delimitations ans limitations.

E.g.this study is limitedto; is focused; is not generalizableto all butonly to ,

Scholarly Writing

Do well to present a SCHOLARLY long essay or thesis. How do you do this?

Writing is a craft and following conventions

A highly readable manuscript should be the outcome of the writing process, and

coherence is built into a study by using consistent terms, staging narrative thoughts

andconnecting sentences and paragraphs

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Beconsistentin theuseofterms

Becoherent

Correct grammar

WRITING AS THINKING

Start by writing down ideas

Workthrough a numberofdrafts of paper,ratherthan try to polish the firstdraft.

THEHABIT OF WRITING

j Establish the writing process the discipline of writing on a continuous andregularbasis.

j Establish good writing habitsj Justify yourtext (avoidleft aligning)j Font - Times New Romanj Font size 12or14j Spacing 1 (standard)

The Following Sentences Adverbials (linking terms)can enrich yourwork:

Firstly, furthermore, in particular, consequently, in other words, alternatively, in

comparison, in addition, by contrast, similarly, admittedly, certainly, to digress, to

recapitulate, to resume.

As mentioned in ..,

This is elaborated in section or chapter , However, Nevertheless,

NB: vary yoursentences

Referring ExpressionsReferring expressions areused to help clarify what goes with what in your text. A

subject or participant introduced at one point in the text becomes the fulcrum on

which both earlierandlaterreferences tiit willturn.Examples: the(definite articles),

it, he/she (pronouns), this, that, those (demonstrative),some,many, much, all, none,

each, any (quantifiers)

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Others:

j Such , so, the very, the same, previously, the former, the latter (the backwardreferrals)

j Below, as we shall see, thus, hence,(the forward referrals)

Coordinating Words

and,in addition,

These are all terms for your extending, elaboration, enhancing, analyzing and

structuring.

DISCUSSION

Discussion is an essential partof academic work both as an informal preparation for

the writing and as writings finaljustification. Informal discussion with friends and

fellow students is an important preparation.

Work handin hand with yoursupervisor. Take a look at previous long essays.

TIME PLAN

Candidate: Adama Kofi Supervisors: I.R.S Vate

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DATE (fill

in)

CHAPTER/ACTIVITY DURATI

ON

RECEIVE

D

REMARKS

Search forTopic 2 Months Accomplished

Finalization of Topic/Draft of

backgroundof study

4 Weeks

ChapterI

Proposal: Draft &

Final

2 Months

24/10/98

20/11/98

14/11/98

24/11/98

Defenseof Proposal and Final

Adjustments on Proposal

Chapter II: Review of Related

Literature

Draft

Final

2 Months

ChapterIII: Methodology

Questionnaire Development

Draft

Final

Collection of Data

Chapter IV: Analysis and

Discussion of Findings

Draft

Final

1 Month

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Summary, Conclusion and

Recommendation

(Draft/Final)

Thesis Submitted in

Manuscript

1 Month

Typing, Editing and

Submission of Final Thesis

1 Month

GOOD LUCK!!!!!!!!!!!!!

ILLUSTRATION FOR STUDENTS

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0INTRODUCTION

This section is largely informed by theideas of Goski (2009)GeneralGuidelines for

writing a report, IPS.

1.1Background to the Study

Chapterone begins with a short backgroundtothe study. The primary goalofthese

introductory paragraphs is to catch the attentionofthereaders andto getthem gain

an insightintothe problem theresearch is seeking to address. It sets the stage forthe

research work and puts your topic in perspective. The introduction often contains

noteworthy and general statements about the need for the study. It uses vivid

illustration or quotes and relevant background information to give the importof the

study. It normally wouldend with whatthe papersets outto achieveorthe question(s)

that seeks to answer?

For example, the Background to a study entitled: An Assessment of Quality

Assurance Practices in Higher Institutions of Learning in Ghana is given below

-

Example:

Several indicators have shown that in recent times, the need for quality assurance in

higherinstitutions in Ghana is crucial. It appears that standards ofeducation in higher

institutions in Ghana have been declining in recenttimes.

Forinstance,the scarcity ofresources reflected by thetotal numberof qualified senior

secondary school graduates against the present number of both public and private

higher Institutions of learning demonstrates a strain on the highereducational sector.

In addition, availability of other important but scarce resources are believed to

underpin the quality of higher education in Ghana. The committee of Review of

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Educational Reforms (2002)reportedthat .mosttertiary institutions do not have a

comprehensive mechanism formonitoring internal quality.

Furthermore, an analytical study of highereducation in Ghana revealedthattheissue

of financing, which is at the core of tertiary education development in Ghana, is

inextricably linked with the perceived problem of quality andrelevance (Boateng and

Ofori-Sarpong 2002). Recent developments in the jo b market in Ghana, is also

revealing the need to further look at strategies that would enhance the quality of

graduates from higher institutions of learning. The Association ofGhana Industries

(AGI) has indicatedover and again that generally graduates producedin recenttimes

in thecountry do not meet the expectations of industry (AGI, 2007). This need was

re-emphasizedin thethemeofthe 2008 New YearSchoolofthe University ofGhana,

Tertiary Education and National Development (Institute of Adult Education

Handbook, 2008). The shortcomings attributedtocurrent graduates could possibly be

adduced to the lack of comprehensive Quality Assurance mechanisms for both

internal and external assessment processes. Arguably, it can be suggested that the

focus ofHighereducation in Ghana seems to have been more quantity orientedthan

quality oriented.

Guided by thechanging needs oftheeconomy ofGhana,thereis needtoensurethat

structures and academic programs of tertiary institutions guarantee that a system of

formal quality assurance procedures are maintained at alllevels. This is toensurethe

demonstration of quality ofoutput andconsistency.

The question, however, is to whatextent are quality management practices imbued

in public higher institutions of learning in Ghana? Is there a recognized and

standardized system orframework forassuring quality of highereducation in Ghana?

This study therefore soughtto find some answers tothese questions andto ascertain

thelevelof quality assurance practices in some selected higherinstitutions oflearning

in Ghana. Thestudy further examines how management systems facilitate quality

outputofthecountrys Higher Institutions oflearning. Thestudy hypothesized that

quality assurance practices in higher institutions of Learning in Ghana is below

average at 1% level of significance. The study, therefore sought to serve as a

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baseline barometer forquality assurance practices in Higher Institutions ofLearning

in Ghana though exploratory in nature.

1.2 Statement of the ProblemThe statement of the problem is the focal point of your research. It is just one

sentence (with several paragraphs ofelaboration).

Here,theresearcheris looking forsomething wrong.

...orsomething that needs close attention

...orexisting methods that nolongerseem to be working.

Illustration:

The frequency ofjob layoffs is creating fear, anxiety, and a loss of productivity

among middle management workers.

Whilethe problem statement itself is justone sentence, it is always accompanied by

several paragraphs that elaborate on the problem.Present persuasive arguments

why the problem is important enough to study . It includes theopinions ofothers

(politicians, managers, other professionals). Explain how the problem relates to

business