dr sajith damodaran pathophysiology of pain treatment of acute postoperative pain university college...

Dr Sajith Damodaran Pathophysiology of Pain Treatment of Acute Postoperative Pain University College of Medical Sciences & GTB Hospital, Delhi

Objectives: Definition of Pain Anatomy and Physiology of pain perception Adverse effects of untreated postoperative pain Modalities of treating postoperative pain Special patient populations

Pain: Definition An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage. [IASP] Subjective Sensation and emotion Unpleasant Psychological, in absence of any stimulus or pathophysiological cause

Pain: Definition Pain is what the patient says hurts [John Bonica] Affected by the mental and emotional state, preconditioning, past experiences and memories. Always subjective. Varies from person to person Pain is the Fifth vital sign [JCAHCO]

Acute Pain Normal predicted physiological response to an adverse chemical, thermal or mechanical stimulus. Generally lasts less than one month Poorly managed pain leads to chronicity Pathophysiological changes in both PNS & CNS

Hyperalgesia and Allodynia

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Nociceptive Receptors: Naked Nerve Endings In all tissues Specific for pain Stimulus not specific Pain is not produced by overstimulation of other receptors

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Nociceptive Pathways: Afferent Three neuron First order neurons in Dorsal Root Ganglia Second order neurons in Dorsal horn Third order neurons in Thalamic nuclei Second order neurons include nociceptive specific and WDR Dual ascending system Lateral corticospinal Dorsal column medial leminiscal Descending modulation by cortex thalamus and brain stem

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Fast Pain or First Pain: Sharp or stinging well localised By stimulation of thermo-mechanical nociceptors Carried by A delta fibres Transmitted by the Lateral spinothalamic tract Monosynaptic pathway Usually disappears when stimulus ends

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Slow Pain or Second Pain Delayed, Diffuse Stimulation of polymodal nociceptors Carried by C fibres Transmitted by the dorsalcolumn medial leminiscal tract Polysynaptic pathway. Collaterals to midbrain, pontine and medullary RF, PAG, Hypothalamus Engage Descending modulatory system Involved in the reflex response to pain and emotional and motivational aspect

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Small Myelinated A Fibres Carry Fast pain 2-5 m diameter 12-30 m/s End mainly in lamina I, II & V of dorsal horn Small unmyelinated C Fibres Carry slow pain 0.4-1.2 m diameter 0.5-2 m/s End in Lamina I & II of dorsal horn

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Efferent modulation of pain: Descending inhibition Cortex, thalamus, brain stem PAG, nucleus raphe magnus, locus ceruleus Descend in dorsal column to dorsal horn

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Gate Control Theory: Explains the highly variable and non linear relationship between pain and injury Pain is gated at the Dorsal Horn Involves WDR neuron Excited by nociceptors and also A fibres Inhibitory interneurons, excited by A fibres, inhibited by A and C fibres MOA of TENS, Rubifascients and counterirritants

1.The projection neuron (P) carries both nociceptive stimulation from small fibers (S) and non-nociceptive simulation from large fibers (L) on the way to the brain. 2.With no stimulation, the inhibitory neuron (I) keeps the gate "closed," and there is no painful sensation. 3.With painful stimulation, the small fiber (S) blocks the inhibitory neuron (I), "opening" the gate for the projection neuron (P) to send on the painful stimulus. 4.With the addition of non-painful stimulation, the large fiber (L) activates the inhibitory neuron (I), partially or completely closing the gate depending on the strength of the stimulation, and competes with the painful stimulation for access to the projection neuron (P).

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Other Types of Pain: Deep Pain Poorly localised, nauseating eg: periosteal pain, pain from ligaments Muscle Pain Due to ischemia P factor. ? Potassium Relieved by restoration of blood supply

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Visceral Pain Poorly localised and dull sparse receptor concentration Usually felt in midline Associated with nausea and autonomic disturbances Afferents carried by ANS Spinal pathways are same as for somatic pain Referred to other areas

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Referred Pain Dermatomal Rule Pain from visceral sites referred to the somatic structure that developed from the same embryonic segment of dermatome Role of experience: Pain from abdominal structures may be referred to site of previous surgery Role of convergence Visceral and somatic sensory input converge on Dorsal Horn. More fibres in the peripheral nerve than the STT

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Neuropathic Pain: Direct nerve damage like entrapment, cutting, traction, compression etc. Presents with burning, tingling and other unpleasant sensations in addition to pain Common surgical procedures Limb amputations Breast surgery Gall bladder surgery Thoracic surgery Inguinal hernia repair Responds poorly to typical analgesics

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Pain Processing - 4 Elements Transduction Noxious mechanical, chemical and thermal stimuli are converted to action potential Transmission AP conducted through nervous system Modulation Alteration of neural transmission along the pain pathway, principally at dorsal horn Perception Final common pathway. Integration of painful input into somatosensory and limbic cortex. Usual analgesic approaches target only perception

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Modulation: Augmentation: Sensitisation due to neuronal plasticity (acute pain induced changes in the CNS) Inhibition: GABA, Glycine by intrinsic neurons NA, serotonin, Endorphins by descending efferent cortical and subcortical input

Pain Processing

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Chemical Mediators of Pain Processing: Tissue damage and inflammation activate nociceptors Release of numerous algogenic substances from the activated macrophages, mast cells, platelets and lymphocytes Direct pain transduction and facilitation of transduction by increasing the excitability of nociceptors

Neurochemistry of impulse processing at peripheral nerve ending

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Neurotransmitters in Spinal Cord: Excitatory Amino Acids Aspartate & Glutamate Excitatory Neuropeptides Substance P, Neurokinin A Inhibitory Amino Acids GABA, Glycine

Anatomy and Physiology of Pain Pain Receptors in Spinal Cord: NMDA ( N-methyly-D-Aspartae ): Ca ++ channel dependent AMPA ( alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionicacid ): Na + channel dependent Kainate: Na + channel dependent Metabotropic Opioid Receptors: Inhibitory Alpha2 Adrenergic Receptors: Inhibitory

Postoperative Pain Management: Why manage postoperative pain? Humanitarian consideration Improved quality of care Better patient satisfaction Lesser morbidity ? Economic benefits due to enhanced patient well being and early rehabilitation

CardiovasuclarTachycardia, Hypertension, increased cardiac work RespiratorySplinting, Decreased VC, Atelectatsis, Hypoxia, Increased risk of pulmonary infection GastrointestinalPostoperative Ilieus RenalIncreased risk of oliguria and urinary retention CoagulationIncreased risk of thromboemboli ImmunologicalImpaired immune function MuscularMusce weakness and fatigue, increased risk of DVT PsychologicalAnxiety, Fear, Frustration Consequences of poorly managed postoperative pain

Assessment of pain Background Pain Pain that is persistant May vary over time Background Pain Pain that is persistant May vary over time Breakthrough Pain Pain that escalates above a persistant Background pain Breakthrough Pain Pain that escalates above a persistant Background pain Transitory and Intermittant Pain that is episodic in the absence of background pain Transitory and Intermittant Pain that is episodic in the absence of background pain

Assessment of pain Simple Pain Scales: Useful for evaluation of acute pain Visual Analouge Scale Validated for research Simple to use Sensitive to small changes Not useful in visually impaired, cognitively impaired and small children Numerical Rating Scale Less sensitive Requires patient to be able to translate pain severity to number. Not useful in visually impaired cognitively impaired and children Verbal Rating Scale Easy to Use Useful in mildly cognitively impaired Insensitive to small changes in pain intensity

Assessment of pain

Useful in children

Systemic Medications: Opioids Transdermal Fentanyl Delivery System (Ionsys) Needle free, patient activated system for in-hospital use Iontophoresis Low intensity electrical field used to transport fentanyl across skin into circulation Each double click delivers 40mcg over 10 min For us in adults > 18 years Used for 24 hours or 80 doses

Systemic Medications: Opioids Oral Transmucosal Fentanyl (ACTIQ): To treat breakthrough cancer pain in opioid tolerant patients To be sucked by placing in between cheek and lower gums Each unit to be consumed in 15 minutes Supplied in strengths of 200, 400, 600, 800,1200 & 1600mcg

Systemic Medications: Opioids RoutesIM, IV, PO Duration of Action2-4 hours Side effectsCNS excitation- seizures, myoclonus due to nor- pethidine toxicity Interaction with MAO inhibitors, antidepressants Dose100mg IV/IM q 4 hr 300 mg PO q 4 hr Watch forNausea,vomiting, euphoria, ventillatory depression sedation Pethidine: Phenylpiperidine derivative and receptor agonist. Also has Na + channel blocking and Atopinergic action

Systemic Medications: Opioids Tramadol: Moderate affinity receptor agonist. Acts on spinal modulating pathways Inhibition of neuronal NA and Serotonin uptake Stimulation of presynaptic serotonin release Adverse Effects: Nausea & Vomiting Ondansetron interferes with analgesic effect Non addictive, less sedation Dose: 3 mg/kg IM/IV/PO for moderate to severe pain

Systemic Medications: Opioids Pentazocin: Agonist-Weak antagonist Dose 10-30 mg IV/ 50 mg PO for relief of moderate pain Side Effects: Dysphoria Sedation Tachycardia, Hypertension (catecholamine release)

Systemic Medications: Opioids Butorphanol: Agonist-Antagonist Dose: 2-3 mg IM Also available as intranasal spray Side Effects: Sedation Nausea Tachycardia, hypertension Less dysphoria than other agonist antagonists Antagonise other opioids if used together

Systemic Medications: Opioids Buprenorphine: Semisynthetic, Agonist-Antagonist Routes of administration: IV, IM, Neuraxial, SC, SL, Trasdermal Useful in morphine intolerant patient Ceiling effect for respiratory depression, but not for analgesia. Antiflammatory action Useful in intra-articular injections Prolongs duration of analgesia in peripheral nerve blocks with LA

Systemic Medications: Opioids DrugIV/IM/SCOral Morphine10mg30 Hydromorphone1.5-2 mg6-8 HydrocodoneNA30-45 OxymorphoneI mg10 Oxycodone10-15 mg20 Levorphanol2 mg4 Fentanyl100 mcgNA Pethidine100mg300 Codeine100 mg200 Opioid equianalgesic dose

Systemic Medications: Opioids Methadone: Synthetic broad spectrum opioid Mu receptor agonist NMDA antagonist Inhibitor of monoamine transmitters Useful in treatment of neuropathic pain Orally well absorbed No dose adjustment in renal disease Drug most commonly used for opioid rotation

Mechanism of Action Inhibition of Cyclo-oxygenase enzymes (type 1 & 2) Reduce concentrations of PGE2 PGE2 Sensitise peripheral nociceptors to histamine and bradykinin Centally Increase Substance P and Glutamate Increase sensitivity of second order neurons Decrease NTs from descending pathway Centally Increase Substance P and Glutamate Increase sensitivity of second order neurons Decrease NTs from descending pathway Systemic Medications: NSAIDs

Adverse Effects: Platelet Dysfunction Gastrointestinal Ulceration Nephrotoxicity Impaired bone healing Hypersensitivity Benefits: Opioid Sparing Reduced incidence of opioid side effects Anti-inflammatory effects

Systemic Medications: NSAIDs DrugRoute & Dose (mg)Precautions Acetaminophen500-1000 4-6 Hr PO Hepatotoxicity Aspirin500-1000 q4-6 Hr POReyes syndrome Variable half life Ibuprofen400 mg q 4-6 Hr, PO Naproxen250mg 6-8 Hr, PO Indomethacin25 mg 8-12 Hr, PO Ketorolac30 mg initialy, followed by 15-30 mg q 6-8 Hr, IV Correct hypovolumia Elderly Diclofenac50 mg 8 Hr, PO Piroxicam20-40 mg q 24 Hr, PO

Systemic Medications: 2 Adrenergic Agonists Dexmedetomedine: Superselective 2 agonist: 2: 1 binding 1620:1 Supraspinal, Spinal & Peripheral action No respiratory depression Clonidine: 2 agonist, 2: 1 biding 220:1 PO, IV, TD, Neuraxial routs Reduced postoperative opioid requirement SE: Sedation, Bradycardia, hypotension Primarily preoperative and intraoperative use

Systemic Medications: NMDA Antagonists Ketamine: NMDA receptor antagonism theoretically reduces central sensitisation, hyperalgesia and opioid tolreance Currently role in postoperative pain relief is uncertain Insignificant difference in pain Clinically insignificant opioid sparing Psychomimetic side effects hallucination, nighmares

Neuraxial Analgesia: Epidural Analgesia Superior to systemic opioids Efficacy determined by Catheter-incision site congruency Choice of analgesic drugs LA+Opioid Rates of infusion Duration of epidural analgesia At least 2-4 days Type of pain assessment Dynamic Vs Rest

Neuraxial Analgesia: Epidural Analgesia Dermatomal Guide to placement Of epidural cathetres

Neuraxial Analgesia: Epidural Analgesia Location of incisionExamples of surgical procedure Congruent epidural placement ThoracicLung reduction, Radical mastectomy Toracotomy, thymectomy T4-T8 Upper AbdominalCholycystectomy, esophagectomy, gastrectomy, hepatic resection, whipples T6-8 Middle AbdominalCystoprostatectomy, nephrectomyT7-T10 Lower AbdominalAAA repair, Colectomy, TAH, Radical prostatectomy T8-T11 Lower ExtremityFemoral-Popliteal bypass, THR, TKR L1-L4 Recommended catheter insertion sites

Neuraxial Analgesia: Epidural Analgesia Local Anaesthetics Act on spinal nerve roots, dorsal root ganglion or spinal cord itself. High incidence of motor block Hypotension Sign \\\ificant failure rate due to regression and inadequate analgesia Opioids: Site of action: Lipophilic: systemic Hydrophilic: spinal Cathetre-Site congruency not essential No motor blockade No hypotension Analgesia superior to systemic opioids

Neuraxial Analgesia: Epidural Analgesia PropertyLipophilic OpioidsHydrophilic Opioids Common DrugsFentayl, SufentanylMorphine, Hydromorphone Onset of analgesiaRapid (5-10 min)Delayed (30-60min) Duration of analgesiaShorter (2-4 Hrs)Longer (6-24 hrs) CSF SpreadMinimalExtensive Site of actionSpinal SystemicSpinal Side EffectsLower nausea and vomiting, pruritus Early respiratory depression Nausea & vomiting, pruritus Early ( 6 Hr) respiratory depression Differences between lipophilic and hydrophilic opioids

Neuraxial Analgesia: Epidural Analgesia Local Anaesthetic-Opioid Combinations Additive Effect Superior analgesia, including dynamic pain relief Limits regression of sensory blockade Decreased LA dose requirement Analgesia superior to IV PCA with opioids

Neuraxial Analgesia: Epidural Analgesia Adjuvants: Clonidine: 5-20 g/Hr Dose dependent hypotension, bradycardia Epinephrine conc. Of 2.5 g/ml Ketamine Theoretically useful in attenuating central sensitisation

Neuraxial Analgesia: Epidural Analgesia DrugEpidural Single DoseEpidural continuous Fentanyl 50-100 g25-100 g/Hr Sufentanyl 10-50 g10-20 g/Hr Alfentanyl0.5-1 mg0.2 mg/Hr Morphine1-5 mg0.1-1 mg/Hr Diamorphine4-6 mg- Pethidine20-60 mg10-60 mg/Hr Extended release Morphine 5-15 mgNot recommended Doses of Epidural Opioids (Controlled release Upto 48 hrs)

Epidural Analgesia: Adverse Effects Hypotension0.7 3 % with epidural LAs Motor Block2 3 % with epidural LAs More with cathetre-incision incongruence Resolves within 2 hours of stopping infusion If persistant, think of Spinal hematoma/abscess, cathetre migration Nausea & vomiting 20 50 % with single dose neuraxial opioid 45 80 % with continuous opioid infusion Dose depdndent. Due to cephalad migration Less with fentanyl than morphine Treated with Naloxone, Ondansetrone, Droperidol, Metoclopramide, Dexamethasone

Epidural Analgesia: Adverse Effects Pruritus60% with Opioids; 15-18 % with LAs Due to cephalad migration and activation of trigeminal nucleus. ?? Itch centre Treated with Naloxone, Droperidol Respiratory Depression Incidence 0.1 0.9 % with opioids Equivalent to systemic administration of opioid Early 6 hr Delayed depression with Morphine. Due to cephalad spread Risk Factors: Increasing dose, increasing age, concomitant sedatives, prolonged and extensive surgery, thoracic surgery Treatment: Naloxone 0.5 5 g/kg/hr Urinary RetentionHigher than with systemic opioids 10 30% with epidural Las Higher with higher infusion rates of LA

Epidural Analgesia Benefits: (LA based epidurals) Better attenuation of stress response to surgery Earlier return of GI function without contributing to bowel dehiscence Decreased postoperative pulmonary complications Decreased incidence of postop MI with thoracic epidural Better postop analgesia Risks: Higher incidence of spinal hematoma with LMWHs Infections: Meningitis, Spinal Abscess (1/10000 with catheter < 4 days) Superficial cellulitis: 4-14 % Catheter migration: Intrathecal, Intravascular, subcutaneous

Neuraxial Analgesia: Intrathecal Analgesia Opioid Dose Fentanyl 5-25 g Sufentanyl 2-10 g Morphine0.1-0.3 mg Diamorphine1-2 mg Pethidine10-30 mg Intrathecal Opioids: Dosing

Neuraxial Analgesia: Intrathecal Analgesia DrugDosingComments Clonidine 15-45 g Improves quality of blockade Epinephrine0.1-0.6 mgProlongs motor block & urinary retention Neostigmine 6.5 50 g Motor blockade Nausea & vomiting Intrathecal Adjuvants: Dosing

Peripheral Regional Analgesia Pain control superior to systemic opioids Fewer side effects compared to systemic opioids Fewer neurologic and infectious complications compared to neuraxial block Prolonged duration Single injection and continuous catheter techniques

Peripheral Regional Analgesia Peripheral Nerve Blockade Indications InterscaleneRotator cuff repair, Shoulder arthroplasty, ORIF SupraclavicularAnaesthesia to entire upper limb with single injection Risk of pneumothorax InfraclavicularSurgery on distal upper arm, forearm, wrist and hand AxillarySurgery distal to elbow Separate block for musculocutaneous and intercostobrachial nerves required MidhumeralSurgery of forearm, wrist and hand Provides better block of radial nerve than axillary Indications of peripheral Nerve Blocks

Peripheral Regional Analgesia Peripheral Nerve Block Indication Lumbar plexusSurgery of knee Femoral NerveTKA, ACL repair, femoral neck fracture, saphenous vein stripping, muscle biopsy of anterior, medial or lateral thigh Sciatic NerveAK amputation (combined with lumbar plexus block Ankle replacement, arthrodesis Calcaneal osteotomy Achilles tendon repair Popliteal FossaBK amputation (combined with saphenous nerve block) Ankle surgery: Triple arthrodesis, Achilles tendon repair Foot surgery: Bunion surgery, Transmetatarsal amputation Indications of peripheral nerve blocks

Peripheral Regional Analgesia Paravertebral Block: Suited for thoracic, breast surgery, VATS, cholecystectomy, nephrectomy etc Used to treat rib fracture pain Potential space, contains anterior and posterior ramus of the spinal nerve root with white and grey rami communicantes Single injection or continuous catheter technique Comparable to thoracic epidural blockade No hypotension, PONV, urinary retention

Peripheral Regional Analgesia Paravertebral Block

Peripheral Regional Analgesia Other Techniques: Rectus Sheath Block Transversus abdominis plane block Placement of continuous wound catheter Continuous intra-articular infusion of LA Periarticular soft tissue injection of LA Intrapleural or Intraperitoneal Analgesia

Peripheral Regional Analgesia Complications: Intravascular injection Unintentional neuraxial spread Scalene block Lumbar plexus block Paravertebral block Nerve Damage Incidence 1:10000 1:30000 Significant nerve damage 1:1 00 000 Direct injury, hematoma, infection, ischemia >90% recover within 1 week 92 -97% within 4-6 weeks, 99% within 1 year

Patient Controlled Analgesia Definition: Any technique of pain management that allows the patients to manage their own analgesia on demand Compensates for interpatient and intrapatient variability in analgesic needs, variability of serum drug levels, administrative delays

Patient Controlled Analgesia Benefits: Better patient satisfaction Better analgesia Equivalent side effects Less demand on nursing time Variables programmed with PCA: Bolus Dose Incremental (demand) dose Lockout interval Background infusion rate

Patient Controlled Analgesia OpioidDemand DoseLockout (min)Basal Infusion Morphine1-2 mg6-100-2 mg/hr Hydromorphone0.2-0.4 mg6-100-0.4mg/hr Fentanyl 20-50 g 6-10 0-60 g/hr Sufentanyl 4-6 g 5-10 0-8 g/hr Tramadol10-20 mg6-100-20 mg/hr Pethidine5-25 mg5-10 Pentazocin5-30mg5-15 Buprenorphin0.03-0.1 mg8-20 Usual IV Opioid PCA Regime

Patient Controlled Analgesia Analgesic SolutionContinuous rate (ml/hr) Demand dose (ml) Lockout interval (min) General Regimes 0.05% Bupivacine+ 4 g/ml Fentanyl 0.0625 Bup + 5 g/ml Fentanyl 0.1% Bup + 5 g/ml Fentanyl 0.2% Rop + 5 g/ml Fentanyl 4 4-6 6 5 2 3-4 2 10 10-15 20 Thoracic Surgery 0.0625% -0.125% Bup + 5 g/ml Fen 3-42-310-15 Abdominal surgery 0.0625 Bup + 5 g/ml Fentanyl 0.125% Bup + 5 g/ml Sufentanyl 0.1-0.2% Rop + 2 g/ml Fentanyl 4-6 3-5 3-4 2-3 2-5 10-15 12 10-20 Lower Extremity Surgery 0.0625%-0.125% Bup + 5 g/ml Fent 4-63-4 10-15 PCEA Regimes

Patient Controlled Analgesia Risk Factors: Pulmonary disease OSA Renal or Hepatic dysfunction CHF Closed head injury Altered mental status Lactating mothers

Non Pharmacological Methods: Benefits: Reduce opioid requirement/side effects Attenuate activation of sympathoadrenal system May provide postoperative analgesia Devoid of any side effects Methods TENS Acupuncture/Acupressure Psyhological Approaches Mechanism Spinal cord modulation Endogenous enkephalins Useful adjuvants to pharmacological therapy

Special Populations: Pediatric Patients Barriers to effective pain control in children: Myths about pain and children: Children and infants do not feel pain Pain is not remembered Unable to tell where it hurts Dont tell the truth about pain Difficulty in assessment Developmental, emotional and cognitive differences Difficulty in conceptualising and quantifying pain Fear of side effects: Respiratory depression, addiction

Special Populations: Pediatric Patients Pain Assessment CRIES scale Crying O2 requirement for SP)2 > 95% Increased vital signs Expressions Sleeplessness Each parameter score 0-2 Useful for neonatal postoperative pain Behavioural Observational Tools: For neonates and children < 3 yrs Neonatal-Infant Pain Scale (NIPS) Facial Expression Cry Breathing Pattern Arms Legs State of Arousal Observed for 1 minute before, during & after a procedure and numeric score applied to each NIPS > 3 implies pain Useful for children < 1 year

Special Populations: Pediatric Patients Pain Assessment Behavioural Observational Tools: For neonates and children < 3 yrs FLACC Scale Face Legs Activity Crying Consolability Each component scored 0-2 Validated for 2 mo 7 yrs Childrens Hospital of Eastern Ontario Scale (CHEOPS) Cry Facial Expression Verbalisation Touching of affected part Torso movement Position of legs Validated for children 1-7 yrs Score 4 implies pain Self report :Children > 3 yrs Wong-Baker Faces Scale VAS

Special Populations: Pediatric Patients Treatment: Pharmacological interventions similar to adults PCA/NCA Non Pharmacological Interventions Sensory Rocking,cuddling, touching, massaging, dim lighting, pacifiers, heat/cold application Behavioural Distraction toys, music, videos Security object: blanket, stuffed animals Play therapy Imagery Cognitive Prayers, humor, relacation techniques

Special Populations: Elderly Patients Special Considerations: Clinically significant reduction in intensity of pain perception Communication, Affective, Cognitive, Social and Ideological barriers Difficulty in assessing pain Comorbid conditions Increased adverse effects due to untreated pain and interventions Decreased analgesic requirement Increased sensitivity and decreased clearance Untreated pain is an important contributor to postopearive delerium

Summary Pain is both a sensation and an emotion with wide interpersonal variations and the fifth vital sign. Untreated acute pain leads to many detrimental physiological effects and to chronicity. Treatment should include assessment, intervention and reassessment. A multimodal approach targeting the various elements of pain processing should be tried in all patients. LA based epidural analgesia has many advantages over systemic opioid analgesia. Inspite of the various interventions available, postoperative pain is undertreated in a majority of patients, more so in pediatric and geriatric populations.

Referrences Barash, Stoelting et al, Clinical Anaesthesia, 6 th ed Millers anaesthesia, 6 th ed Anaesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine. Volume 6:1 Jan 2005 Recent Advances in Anaesthesia, No. 22. Chapter 74. management of Acute Postoperative Pain Practice Guidelines for Acute Pain management in perioperative setting. Report by ASA task force on acute pain management. Anesthesiology 2004; 100:157381 Pharmacology and Physiology in Anaesthetic practice, Stoelting and Miller, 4 th Edition Ganongs Review of Medical Physiology, 22 nd edition

dr sajith damodaran pathophysiology of pain treatment of acute postoperative pain university college...

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