dr. kritsonis - women and leadership

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Chapter 12 - Women and LeadershipChapter 12 - Women and Leadership

© 2003 Jan KriegerSAGESAGE Publications Publications

Women and LeadershipWomen and LeadershipWomen and LeadershipWomen and Leadership

LeadershipLeadershipTheory and Practice, Theory and Practice,

3/e3/ePeter G. Northouse, Ph.D.Peter G. Northouse, Ph.D.

William Kritsonis, PhDWilliam Kritsonis, PhDPresenterPresenter

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•Women and Leadership Perspective

• Overview of Research Trends– Can Women be leaders?

– Do female and male leaders differ in their behavior and

effectiveness?

– Why do so few women reach the top?

• How Does the Women and Leadership Approach Work?

OverviewOverviewOverviewOverview

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Women and Leadership Approach DescriptionWomen and Leadership Approach DescriptionWomen and Leadership Approach DescriptionWomen and Leadership Approach Description

• Gender (learned beliefs) - Gender (learned beliefs) - Has Has significant impact on the degree to significant impact on the degree to which males and females are which males and females are expected to:expected to:– Behave differentlyBehave differently

– Be treated differentlyBe treated differently

– Be valued differentlyBe valued differently

• Implications of a two-category Implications of a two-category (male/female) set(male/female) set– Cognitive distortions ariseCognitive distortions arise

– Implies those within each category Implies those within each category are identicalare identical

– One category valued as superior to One category valued as superior to the otherthe other

• Gender affects assignment of Gender affects assignment of organizational responsibilities organizational responsibilities and most decisions regarding:and most decisions regarding:– Career progress– Resources– Salaries– Power– Authority– Appropriate work behavior

PerspectivPerspectivee

PerspectivPerspectivee

The Gendered The Gendered WorkplaceWorkplace

The Gendered The Gendered WorkplaceWorkplace

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Overview of Research TrendsOverview of Research TrendsCan Women Be Leaders?Can Women Be Leaders?

Overview of Research TrendsOverview of Research TrendsCan Women Be Leaders?Can Women Be Leaders?

0 20 40 60 80 100

Women Managers

Women over 20 Yrs

135M People Employed

People Employed in U.S. in 2001People Employed in U.S. in 2001

46.6 %46.6 %

58 %58 %

Sources: Women’s Bureau, 2001; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2002Sources: Women’s Bureau, 2001; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2002

$0.00

$0.20

$0.40

$0.60

$0.80

$1.00

Women Overall Women Managers Men

$.76$.76$.66$.66

For Each Dollar Earned by Men in 2001For Each Dollar Earned by Men in 2001

Sources: Women’s Bureau, 2001; Garofoli , 2002Sources: Women’s Bureau, 2001; Garofoli , 2002

$1.00$1.00

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Overview of Research TrendsOverview of Research TrendsCan Women be Leaders?Can Women be Leaders?


0 20 40 60 80 100

Corp BOD

"Clout Titles"

Top Earning Slots

CFO

General Counsel

Corporate Officer

Men Women

Fortune 500 Top Management Positions in 2002Fortune 500 Top Management Positions in 2002

Source: Catalyst, 2002Source: Catalyst, 2002

12.4 %12.4 %87.6 %87.6 %

9.9 %9.9 %90.1 %90.1 %

5.2%5.2%

94.8 %94.8 %

92.9 %92.9 %7.1%7.1%

83.9 %83.9 %16.1%16.1%

84.3 %84.3 %15.7%15.7%

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20.4 M20.4 MSmallSmall

BusinessesBusinessesin U.S.in U.S.

44%44%OwnedOwned

bybyWomenWomen

5 %5 %Venture Venture CapitalCapital

totoWomenWomen

3 %3 %Gov’t Gov’t

ContractsContractstoto

WomenWomen

Women WhoWomen WhoOwn & RunOwn & RunTheir Own Their Own CompaniesCompanies



0 50 100

Govenors

U.S. Senate

U.S. House

Men Women

GovernmentGovernmentLeadership PositionsLeadership Positions

14%14%86%86%

13%13%87%87%

12%12%88%88%

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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Women of Color

Women Overall

1995 2000

Women of Differing Racial & Ethnic Women of Differing Racial & Ethnic Backgrounds Holding Top Management PositionsBackgrounds Holding Top Management Positions

Source: Scott, 2001Source: Scott, 2001

12.5%12.5%8.7%8.7%

1.3%1.3%1.3%1.3%

Fortune 500Fortune 500ExecutiveExecutivePositionsPositions

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Source: Catalyst, 2002Source: Catalyst, 2002

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Asian Am.

Latino Am.

African Am.

Women of Color

Women Overall

20012001Fortune 1000Fortune 1000

Corporate BoardCorporate BoardPositionsPositions

18.1%18.1%

2% = 2% = 178 positions178 positions

74%74%

17%17%

8.4%8.4%

Primary Organizational Benefits in Developing and Promoting WomenPrimary Organizational Benefits in Developing and Promoting Women• Enhanced ProductivityEnhanced Productivity• Competitive AdvantageCompetitive Advantage• Financial PerformanceFinancial Performance

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• 160 Studies of sex-related differences in leadership (Eagly & Johnson, 160 Studies of sex-related differences in leadership (Eagly & Johnson, 1990)1990) – Women use a more participative participative or democraticdemocratic style and a less autocratic or

directive style than men– Both men and women emphasized task accomplishmenttask accomplishment when organization

dominated numerically numerically by members of their own sex or leadership role is viewed as gender congruentgender congruent

• 82 Studies measuring leader effectiveness (Eagly, Karau, & 82 Studies measuring leader effectiveness (Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, 1995)Makhijani, 1995)– No difference in overall effectivenessoverall effectiveness between male and female leaders

Overview of Research TrendsOverview of Research TrendsDo Female and Male Leaders Differ in Their Do Female and Male Leaders Differ in Their

Behavior and Effectiveness?Behavior and Effectiveness?



Meta-Analyses/Literature Review Results Over a 15-Year PeriodMeta-Analyses/Literature Review Results Over a 15-Year Period

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• Male and female leaders evaluated differently (e.g., Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky, 1992; Dreher Male and female leaders evaluated differently (e.g., Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky, 1992; Dreher & Cox, 1996)& Cox, 1996) – Impacts

• Management training• Assignments• Mentors• Promotion

– Female and male leaders evaluated favorablyfavorably when they used a democratic leadership style (stereotypically feminine)– Females evaluated unfavorablyunfavorably when they used a directive or autocratic style (stereotypically male)– Women were devalueddevalued when they worked in male-dominated environments and when the evaluators were men

• 82 Studies measuring leader effectiveness (Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, 1995)82 Studies measuring leader effectiveness (Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, 1995)– No difference in overall effectivenessoverall effectiveness between male and female leaders




Behavior and Effectiveness?Behavior and Effectiveness?Meta-Analyses/Literature Review Results Over a 15-Year PeriodMeta-Analyses/Literature Review Results Over a 15-Year Period

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• Conditions of effectiveness (Eagly et al., 1995)Conditions of effectiveness (Eagly et al., 1995) – While overall overall effectiveness did not differ for male and female leaders, comparisons of leader

effectiveness favored menmen more under three conditions:• In a male-dominatedmale-dominated setting (particularly the military)• When a high percentagehigh percentage of subordinates were male• When the role role was viewed as more congenial to men in terms of:

– Self-assessed competence– Interest– Low requirements for cooperation with high requirements for control

• Effectiveness comparisons favoredfavored women to the extent these conditions were reversed• With the exception of the military, women’s effectiveness increased increased as they moved up the hierarchy and as

cooperation rather than control was required





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• Patterns of women leaders’ effectiveness (Micco, 1996; Women May, Patterns of women leaders’ effectiveness (Micco, 1996; Women May, 1997)1997) – Advanced Teamware, Inc., study of 915 middle-senior level managersAdvanced Teamware, Inc., study of 915 middle-senior level managers

• In 31 areas examined, women outperformedoutperformed men in 28 (i.e., conflict resolution, work quality, adaptation to change, productivity, idea generation, & motivation of others)

• Men handled their frustrationfrustration and coped with pressurepressure better; both groups scored equallyequally on delegating authority

– Saville & Holdworth study of 3,000 managersSaville & Holdworth study of 3,000 managers• Women emphasized planningplanning and organizingorganizing work and an empathicempathic approach

• Women placed lessless emphasis on winning at all cost





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• Women leaders are apt to be more participative and less autocratic, a pattern that is well suited to 21-century global organizations

• The range of behavior viewed as appropriate for women leaders is more restricted because of men’s negative evaluation of women demonstrating stereotypically masculine behaviors

• Outside of the military, women were seen as more effective in middle management positions and in settings requiring cooperation with a balance of men and women




Behavior and Effectiveness?Behavior and Effectiveness?Meta-Analyses/Literature Review ResultsMeta-Analyses/Literature Review Results

CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS

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• Pipeline TheoryPipeline Theory - Women have not been in managerial positions long enoughlong enough for natural career progression to occur (Heilman, 1997; Ragins et al., 1998)

• Women lack general managementgeneral management or lineline experience (Ragins et al., 1998)

• Women themselves are the issue; they are less less suited to executive demandsexecutive demands than men (Heilman, 1997)

• Women are unavailable unavailable to fill executive positions because few are sufficiently qualified (Morrison, 1992)

• Women lack self-confidenceself-confidence (Morris, 1998)

Overview of Research TrendsOverview of Research TrendsWhy Do so Few Women Reach the Top?Why Do so Few Women Reach the Top?

Overview of Research TrendsOverview of Research TrendsWhy Do so Few Women Reach the Top?Why Do so Few Women Reach the Top?

CEO ExplanationsCEO Explanations

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Common Barriers to Women’s Advancement Common Barriers to Women’s Advancement The Glass CeilingThe Glass Ceiling


Organizational BarriersOrganizational Barriers

Higher standards of performance and effort

Inhospitable corporate culture

Promotion decisions based on homophily (gender similarity)

Ignorance/inaction by male CEOs and “silent majority” male peers

Imbalance of adequate recognition & support with excessive difficulties

Lack of definitive development opportunities

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Interpersonal BarriersInterpersonal Barriers

Male prejudice, stereotyping, preconceptions

Lack of emotional and interpersonal support

Exclusion from informal networks

Lack of white male mentors

Personal BarriersPersonal Barriers

Lack of political savvy

Work-home conflict

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How Does the How Does the Women and Women and Leadership Leadership

Approach Work?Approach Work?

How Does the How Does the Women and Women and Leadership Leadership

Approach Work?Approach Work?• Strengths

• Criticisms

• Application

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StrengthsStrengthsStrengthsStrengths• Understanding gender dynamics in leadership and Understanding gender dynamics in leadership and

uncoveringuncovering and and recognizingrecognizing unconscious patterns and unconscious patterns and beliefs will foster workplace and societal improvementsbeliefs will foster workplace and societal improvements

• Considering the sex of leaders and employees can yield Considering the sex of leaders and employees can yield insightsinsights within the major leadership theoretical frameworks within the major leadership theoretical frameworks (e.g., contingency theory)(e.g., contingency theory)

• Research on gender dynamics in leadership has contributed Research on gender dynamics in leadership has contributed to to broader conversationsbroader conversations regarding what values are most regarding what values are most important and what the good life really means in the U.S. important and what the good life really means in the U.S. societysociety

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CriticismsCriticismsCriticismsCriticisms

• A disadvantage of a singular focus on individuals’ sex is that it can become the only or primary attributeonly or primary attribute identifying them, rather than one of a myriad of attributes that influence their worldview and experience

• Research on sex and gender differences has fostered an implicit assumption that members of each category are identicalidentical in race, sexual orientation, age, etc.

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ApplicationApplicationApplicationApplication• The research findings on women and leadership can be applied to a number of

organizational issues:

– Retention of talented women

– Developing effective leaders

– Barriers to women’s advancement

• The findings on women’s effectiveness and the choices required for advancement can inform women of what they need to do to develop as leaders

• The findings on gender dynamics in leadership can inform men of the subtle patterns enacted in the everyday workplace that impede fairness and excellence

dr. kritsonis - women and leadership

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