XXXThe Vietnam War

A New Kind of War

Click here to listen to the zither, a musical instrument of Vietnam.

Introduction

Countless Americans, people you can talk to today, vividly remember the Vietnam War. This power point will lead you through the history leading up to the war, the events of the war, the reactions of a variety of groups who were impacted by the war and the policy changes that came about because of the war. You will also learn a bit about Vietnam today. Words printed in green will be explained in the glossary. Words printed in blue can be found on the People and Places page. The bibliography includes books and websites that will help you to study the war in depth. This power point is only a beginning. This topic offers many opportunities to learn from primary sources. Talk with people who lived through this important event in American history.

This war changed America. It is difficult to explain all the ways that the war impacted Americans and people in Indo-China, but this war changed the attitude of a generation. Many Americans who lived through this time developed a mistrust of government and political leaders. They also learned caution about involvement in foreign affairs as a result of this experience. No attempt has been made in this project to explain the impact of the war on the people of Vietnam, Cambodia, or Laos, but it is likely they were affected even more than most Americans.

The Colony of IndochinaStruggle in this area of the world began long ago. French missionaries, in the 19th century, came to Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam attempting to convert the people of Indonesia to Christianity. France sent troops to protect these missionaries in 1857. They eventually colonized the area, renaming it French Indochina. From the 1880’s until World War II, France governed Vietnam as part of French Indochina. Vietnam was ruled by an emperor, Bao Dai, but France controlled him.

The power changed hands during World War II. In 1940, Japanese troops invaded and occupied French Indochina. Vietnamese nationals recognized that the chaos of the war was an opportunity to fight against foreign control of their country. The nationals formed a new group called the Viet Minh, who began guerilla attacks against Japan. Ho Chi Minh was the key leader of this rebel group. During WWII the Viet Minh helped the U.S. by rescuing downed pilots, helping U.S. prisoners escape their Japanese captors and providing valuable secrets about Japan.

French Indochina in 1900. Use the colored legend to see the current division of this

land.

Vietnam Declares Independence

When Japan formally surrendered in 1945, they gave up Vietnam and declared it an independent nation. Ho Chi Minh used the occasion to announce that Vietnam was now an independent country called the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

France refused to acknowledge Vietnam’s independence and fought to regain the land they once controlled. The United States, led by President Harry Truman, was asked by Ho Chi Minh to recognize Vietnam’s independence. Though Ho Chi Minh had been considered an ally during WWII when Japan was the biggest threat, now President Truman feared Communism as the biggest threat. Ho Chi Minh was committed to Socialist beliefs. His ideas were too close to Communist beliefs. Therefore, the United States decided not to recognize Vietnam’s independence.

Flag of France

The Cold War

The world at that time was full of tension. A “Cold War” was in progress. Though the fighting of World War II ended, a great rivalry over styles of government continued. Some countries felt Democracy was the way to organize government. Other countries believed Communism was a better way to live. The Cold War was not a physical war but a war of ideas about how governments should be organized. This is a brief summary of the beliefs of each group.

Democracy led by U.S. Government

1. Capitalism - private ownership of business and property

2. Democracy - government by the people

3. Freedom - protection of individual choice

4. Individualism - people act independently; competition is good

Communism led by Soviet Union (and China)

1. Socialism - government ownership of business and property

2. Totalitarianism - rule by one or a few

3. Equality - condition of being equal in housing, education, food and employment

4. Collectivism - “all for one, and one for all”; cooperation is best

The French Indochina War and Dien Bien Phu

Motivated by the fear of Communism, the United States assisted France, an ally, in her attempt to regain control of Vietnam. The French troops quickly regained control in the major cities of Vietnam, while the Viet Minh maintained control in the countryside. Native resentment toward the French was building. The French troops had easily outnumbered the 2000 members of the Viet Minh in 1946. By the late 1940’s, the Viet Minh had grown to hundreds of thousands of soldiers who were frequently attacking the French to force them to withdraw.

After nearly 10 years of fighting, on May of 1954, the Viet Minh attacked the French fortress at Dien Bien, in northwestern Vietnam. The resulting Battle of Dien Bien Phu was an overwhelming victory for the Viet Minh. France was humiliated in this defeat. France was forced by public opinion in her own country to reach a peace agreement. This peace conference would be held in Geneva, Switzerland.

Fall of Dien Bien Phu

A Divided CountryAt the Geneva Conference, France asked other world powers to help draw up a plan for French withdrawal from the region. Vietnamese independence was the goal of this plan.

The agreement announced on July 21, 1954, called for the French to withdraw her troops to the southern region of Vietnam until they could safely be removed from the country. Viet Minh forces moved into the northern region. Vietnam was temporarily divided at the 17th parallel to allow for a cooling-off period. During this time, the warring factions among the Vietnamese were asked to return to their native farms.

The Geneva Conference called for elections to be held in 1956 to bring the country together under a government chosen by the people of both regions of Vietnam. The goal was to unite the people north and south of the 17th parallel into one peaceful, independent country.

Vietnamese women work in rice paddy

Demilitarized Zone at 17th parallel

Domino Theory

As early as the Truman administration, the U.S. was convinced that Communism was an evil, capable of taking over the world. Russia was the leading power of this evil. Communist China was also perceived as a threat.

President Dwight D. Eisenhower described this danger in an image called the “Domino Theory.” According to the theory, unless key areas in Asia received help from the United States, they would fall under Communist domination. Once one country fell, others would follow as if in a row of dominoes. The U.S. policy of containment began. The United States would assist countries who were threatened by Russia and Communist China in an effort to contain the evil of Communism.

Dwight D. Eisenhower

The foreign policy of the United States after WWII was driven by a fear of the spread of Communism.

The Elections

The United States was not about to risk having a communist-leaning government control Vietnam. They refused to sign the Geneva plan for elections. The United States supported Ngo Dinh Diem as leader of the anti-communist regime in South Vietnam. Diem refused to participate in the planned elections in which the former Viet Minh leader, Ho Chi Minh, was favored to win. Diem, instead, held his own elections in South Vietnam only and then declared South Vietnam an independent nation called The Republic of South Vietnam. Vietnamese Communists saw this action as an attempt by the U.S. to interfere with the independence promised in the Geneva Convention.

The United States had stepped into a complicated situation.

Demilitarized Zone at 17th parallel

South Vietnam Under DiemIn 1955, the United States intended to help Diem rebuild a Democratic Vietnam. This included creating the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN). Using these troops, Diem took land away from peasants and returned it to former landlords. He also forced many villagers to move from their ancestral lands to controlled settlements, called “strategic hamlets,” where he could prevent Communist activity. He forced the sons of these villagers to serve in the ARVN. Most rural residents of South Vietnam were still committed to national liberation and a re-unified Vietnam. They resented Diem’s leadership.

Diem’s support was mostly concentrated in the cities and with his fellow Catholics. The Buddhists, a religious group that included the majority of Vietnamese people, were persecuted. Buddhist monks publicly opposed Diem’s rule.

Now even South Vietnam was divided: Catholics against Buddhists, rural verses urban. The outcry against Diem’s leadership was growing.

Protestors in Saigon gathered to express dissatisfaction with

Diem’s rule

Buddhist monks

Ho Chi Minh

Meanwhile, North Vietnam had elected Ho Chi Minh as their leader. He continued to promote national liberation, reunification of Vietnam and reconstruction of society along Socialist principles.

The Viet Minh, who had returned to their native villages in South Vietnam, still held the same beliefs as Ho Chi Minh and began to organize resistance to Diem. They formed a group called the National Liberation Front (NLF). Membership in the group was open to anyone who opposed Diem’s rule and supported a unified Vietnam. The NLF began to train and equip guerrillas to fight Diem’s rule.

Ho Chi Minh was one of the most important influences in the war. He became a symbol of unity and independence for the Vietnamese people.

Viet Cong

Diem sought to discredit the Viet Minh of North Vietnam by calling them “Viet Cong.” This was the equivalent of calling them “Commies,” a very insulting, slang term to those who supported Democracy. The Viet Cong became known for their guerrilla warfare, a strategy that involved a surprise attack followed by a quick escape .

Skirmishes between Diem’s government and the NLF (Viet Minh members living in South Vietnam) put South Vietnam in a position of battle even within its own country.

A Viet Cong Recruit

Viet Cong attacked, then escaped in tunnels like this one.

Special Forces

During John F. Kennedy’s presidency, the ARVN army was supported by U.S. Special Forces (Green Berets). The ARVN troops and Green Berets worked together to build political loyalty in the villages of South Vietnam. In addition to these troops, President Kennedy increased the number of advisors in Vietnam, and American air power was assigned to support ARVN operations.

The United States Takes Charge

Despite this assistance, the ARVN was losing ground. The United States eventually concluded that Diem and his corrupt brother were responsible for the failure. Kennedy was having second thoughts about U.S. involvement in the war and considered the possibility of withdrawing from Vietnam. In 1963, Diem was removed from his office in a coup that was led by leaders in the ARVN and supported by Kennedy. The coup did not stabilize South Vietnam as was hoped, but rather brought in ten different governments within eighteen months. Tragically, just three weeks after Diem was captured and killed, President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas,Texas.

J.F.K.

Tonkin Gulf Incident

The Vice-President, Lyndon B. Johnson, became President of the U.S. after Kennedy’s assassination on November 22, 1963. Johnson was determined that more aggressive action was needed. He would not allow Vietnam to fall to the Communists.

In August of 1964, a U.S. destroyer called the Maddox, was on routine patrol to aid the ARVN when it reported that the North Vietnamese had taken aggressive action against the ship. No damage was done. Two days later, accompanied by the Turner Joy and support air craft, the Maddox resumed its patrol of the waters of the Gulf of Tonkin, a bay off of the coast of North Vietnam. This time they reported seeing suspicious blips on the radar screens. They fired their guns and took evasive action for 30 minutes, then returned to their regular patrol. Was this an aggressive act by the North Vietnamese or just suspicious blips on the radar screen? No one was certain.

Lyndon B. Johnson

The U.S. ResponseAfter this second incident President Johnson wanted to act. He appeared on television announcing that North Vietnam had attacked U.S. navel vessels. He told the American people, “Repeated acts of violence against the armed forces of the United States must be met with not only with alert defense, but with positive reply.”

A few days after this speech, Congress approved the Tonkin Gulf Resolution giving President Johnson permission, “…to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and the Charter of United Nations.”

Later studies show Johnson was hasty in this decision. He rushed into action before he made sure that the attack had actually happened. After the Gulf of Tonkin incident, Johnson had great power to wage war. Some historians say Johnson ignored the lessons that had been learned by the French failure in Vietnam. He was full of confidence that America would set things right.

Johnson signs the Gulf of Tonkin

Resolution

War Strategies

In 1964, following the Gulf of Tonkin incident, the United States initiated large-scale bombing of North Vietnam. General William Westmoreland led the U.S. forces in Vietnam. His strategy was that of “attrition” - eliminating or wearing down the enemy by inflicting the highest death toll possible. This was a new way of fighting. Previous wars had been won by taking the most land. In Vietnam, a village might be won by the U.S. by day then mysteriously returned to the enemy side that same night. Winning land was impossible in this type of guerrilla warfare, so death tolls were the new measure of success.

North Vietnam had little air power but developed hit-and-run strategies designed to inflict causalities among American troops and wear down public support for the war in the United States.

Aircraft carrier in Gulf of Tonkin

A guerrilla attack.

The Tet Offensive

General Westmoreland ordered that the base must be protected at all cost. He moved about 50,000 troops into the area to break the siege. Unfortunately, this weakened the bases these troops came from in the South. The concentration of many troops in one spot was just what North Vietnam had hoped for. The main action in the battle began on January 31, 1968, at the start of Tet, the Vietnamese Lunar New Year. This was traditionally a time when a cease-fire might occur. Over 85,000 NLF soldiers attacked every major city across South Vietnam. Even the U.S. Embassy in Saigon was taken over by the NLF for a time. Fighting continued into the autumn of 1968. Sadly, both military and civilian losses were high.

The Tet Offensive was planned by North Vietnam to inflict record-breaking loss of life that would strongly undermine the support for the war in the U.S. In December of 1967, North Vietnamese troops attacked and surrounded the U.S. marine base at Khe Sanh, placing it under siege.

My Lai Massacre

One of the most horrifying events of the war happened during the Tet Offensive but was covered up for more than a year. In March of 1968, platoons of U.S. Army troops were sent to a small village called My Lai. Though no one from the village fired on the Army troops, Lieutenant William Calley, an inexperienced officer, ordered that the villagers be killed. The troops murdered 350 - 500 unarmed civilians, mostly women and children.

The story of the massacre was made public in late 1969 and outraged the American people. After a highly publized trial, Lieutenant Calley was convicted of war crimes by court martial.

My Lai

combat map

American soldier burning My Lai

Lt. Wm. Calley

Antiwar Protests

Martin Luther King

Malcolm X

In 1965 there were 80,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam. As the war escalated, more and more troops were necessary. By 1968, 500,000 troops were in Vietnam. The U.S. had never declared war on North Vietnam or made a total commitment to winning the war. Yet more and more soldiers were being sent to Vietnam. The majority of these soldiers were young black men who were unable to avoid the draft.

Martin Luther King and the more militant black leader, Malcolm X, began to criticize America’s involvement in the Vietnam War. King protested that the majority of soldiers in Vietnam were black and that the money spent on the war effort took money away from other programs President Johnson had promised would help the poor.

One of the largest antiwar demonstrations happened at the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago. Violence erupted. Americans watching on TV were outraged.

Student Protests

Protesters in front of the Pentagon

Kent State Aftermath

President Johnson faced increasing opposition to the war. The anti-war movement was most powerful on college campuses. The demonstrations began peacefully but over time turned to violent clashes with the police. Every campus seemed to organize groups called Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). These students marched on campuses chanting against the war, burning draft cards and taking over campus buildings. Tragic consequences developed at Kent State University on May 4, 1970. National Guard troops, who were called to disperse the demonstrators, fired into the crowd, killing four and wounding many student protestors. In spite of this violence, the protestors would not be silenced.

Nixon

Richard M. Nixon took office in 1969 after promising in his campaign to end the war in Vietnam. His election seemed responsive to the anti-war sentiment of the time. Nixon still maintained the goal of a non-communist South Vietnam, so how could he accomplish both peace and victory over Communism? How could he bring “peace with honor” as he had promised?

“Vietnamization” Nixon’s answer to this question was a policy he called “Vietnamization.” In June of 1969, he announced his plan to end American involvement in the war by equipping the South Vietnamese to better fight their own battles. He immediately withdrew 25,000 U.S. troops and promised to withdraw more troops as soon as South Vietnamese troops could be trained to replace them. Meanwhile, he increased funding for the ARVN and intensified bombings in North Vietnam. In April of 1970, Nixon also announced that to limit the effectiveness of the Communists, it was necessary to bomb their supply routes in the neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos. He was limiting U.S. involvement in the war but escalating (increasing) the war at the same time.

While the ARVN increased in size and military equipment, it still could not maintain its diminishing control without the help of U.S. air strikes. The ARVN-led operations failed.

South Vietnamese soldier

Helping wounded

The Pentagon Papers Hawks and Doves

In 1971, Daniel Ellsberg, who had been a defense advisor to four presidents, decided to release a Defense Department study of the Vietnam War to the press. These papers became known as the Pentagon Papers and told the real story of the Vietnam War. They showed the world that the U.S. government, especially the Johnson Administration, had misled the public during the war. Ellsberg was arrested for espionage. Later the courts dismissed the case and found Ellsberg not guilty of the charges.

Throughout the war, there was great debate between two groups. The “Hawks,” those who favored the war, wanted to commit more military to win the war in a show of force. On the opposite side, the “Doves” argued that the war was wrong and that the U.S. should negotiate with North Vietnam to end the war quickly.

The Pentagon Papers convinced more people, both Hawks and Doves, that the war in Vietnam must quickly come to an end.

Daniel Ellsberg (on right) as a young

serviceman in Vietnam

American Disengagement Nixon’s “Vietnamization” plan decreased the number of U.S. ground troops in Vietnam. The troops that remained were to offer only advice and assistance. This greatly reduced the number of American casualties in Vietnam and seemed like a good move to the American public. Nixon also expanded the war in Cambodia. North Vietnamese leaders had placed 40,000 soldiers and fresh supplies in Cambodia, near the South Vietnamese border. For fourteen months, U.S. planes secretly bombed Cambodian villages to destroy these soldiers and supplies. An estimated 100,000 civilians died in the bombing while 2 million Cambodians were left homeless.

In the spring of 1972, only 6,000 U.S. combat-ready troops remained in Vietnam. North Vietnamese leaders decided the time had finally come to crush the ARVN. The attack, known as the Easter Offensive, sent hundreds of thousands of North Vietnamese ground troops over the Demilitarized Zone. In response, the U.S. began bombing raids in North Vietnam, including the capital city, Hanoi.

Homeless War Victims

U.S. soldiers checking the Cambodian town of Snuol after bombing attack.

Kissinger

Henry Kissinger was the National Security Adviser during Nixon’s term as President. He began negotiating to end the war at the Paris peace talks in 1969. The U.S. strategy was to negotiate only from a position of strength. This led to further bombing and delayed peace. During the months of bombing in Cambodia, Kissinger held secret peace talks with the North Vietnam representative, Le Duc Tho, the man responsible for continuing the Viet Cong attacks. Neither side was willing to give up much to end the war, so the fighting continued.

Finally, after four years of negotiating, on January 27, 1973, the Treaty of Paris was signed to bring an end to this conflict.

Henry Kissinger

The TermsThe final terms of the Paris Peace Treaty included

the following:

Ø The release of all American prisoners of war (POW’s).

Ø The withdrawal of all U.S. forces from South Vietnam.

Ø The end of all foreign military operations in Laos and Cambodia.

Ø A cease-fire between North and South Vietnam.

Ø The formation of a National Council of Reconciliation to help South Vietnam form a new government.

Ø Continued U.S. and military and economic aid to South Vietnam.

On March 29,1973, the last U.S. troops left Vietnam. The agreement did not end the conflict. Fighting continued between North and South Vietnam.

Paris Peace Talks

Henry Kissinger’s initials on the peace

agreement

The War Powers Act

One of the lessons people had learned during the Vietnam War was to use caution about getting involved in foreign affairs. Since the 1930’s, presidential powers had steadily grown as presidents fought a variety of national crises. In the 1970’s, as the Vietnam War was increasingly becoming unpopular, most people believed the office of President held too much power to declare a war. It was clear to most people that this policy needed to be changed. Congress developed the War Powers Resolution - a plan to limit the president’s ability to send troops into combat without approval from Congress. The resolution also cut off funding for the war in Vietnam. President Nixon vetoed the resolution. On November of 1973, Congress did pass the resolution in spite of Nixon’s veto. The War Powers Act ensured that in the future, many legislators would have a vote before our country got involved in another war.

WatergatePresident Nixon was having many problems at home. Though he had won re-election in 1972 by a large margin, the public lost faith in him as they learned about the Watergate Scandal.

During his re-election campaign, the President’s campaign officials had broken into the Democratic National Committee’s headquarters. In 1973, the Senate Watergate Committee began hearings to investigate this burglary. In 1974, several former Nixon aides were indicted for Watergate-related crimes. Nixon was named as “an unindicted co-conspirator.” In mid-1974, a special sub-committee, of the House Judiciary Committee, was formed to begin impeachment proceedings against President Nixon. The public had lost trust in their president.

The Watergate Complex - headquarters of the Democratic National Committee

Watergate Hearing

Resignation

Throughout these investigations, Nixon attempted to cover up his involvement in this burglary. The evidence proved overwhelming that Nixon was involved in these crimes. On August 9, 1974, Nixon resigned as the 37th president of the United States. His vice-president, Gerald Ford, took the oath of office as the thirty-eighth president on the same day.

The citizens of the United States hoped he would do a better job keeping this oath than President Nixon had done.

Gerald R. Ford

“I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.”

Vietnam On Its Own

The Paris Peace Treaty terms were ignored almost immediately after the U.S. left Vietnam. The new leader of South Vietnam, Thieu, began attacks to remove North Vietnamese soldiers from South Vietnamese land. At first, North Vietnam did not react to these attacks. They kept carefully to the treaty terms.

Eventually the North Vietnamese did react. In 1975, the North Vietnamese began what they believed was the final attempt to reunite North and South Vietnam. Within a few months the ARVN disintegrated. Major cities in South Vietnam collapsed. Saigon was taken over. Thieu resigned.

Almost thirty years after Ho Chi Minh’s declaration of independence, Vietnam was unified and free of foreign control.

Vietnam Today

Ho Chi Minh City

After falling to the communist forces in 1975, Saigon was re-named Ho Chi Minh City. It is currently

Vietnam’s most populous city.

During this last attack, it became clear that South Vietnam was about to fall to North Vietnam. On April 29, 1975, hundreds of Americans and their South Vietnamese allies were evacuated from the American Embassy in Saigon. The next day, the former capital of South Vietnam was captured by the North Vietnamese.

Evacuation of Saigon

Ho Chi Minh City todayCrowded streets in Ho Chi

Minh City

Vietnam Today

The U.S. lifted a trade embargo against Vietnam in 1994. The billboard says, “It’s so good to see you again.”

After the war, Vietnam turned to the Soviet Union for aid. Mismanagement and corruption were common. Eventually the people of Vietnam rebelled against this form of government. In 1986, the leaders of Vietnam declared Communism a failed experiment and began reforms. Vietnam opened its doors to capitalism.

On July 11, 1995, the U.S. restored full diplomatic relations with Vietnam.

A Vietnam War Timeline - part 1

1880 - 1940… France governs Vietnam.1940… Japan invades and occupies French Indochina.1945… Japan surrenders and gives up Indochina. The Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, declare an independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam. 1945 - 1954… France,assisted by U.S., fights to regain control in Vietnam.1954… Geneva Accords temporarily divide Vietnam at the 17th parallel until elections can be held to reunite the country.

1955… Diem, supported by U.S., declares South Vietnam an independent nation.

1955 -1963… Diem’s government represses those who don’t support him. South Vietnam deteriorates economically and politically.

1964… President Johnson leads Congress to approve The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, increasing U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.

Mid 1960’s… U.S. anti - war protests begin.

A Vietnam War Timeline - part 2

1968… Tet Offensive begins. North Vietnam attacks major cities in South Vietnam. My Lai Massacre.

1969… Nixon begins “Vietnamization” plan.

1971… The Pentagon Papers result in increased mistrust of government officials.

1973… Congress signs the War Powers Act, cutting off funds for the war. President Nixon announces a “peace with honor” agreement has been reached to end the war. American involvement in the war ends.

1974… Nixon resigns as president.

1975… Saigon falls to North Vietnam. North and South Vietnam are united as one country. The Vietnam War is over.

The Vietnam War Memorial in Washington DC was dedicated in 1982. The monument displays the names of soldiers who died or were missing in the war.

Glossary Part 1

17th parallel - the line of latitude running north or south of the Equator at the 17th pointAlly - a group that is joined with others for mutual help or achievement of a common purposeancestral - belonging to former generations of somebody’s familyAssassinate - to kill a political leader or other pubic figure by a sudden violent attack.Civilians - people who are ordinary citizens rather than members of the armed forcesColonize - to establish a colony in another country or placeCommunism - the political theory or system in which all property and wealth is owned in a classless society by all the members of a communityContainment - action taken to restrict the spread of something hostile or undesirableCoup - the sudden overthrow of a government, especially in a violent way and by the militaryDemilitarized Zone - an officially recognized area from which all soldiers, weapons and military installations have been removed after an agreement to stop fighting

Glossary page 2

Dove - a person who supports peaceful measures and resists confrontation or warDraft - an order to join the armed services in time of a warEspionage - the use of spying or spies to gather secret information Guerilla - a member of an irregular paramilitary unit, usually with some political objective such as the overthrow of a government.Hawk - a person who favors the use of military forceImpeachment - the process of removing somebody, especially a president, from public office because of his having committed high crimesNationals - citizens from a certain nationRural - relating to the countryside, or away from the citySocialist - someone who believes in and supports a political theory promoting an end to private ownership and the exploitation of workers.Urban - relating to the cityVeto - the power of one branch of government to reject the legislation of another

People and Places of the Vietnam WarThe names of people and places found in this study can be difficult to remember. If a person or place is referred to on more than one slide, you can review by using this reference page.

ARVN – Army of the Republic of Vietnam - the troops formed by Diem to support his rule in South Vietnam.

Diem, Ngo Dinh – The leader of South Vietnam from 1955 to 1963.

Hanoi – the capital city of North Vietnam.

Ho Chi Minh - The leader of North Vietnam; he became a symbol of unity and independence for the Vietnamese people.

NLF – National Liberation Front - a guerrilla group whose members opposed Diem’s rule and supported a united Vietnam.

Saigon – the capital city of South Vietnam.

Viet Cong – the slang term given to the Viet Minh.

Viet Minh – a group of guerrilla fighters under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh.

Bibliography

American History Series, The Vietnam War: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, California: Greenhaven Press, Inc., 1998. ISBN #1-56510-701-2.

Fremon, David K., The Watergate Scandal In American History. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 1998. ISBN# 0-89490-8833-9.

Gay, Kathlyn and Martin, Voices From The Past ***Vietnam War. Brookfield, Connecticut: Twenty-First Century Books,1996. ISSBN # 0-8050-4101-X.

McCormick, Anita Louise, The Vietnam Antiwar Movement In American History. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 2000. ISBN # 0-7660-1295-6.

Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2001