52
SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF NANO PARTICLE REINFORCED ALUMINIUM COMPOSITES
F.No.42 – 902/2013(SR)
Major Research Project Report
Submitted to
The University Grants Commission
New Delhi
By
Prof. G. Swami Naidu
Principal Investigator
Department of Metallurgical Engineering
University College of Engineering,Vizianagaram
JNTU Kakinada
Andhra Pradesh
INDIA
CONTENTS
SL. NO
CONTENT
PAGE NO
1
1.0 Introduction
02
2
2.0 Objectives
02
3
3. 0 research methodology and experimental studies
03
4
3.1 Raw Materials
03
5
3.2. X-Ray Diffraction Studies
03
6
3.3 Stir Casting
08
7
3.4 Homogenization
09
8
3.5 Hardness and upset tests
09
9
3.6 Wear Tests
09
10
4.0 Results and Discussion
11
11
4.1 Effect of composition on wear rate
11
12
4.1.1 Wear tests on pure Al
11
13
4.1.2 Wear tests on Al+5% red mud (micro)
12
14
4.1.3 Wear tests on Al+5% red mud (nano)
13
15
4.1.4 Wear tests on Al+10% red mud (micro)
14
16
4.1.5 Wear tests on Al+10% red mud (nano)
15
17
4.2 Deformation Studies
21
18
4.2.1 Effect of deformation on wear rate (Al+5% micro red mud)
21
19
4.2.2 Effect of deformation on wear rate (Al+5% nano red mud)
27
20
4.2.3 Effect of deformation on wear rate (Al+10% micro red mud)
32
21
4.2.4 Effect of deformation on wear rate (Al+10% nano red mud)
38
22
4.3 Microstructural observations
40
23
4.4. Regression Modelling
42
24
4.5. Artificial neural network modelling
43
25
4.5.1 Network training and testing
44
26
5.0 Conclusions
47
27
References
48
28
List of Publications
51
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Conventional monolithic materials have limitations with respect to achievable combinations of strength, stiffness, and density. In order to overcome these shortcomings and to meet the ever-increasing engineering demands of modern technology, metal matrix composites are gaining importance. In recent years, discontinuously reinforced aluminium metal matrix composites have attracted worldwide attention as a result of their potential to replace their monolithic counterparts primarily in automobile and energy sector. In the present work, nano red mud particke reinforced aluminium matrix composites are synthesized by stir casting successfully. Different weight fractions of red mud was mixed with the matrix material and tested for wear, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance studies. The merits of nano red mud reinforcement over micro red mud reinforcement will be determined. The best fraction of red mud reinforcing phase required in the composites for optimum properties will be determined. The proposed research work will be undertaken with an objective to explore the use of red mud as a reinforcing material as a low cost option.
The aluminium metal matrix composites are produced either by casting route or by powder metallurgy. Stir casting is widely used due to its simplicity, flexibility and applicability to large quantity production, hence the final cost of the product can also be minimized.
Redmud is the caustic insoluble waste residue generated by alumina production form bauxite by Bayer’s Process. The use of nano redmud as reinforcement material for preparation of MMC has not been explored till date.
The present work is focussing on the utilization of abundant available industrial waste redmud in useful manner by dispersing it into aluminium matrix to produce composites by liquid metallurgy route.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this work is to synthesize and characterize MMCs using nano redmud as reinforcement and aluminium as matrix material by liquid metallurgy route.
· To prepare samples with different weight fractions of both nano and micro structured redmud particles as reinforcement.
· To determine various mechanical properties of both nano and micro structured redmud reinforced Aluminium metal matrix composite.
· To conduct the upset tests to give different deformations to the samples.
· To conduct wear tests on a pin on disc wear testing machine to determine the wear characteristics of both micro and nano structured redmud reinforced Aluminium MMC.
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES:
3.1 Raw Materials:
Red mud is obtained from NALCO, Bhubaneswar and its chemical analysis is furnished in Table 1.
CONSTITUENTS
% weight (wt)
CONSTITUENTS
% weight (wt)
Al2O3
15.0
Fe2O3
54.8
TiO2
3.7
SiO2
8.44
Na2O
4.8
CaO
2.5
P2O5
0.67
V2O5
0.38
Ga2O3
0.096
Mn
1.1
Zn
0.018
Mg
0.056
Organic C
0.88
L.O.I
Balance
Table 1. Chemical analysis of red mud
The redmud is subjected to sieve analysis using mechanical sieve shaker. Different particle sizes of 53 microns, 75 microns and 106 microns were obtained. Redmud of particle size 106 microns is taken for preparation of MMCs with microstructured reinforcement.
Micro structured redmud is reduced to nano structured using High energy Planetary Ball mill (Model Retsch, PM 100, Germany) at IIT, Chennai in a stainless steel chamber using tungsten carbide and zirconia balls of 10 mm Ø and 3mm Ø. The milling is carried for 30 hours by maintaining the rotation speed of the planet carrier at 200 rpm. The ball mill is loaded with ball to powder ratio (BPR) of 10:1. Toluene is used as the medium with an anionic surface agent to avoid agglomeration. The milled sample powder is taken out at intervals of 5 hrs and subjected for XRD analysis. .
3.2. X-Ray Diffraction Studies
The fresh as well as milled Red mud is characterized with an X-Ray Diffractometer (Model: 2036E201; Rigaku, Ultima IV, Japan). JADE software is used to investigate the structural changes and phase transformations of powders occured during mechanical milling. Sample preparation of XRD is done as per the standard practice. Sample packing is carried out by filling the Red mud on a glass slit of 12 X 12 X 2 mm size. Precautions are taken to have a tight powder packing on the glass slit and no manual contamination with the powder specimens. The X-ray diffraction measurements are carried out with the help of a Goniometer model 2036E201 using Cu Kα radiation (Kα= 1.54056 A0) at an accelerating voltage of 40 kV and a current of 20 mA. In this test the sample is kept in stationary condition, only the arms of the X- ray tube was rotating in the opposite direction up to 900 of 2θ during the test. The samples were scanned in the range from 30 to 900 of 2θ with a scan rate of 20 / min. The analysis is carried out to find out crystallite size, peak height, and amount of induced strains in the milled Red mud.
The average crystallite size is calculated from the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the X-ray diffraction peak using Scherer’s equation (Cullity, 1978).
D = (k λ) / (B cosθ)
Where D is the particle diameter, λ is the X – Ray wavelength, B is the FWHM of the diffraction peak, θ is the diffraction angle and K is the Scherer’s constant of the order of unity for usual crystals. The existence of stress in the materials results in lattice distortions of crystals; consequently, the diffraction peaks of the crystals are broadened. The relationship between the half width of the broadened diffraction peaks, Bd and the distortion of lattice, (Δd/d) was described by Yang et al. (2000). The lattice distortion (Δd/d) can be obtained from the following equation.
(Δd/d) = Bd / (4 tanθ)
Where Bd, is half width of the broadened diffraction peaks, θ is half of the diffraction angle. During ball milling the intense mechanical deformation experienced by the Red mud leads to generation of lattice strains, crystal defects. The balance between cold welding and fracturing operations among the powder particles is expected to affect the structural changes in the powder. The measurement of crystallite size and lattice strain in the mechanically milled powders is very important since the phase constitution and transformation characteristics appear to be critically depending on them (Suryanarayana, 2001). A steady decrease in the crystallite size is observed and it is found that the crystallite size has been reduced from 400 nm to 40 nm for 30h milling time. The relative lattice strain is increasing with increasing the duration of milling time. This lattice strain is increased from 0.12 to 0.28 for as received and 30 h milled Red mud respectively.
The X-Ray diffractograms obtained at various time intervals of milling are shown in Figures 1-6 respectively. The X-ray diffractograms have revealed a small tungsten carbide contamination in the milled Red mud sample. This entry might be from the tungsten carbide balls which were used as milling media during milling; It is also evident that the intensity of the peaks in the XRD pattern got reduced and the peak broadening increased as the duration of milling increases. Three major phases were identified for all the milling times; which are MnSiO2, MgAl.79Fe1.21O4 and Al2Mg O4.
Fig 1. X-Ray Difractogram Obtained before Milling
Fig 2. X-Ray Difractogram Obtained after 6 hrs of Milling
Fig 3. X-Ray Difractogram Obtained after 12 hrs of Milling
Fig 4. X-Ray Difractogram Obtained after 18 hrs of Milling
Fig 5. X-Ray Diffractogram obtained after 24 hours of milling
Fig 6. X-Ray Diffractogram obtained after 30 hours of milling
Diffraction peak positions are accurately measured with XRD, which makes it the best method for characterizing homogeneous and inhomogeneous strains. Homogeneous or uniform elastic strain shifts the diffraction peaks positions. From the shift in peak positions, one can calculate the change in d-spacing, which is the result of the change of lattice constants under a strain. Inhomogeneous strains vary from crystallite to crystallite or within a single crystallite and this cause a broadening of the diffraction peaks. The XRD graphs illustrate that with increasing milling time the peak height intensity shift slightly to the lower heights and increasing the peak broadening. This is the indication of high energy milling decreases the crystallinity of the Red mud, thus increasing the amorphous phase in it.
3.3 Stir Casting
Pure aluminium is preheated in muffle furnace at around 2000C for 2 hours to remove any contamination. The required quantities of redmud (5, 10, 15 percent by weight) is taken and is preheated in a furnace upto 1000 C. The weighted quantity of pure aluminium is melted to the desired temperature of 8000C and redmud is then added to the molten metal and stirred continuously using mechanical stirrer. Argon gas is used to avoid any agglomeration. The melt with the nano redmud reinforced particulates is poured into cylindrical metal moulds. Using the similar method samples with the micro redmud reinforced particulates are also prepared.
After solidification, the castings are taken out form the moulds and are cut to the required shape and sizes for mechanical testing and for wear testing. To ascertain the distribution of reinforcement of redmud, the polished samples are inspected under optical microscope and the microstructures of the samples are shown in figures 7-8, the distribution of the reinforced redmud particles is uniform in the aluminium metal matrix.
Fig. 7. Optical micrograph (Al + 10% nano structured redmud)
Fig. 8. Optical micrograph (Al + 15% micro structured redmud)
3.4 Homogenization:
The samples are homogenized at 1000 C for 24 hours in a muffle furnace.
3.5 Hardness and upset tests:
Upset tests are conducted on compression testing machine and deformations of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% are obtained for all the composites. The hardness tests are conducted usingVickers hardness tester and the results are furnished in table 2.
Metal/Composite
VHN.
10% def
20% def
30% def
40% def
Al + 5% micro structured Redmud
46.68
52.12
57.42
66.08
69.12
Al + 10% micro structured Redmud
51.8
52.24
60.46
67.52
72.62
Al + 15% micro structured Redmud
53.6
58.06
62.92
73.14
78.00
Al + 5% nano structured Redmud
49.8
54.44
65.97
75.20
76.27
Al + 10% nano structured Redmud
54.08
63.76
77.81
80.42
80.90
Al + 15% nano structured Redmud
59.28
65.17
79.20
80.56
82.26
Table 2. Hardness measurements
3.6 Wear Tests:
Wear Tests are conducted as per ASTM G-99 Standard under unlubricated condition in a normal laboratory atmosphere at 50-60% relative humidity and a temperature of 28-350C. Each test is carried for 5 hrs run. The mass loss in the specimen after each test is estimated by measuring the weight of the specimen before and after each test using an electronic weighing machine having an accuracy up to 0.01 mg. Care has been taken that the specimens under the test are continuously cleaned with woollen cloth to avoid entrapment of wear debris and to achieve uniformity in experimental procedure.
The tests have been carried under the following conditions:
The specimens under tests were fixed to the collect. The collect along with the specimen (Pin) is positioned at a particular track diameter. Load is applied through a dead weight loading system to press the pin against the disc. Frictional force arises at the contact can be read out from the controller. The speed of the disc or motor rpm can be varied through the controller. Each set of test was carried out for a period of 5 hours run. After each one hour run, the test pieces were removed from the machine and weighed accurately to determine the loss in weight.
Wear Calculations:
Wear rate was estimated by measuring the mass loss in the specimen after each test and mass loss, ∆m in the specimen is obtained. Wear rate which relates to the mass loos to sliding distance (L) is calculated using the expression
Wr = ∆m/L
The Volumetric wear rate Wv of the composite is relate to density (ρ) and the abrading time (t), was calculated using the expression,
Wv = ∆m/ρt
The friction force is measured for each pass and then averaged over the total number of passes for each wear test. The average value of co-efficient is calculated using the expression
µ = Ff / Fn
Where Ff is the average friction force and Fn is the applied load.
For characterisation of the abrasive wear behaviour of the composite, the specific wear rate is employed. It is defined as the volume loss of the composite per unit sliding distance and per unit applied normal load. The specific wear rate expressed in terms of the volumetric wear rate as
Ws = Wv / Vs Fn
Where Vs is the sliding velocity.
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Effect of composition on wear rate
4.1.1 Wear tests on pure Al:
Wear tests are conducted on pure aluminium samples using various loads ie., 10N, 20N, 30N at different speeds of 200 RPM, 400 RPM, 600 RPM and a few results are tabulated below.
Pure AlLoad – 10 NSpeed – 200 RPMρ = 2.62x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.384
1.37
0.014
3600
3.3
0.33
0.942478
0.145722
1.484047
5.668644
1.384
1.358
0.026
7200
3.3
0.33
1.884956
0.135314
1.378044
5.263741
1.384
1.342
0.042
10800
2.9
0.29
2.827433
0.145722
1.484047
5.668644
1.384
1.328
0.056
14400
3.3
0.33
3.769911
0.145722
1.484047
5.668644
1.384
1.32
0.064
18000
3
0.3
4.712389
0.133232
1.356843
5.18276
Table 3
Pure AlLoad – 10 NSpeed – 400 RPMρ = 2.62x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13m3/N-m
1.452
1.421
0.031
3600
4.9
0.49
1.884956
0.161335
3.286105
6.275998
1.452
1.399
0.053
7200
3.1
0.31
3.769911
0.137916
2.80909
5.364966
1.452
1.386
0.066
10800
4.7
0.47
5.654867
0.114496
2.332075
4.453934
1.452
1.362
0.09
14400
4.7
0.47
7.539822
0.117098
2.385076
4.55516
1.452
1.341
0.111
18000
4.3
0.43
9.424778
0.115537
2.353275
4.494425
Table 4
Pure AlLoad – 10 NSpeed – 600 RPMρ = 2.62x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.658
1.61
0.048
3600
4.6
0.46
2.827433
0.16654
5.088163
6.47845
1.658
1.566
0.092
7200
4.8
0.48
5.654867
0.159601
4.876156
6.208515
1.658
1.526
0.132
10800
3.9
0.39
8.4823
0.152661
4.664149
5.938579
1.658
1.482
0.176
14400
4.4
0.44
11.30973
0.152661
4.664149
5.938579
1.658
1.434
0.224
18000
4.2
0.42
14.13717
0.155437
4.748952
6.046553
Table 5
4.1.2 Wear tests on Al+5% red mud (micro):
Wear tests are also conducted on Al+5% red mud (micro) samples using various loads ie., 10N, 20N, 30N at different speeds of 200 RPM, 400 RPM, 600 RPM and a few results are tabulated below.
Al+5% Micro RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 200 RPMρ = 2.42x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.362
1.352
0.01
3600
3.4
0.34
0.942478
0.104087
1.143271
4.366975
1.362
1.344
0.018
7200
3.8
0.38
1.884956
0.093679
1.028944
3.930278
1.362
1.336
0.026
10800
4.2
0.42
2.827433
0.090209
0.990835
3.784712
1.362
1.327
0.035
14400
3.6
0.36
3.769911
0.091076
1.000362
3.821103
1.362
1.318
0.044
18000
4.8
0.48
4.712389
0.091597
1.006079
3.842938
Table 6
Al+5% Micro RM Load – 10 NSpeed – 400 RPMρ = 2.42x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13m3/N-m
1.452
1.43
0.022
3600
4.7
0.47
1.884956
0.114496
2.515197
4.803673
1.452
1.412
0.04
7200
5.6
0.56
3.769911
0.104087
2.286543
4.366975
1.452
1.397
0.055
10800
5.5
0.55
5.654867
0.095413
2.095998
4.00306
1.452
1.378
0.074
14400
5.6
0.56
7.539822
0.096281
2.115052
4.039452
1.452
1.356
0.096
18000
5.9
0.59
9.424778
0.099924
2.195081
4.192296
Table 7
Al+5% Micro RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 600 RPMρ = 2.42x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.448
1.412
0.036
3600
5.8
0.58
2.827433
0.124905
4.115777
5.24037
1.448
1.38
0.068
7200
6.4
0.64
5.654867
0.117966
3.887123
4.949238
1.448
1.357
0.091
10800
6.2
0.62
8.4823
0.105244
3.467923
4.415497
1.448
1.329
0.119
14400
7.2
0.72
11.30973
0.10322
3.401232
4.330584
1.448
1.291
0.157
18000
7.3
0.73
14.13717
0.108945
3.589872
4.570767
Table 8
4.1.3 Wear tests on Al+5% red mud (nano):
Wear tests are also conducted on Al+5% red mud (nano) samples using various loads ie., 10N, 20N, 30N at different speeds of 200 RPM, 400 RPM, 600 RPM and a few results are tabulated below.
Al+5% Nano RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 200 RPMρ = 2.37x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.484
1.476
0.008
3600
3.3
0.33
0.942478
0.08327
0.937018
3.579143
1.484
1.469
0.015
7200
3.4
0.34
1.884956
0.078065
0.878454
3.355447
1.484
1.463
0.021
10800
3.2
0.32
2.827433
0.072861
0.81989
3.13175
1.484
1.457
0.027
14400
2.8
0.28
3.769911
0.070259
0.790609
3.019902
1.484
1.449
0.035
18000
3.3
0.33
4.712389
0.072861
0.81989
3.13175
Table 9
Al+5% Nano RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 400 RPMρ = 2.37x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13m3/N-m
1.682
1.667
0.015
3600
4.7
0.47
1.884956
0.078065
1.756908
3.355447
1.682
1.653
0.029
7200
5.5
0.55
3.769911
0.075463
1.698344
3.243599
1.682
1.638
0.044
10800
5.6
0.56
5.654867
0.076331
1.717866
3.280881
1.682
1.623
0.059
14400
5.5
0.55
7.539822
0.076764
1.727626
3.299523
1.682
1.608
0.074
18000
5.3
0.53
9.424778
0.077025
1.733482
3.310708
Table 10
Al+5% Nano RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 600 RPMρ = 2.37x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.494
1.466
0.028
3600
4.6
0.46
2.827433
0.097148
3.279561
4.175667
1.494
1.444
0.05
7200
5.2
0.52
5.654867
0.086739
2.92818
3.728274
1.494
1.426
0.068
10800
5.4
0.54
8.4823
0.078644
2.654883
3.380302
1.494
1.402
0.092
14400
5.6
0.56
11.30973
0.0798
2.693925
3.430012
1.494
1.378
0.116
18000
5.8
0.58
14.13717
0.080494
2.717351
3.459839
Table 11
4.1.4 Wear tests on Al+10% red mud (micro):
Wear tests are also conducted on Al+10% red mud (micro) samples using various loads ie., 10N, 20N, 30N at different speeds of 200 RPM, 400 RPM, 600 RPM and a few results are tabulated below
Al+10% Micro RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 200 RPMρ = 2.45x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.416
1.408
0.008
3600
4.2
0.42
0.942478
0.08327
0.906805
3.463742
1.416
1.402
0.014
7200
3.8
0.38
1.884956
0.072861
0.793455
3.030774
1.416
1.396
0.02
10800
4.6
0.46
2.827433
0.069392
0.755671
2.886451
1.416
1.388
0.028
14400
4.4
0.44
3.769911
0.072861
0.793455
3.030774
1.416
1.38
0.036
18000
4.3
0.43
4.712389
0.074943
0.816125
3.117367
Table 12
Al+10% Micro RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 400 RPMρ = 2.45x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13m3/N-m
1.452
1.435
0.017
3600
7.2
0.72
1.884956
0.088474
1.926962
3.680225
1.452
1.423
0.029
7200
5.8
0.58
3.769911
0.075463
1.643585
3.139016
1.452
1.411
0.041
10800
6.4
0.64
5.654867
0.071126
1.549126
2.958613
1.452
1.396
0.056
14400
7.4
0.74
7.539822
0.072861
1.58691
3.030774
1.452
1.382
0.07
18000
6.8
0.68
9.424778
0.072861
1.58691
3.030774
Table 13
Al+10% Micro RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 600 RPMρ = 2.45x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.458
1.432
0.026
3600
5.9
0.59
2.827433
0.090209
2.947118
3.752387
1.458
1.41
0.048
7200
6.2
0.62
5.654867
0.08327
2.720416
3.463742
1.458
1.388
0.07
10800
6.4
0.64
8.4823
0.080957
2.644849
3.367527
1.458
1.362
0.096
14400
7.2
0.72
11.30973
0.08327
2.720416
3.463742
1.458
1.342
0.116
18000
6.8
0.68
14.13717
0.080494
2.629736
3.348284
Table 14
4.1.5 Wear tests on Al+10% red mud (nano):
Wear tests are also conducted on Al+10% red mud (nano) samples using various loads ie., 10N, 20N, 30N at different speeds of 200 RPM, 400 RPM, 600 RPM and a few results are tabulated below
Al+10% Nano RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 200 RPMρ = 2.43x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
0.97
0.964
0.006
3600
3.7
0.37
0.942478
0.062452
0.685937
2.620087
0.97
0.96
0.01
7200
4.3
0.43
1.884956
0.052044
0.571614
2.183406
0.97
0.956
0.014
10800
4.7
0.47
2.827433
0.048574
0.533507
2.037846
0.97
0.95
0.02
14400
1.2
0.12
3.769911
0.052044
0.571614
2.183406
0.97
0.94
0.03
18000
2.9
0.29
4.712389
0.062452
0.685937
2.620087
Table 15
Al+10% Nano RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 400 RPMρ = 2.43x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13m3/N-m
0.941
0.939
0.002
3600
1.38
0.138
1.884956
0.010409
0.228646
0.436681
0.941
0.935
0.006
7200
1.6
0.16
3.769911
0.015613
0.342969
0.655022
0.941
0.929
0.012
10800
2.2
0.22
5.654867
0.020817
0.457292
0.873362
0.941
0.914
0.027
14400
1.7
0.17
7.539822
0.035129
0.771679
1.473799
0.941
0.909
0.032
18000
1.5
0.15
9.424778
0.033308
0.731666
1.39738
Table 16
Al+10% Nano RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 600 RPMρ = 2.43x103 Kg/m3
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.201
1.195
0.006
3600
2.5
0.25
2.827433
0.020817
0.685937
0.873362
1.201
1.193
0.008
7200
2.1
0.21
5.654867
0.013878
0.457292
0.582242
1.201
1.189
0.012
10800
2.3
0.23
8.4823
0.013878
0.457292
0.582242
1.201
1.185
0.016
14400
2.2
0.22
11.30973
0.013878
0.457292
0.582242
1.201
1.183
0.018
18000
2
0.2
14.13717
0.01249
0.411562
0.524017
Table 17
The plots drawn between wear rate and sliding distance at different loads and sliding speeds for various materials are shown in Fig. 9-17.
(Load : 10NSpeed 200 RPM)
Fig. 9. Plots showing wear rate at 10 N and 200 rpm
(Load : 10NSpeed 400 RPM)
Fig. 10. Plots showing wear rate at 10 N and 400 rpm
(Load : 10NSpeed 600 RPM)
Fig. 11. Plots showing wear rate at 10 N and 600 rpm
(Load : 20NSpeed 200 RPM)
Fig. 12. Plots showing wear rate at 20 N and 200 rpm
(Load : 20NSpeed 400 RPM)
Fig. 13. Plots showing wear rate at 20 N and 400 rpm
(Load : 20NSpeed 600 RPM)
Fig. 14. Plots showing wear rate at 20 N and 600 rpm
(Load : 30NSpeed 200 RPM)
Fig. 15. Plots showing wear rate at 30 N and 200 rpm
(Load : 30NSpeed 400 RPM)
Fig. 16. Plots showing wear rate at 30 N and 400 rpm
(Load : 30NSpeed 600 RPM)
Fig. 17. Plots showing wear rate at 30 N and 600 rpm
From the above plots, it is clear that at constant sliding speed and constant load the wear rate is decreased with the increased fraction of red mud particles in the composite. From the above investigations, significant increase in wear resistance is observed with the addition of nano structured remud particles compared to that of micro structured redmud particles in the composites. The addition of 5% weight fraction of nano redmud particles have given improved wear resistance than 10% weight fraction of micro structured redmud particles. Highly significant improvement in the wear resistance is observed in the case of composites with 10% weight fraction of nano redmud particles. The surface properties of red mud changes considerably with increased ball milling and hence the surface energy and inter atomic bonding will also increase.
4.2 Deformation Studies
4.2.1 Effect of deformation on wear rate (Al+5% micro red mud)
Upset tests are conducted on Al+5% red mud (micro) samples using compression testing machine and 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% deformations are obtained. Wear tests are conducted for the above samples with various loads ie., 10N, 20N, 30N at different speeds of 200 RPM, 400 RPM, 600 RPM and a few results are tabulated below.
Al+5% Micro RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 200 RPMρ = 2.42x103 Kg/m3
Deformation – 10%
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.408
1.397
0.011
3600
6.9
0.69
0.942478
0.114496
1.257599
4.803673
1.408
1.389
0.019
7200
6.8
0.68
1.884956
0.098883
1.086108
4.148626
1.408
1.38
0.028
10800
7.2
0.72
2.827433
0.097148
1.067053
4.075843
1.408
1.372
0.036
14400
8.2
0.82
3.769911
0.093679
1.028944
3.930278
1.408
1.361
0.047
18000
6.5
0.65
4.712389
0.097842
1.074675
4.104957
Table 18
Al+5% Micro RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 400 RPMρ = 2.42x103 Kg/m3
Deformation – 10%
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13m3/N-m
1.495
1.472
0.023
3600
7.8
0.78
1.884956
0.1197
2.629524
5.022021
1.495
1.454
0.041
7200
5.9
0.59
3.769911
0.10669
2.343706
4.476149
1.495
1.44
0.055
10800
7.2
0.72
5.654867
0.095413
2.095998
4.00306
1.495
1.421
0.074
14400
6.4
0.64
7.539822
0.096281
2.115052
4.039452
1.495
1.401
0.094
18000
6.5
0.65
9.424778
0.097842
2.14935
4.104957
Table 19
Al+5% Micro RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 600 RPMρ = 2.42x103 Kg/m3
Deformation – 10%
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.456
1.424
0.032
3600
6.4
0.64
2.827433
0.111026
3.658468
4.658107
1.456
1.398
0.058
7200
5.4
0.54
5.654867
0.100618
3.315487
4.221409
1.456
1.37
0.086
10800
5.8
0.58
8.4823
0.099461
3.277378
4.172887
1.456
1.337
0.119
14400
6.4
0.64
11.30973
0.10322
3.401232
4.330584
1.456
1.302
0.154
18000
6.8
0.68
14.13717
0.106863
3.521276
4.483428
Table 20
(Al + 5% Micro RMLoad : 10NSpeed : 200 RPM)
Fig. 18. Plots showing wear rate at 10 N and 200 rpm (Al + 5% Micro RM)
(Al + 5% Micro RMLoad : 10NSpeed : 400 RPM)
Fig. 19. Plots showing wear rate at 10 N and 400 rpm (Al + 5% Micro RM)
(Al + 5% Micro RMLoad : 10NSpeed : 600 RPM)
Fig. 20. Plots showing wear rate at 10 N and 600 rpm (Al + 5% Micro RM)
(Al + 5% Micro RMLoad : 20NSpeed : 200 RPM)
Fig. 21. Plots showing wear rate at 20 N and 200 rpm (Al + 5% Micro RM)
(Al + 5% Micro RMLoad : 20NSpeed : 400 RPM)
Fig. 22. Plots showing wear rate at 20 N and 400 rpm (Al + 5% Micro RM)
(Al + 5% Micro RMLoad : 20NSpeed : 600 RPM)
Fig. 23. Plots showing wear rate at 20 N and 600 rpm (Al + 5% Micro RM)
(Al + 5% Micro RMLoad : 30NSpeed : 200 RPM)
Fig. 24. Plots showing wear rate at 30 N and 200 rpm (Al + 5% Micro RM)
(Al + 5% Micro RMLoad : 30NSpeed : 400 RPM)
Fig. 25. Plots showing wear rate at 30 N and 400 rpm (Al + 5% Micro RM)
(Al + 5% Micro RMLoad : 30NSpeed : 600 RPM)
Fig. 26. Plots showing wear rate at 30 N and 600 rpm (Al + 5% Micro RM)
4.2.2 Effect of deformation on wear rate (Al+5% nano red mud)
Upset tests are conducted on Al+5% red mud (nano) samples using compression testing machine and 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% deformations are obtained. Wear tests are conducted for the above samples with various loads ie., 10N, 20N, 30N at different speeds of 200 RPM, 400 RPM, 600 RPM and a few results are tabulated below.
Al+5% Nano RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 200 RPMρ = 2.37x103 Kg/m3
Deformation – 10%
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.482
1.474
0.008
3600
6.9
0.69
0.942478
0.08327
0.937018
3.579143
1.482
1.468
0.014
7200
6.8
0.68
1.884956
0.072861
0.81989
3.13175
1.482
1.462
0.02
10800
7.2
0.72
2.827433
0.069392
0.780848
2.982619
1.482
1.455
0.027
14400
8.2
0.82
3.769911
0.070259
0.790609
3.019902
1.482
1.447
0.035
18000
6.5
0.65
4.712389
0.072861
0.81989
3.13175
Table 21
Al+5% Nano RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 400 RPMρ = 2.37x103 Kg/m3
Deformation – 10%
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13m3/N-m
1.485
1.47
0.015
3600
7.8
0.78
1.884956
0.078065
1.756908
3.355447
1.485
1.456
0.029
7200
5.9
0.59
3.769911
0.075463
1.698344
3.243599
1.485
1.441
0.044
10800
7.2
0.72
5.654867
0.076331
1.717866
3.280881
1.485
1.426
0.059
14400
6.4
0.64
7.539822
0.076764
1.727626
3.299523
1.485
1.412
0.073
18000
6.5
0.65
9.424778
0.075984
1.710057
3.265968
Table 22
Al+5% Nano RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 600 RPMρ = 2.37x103 Kg/m3
Deformation – 10%
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.478
1.453
0.025
3600
5.8
0.58
2.827433
0.086739
2.92818
3.728274
1.478
1.432
0.046
7200
6.2
0.62
5.654867
0.0798
2.693925
3.430012
1.478
1.411
0.067
10800
6.4
0.64
8.4823
0.077487
2.615841
3.330592
1.478
1.391
0.087
14400
5.8
0.58
11.30973
0.075463
2.547516
3.243599
1.478
1.367
0.111
18000
6.6
0.66
14.13717
0.077025
2.600224
3.310708
Table 23
(Al + 5% Nano RMLoad : 10NSpeed : 200 RPM)
Fig. 27. Plots showing wear rate at 10 N and 200 rpm (Al + 5% Nano RM)
(Al + 5% Nano RMLoad : 10NSpeed : 400 RPM)
Fig. 28. Plots showing wear rate at 10 N and 400 rpm (Al + 5% Nano RM)
(Al + 5% Nano RMLoad : 10NSpeed : 600 RPM)
Fig. 29. Plots showing wear rate at 10 N and 600 rpm (Al + 5% Nano RM)
(Al + 5% Nano RMLoad : 20NSpeed : 200 RPM)
Fig. 30. Plots showing wear rate at 20 N and 200 rpm (Al + 5% Nano RM)
(Al + 5% Nano RMLoad : 20NSpeed : 400 RPM)
Fig. 31. Plots showing wear rate at 20 N and 400 rpm (Al + 5% Nano RM)
(Al + 5% Nano RMLoad : 20NSpeed : 600 RPM)
Fig. 32. Plots showing wear rate at 20 N and 600 rpm (Al + 5% Nano RM)
(Al + 5% Nano RMLoad : 30NSpeed : 200 RPM)
Fig. 33. Plots showing wear rate at 30 N and 200 rpm (Al + 5% Nano RM)
(Al + 5% Nano RMLoad : 30NSpeed : 400 RPM)
Fig. 34. Plots showing wear rate at 30 N and 400 rpm (Al + 5% Nano RM)
(Al + 5% Nano RMLoad : 30NSpeed : 600 RPM)
Fig. 35. Plots showing wear rate at 30 N and 600 rpm (Al + 5% Nano RM)
4.2.3 Effect of deformation on wear rate (Al+10% micro red mud)
Upset tests are conducted on Al+10% red mud (micro) samples using compression testing machine and 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% deformations are obtained. Wear tests are conducted for the above samples with various loads ie., 10N, 20N, 30N at different speeds of 200 RPM, 400 RPM and 600 RPM and the results are tabulated below.
Al+10% Micro RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 200 RPMρ = 2.45x103 Kg/m3
Deformation – 10%
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.408
1.4
0.008
3600
6.9
0.69
0.942478
0.08327
0.906805
3.463742
1.408
1.394
0.014
7200
6.8
0.68
1.884956
0.072861
0.793455
3.030774
1.408
1.388
0.02
10800
7.2
0.72
2.827433
0.069392
0.755671
2.886451
1.408
1.381
0.027
14400
8.2
0.82
3.769911
0.070259
0.765117
2.922532
1.408
1.373
0.035
18000
6.5
0.65
4.712389
0.072861
0.793455
3.030774
Table 24
Al+10% Micro RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 400 RPMρ = 2.45x103 Kg/m3
Deformation – 10%
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13m3/N-m
1.454
1.438
0.016
3600
6.8
0.68
1.884956
0.08327
1.813611
3.463742
1.454
1.425
0.029
7200
7.2
0.72
3.769911
0.075463
1.643585
3.139016
1.454
1.412
0.042
10800
5.4
0.54
5.654867
0.072861
1.58691
3.030774
1.454
1.4
0.054
14400
6.4
0.64
7.539822
0.070259
1.530234
2.922532
1.454
1.386
0.068
18000
6.6
0.66
9.424778
0.070779
1.541569
2.94418
Table 25
Al+10% Micro RMLoad – 10 NSpeed – 600 RPMρ = 2.45x103 Kg/m3
Deformation – 10%
m1(gm)
m2(gm)
∆m(gm)
Time
Ff(N)
µ
R.D x 103(m)
Wrx10-6(N/m)
Wvx10-12(m3/sec)
Wsx10-13(m3/N-m)
1.485
1.458
0.027
3600
6.4
0.64
2.827433
0.093679
3.060468
3.896709
1.485
1.437
0.048
7200
6.2
0.62
5.654867
0.08327
2.720416
3.463742
1.485
1.415
0.07
10800
6.3
0.63
8.4823
0.080957
2.644849
3.367527
1.485
1.392
0.093
14400
6.8
0.68
11.30973
0.080668
2.635403
3.3555
1.485
1.368
0.117
18000
5.4
0.54
14.13717
0.081188
2.652406
3.377148
Table 26
(Al + 10% Micro RMLoad : 10NSpeed : 200 RPM)
Fig. 36. Plots showing wear rate at 10 N and 200 rpm (Al + 10% Micro RM)
(Al + 10% Micro RMLoad : 10NSpeed : 400 RPM)
Fig. 37. Plots showing wear rate at 10 N and 400 rpm (Al + 10% Micro RM)
(Al + 10% Micro RMLoad : 10NSpeed : 600 RPM)
Fig. 38. Plots showing wear rate at 10 N and 600 rpm (Al + 10% Micro RM)
(Al + 10% Micro RMLoad : 20NSpeed : 200 RPM)
Fig. 39. Plots showing wear rate at 20 N and 200 rpm (Al + 10% Micro RM)
(Al + 10% Micro RMLoad : 20NSpeed : 400 RPM)
Fig. 40. Plots showing wear rate at 20 N and 400 rpm (Al + 10% Micro RM)
(Al + 10% Micro RMLoad : 20NSpeed : 600 RPM)
Fig. 41. Plots showing wear rate at 20 N and 600 rpm (Al + 10% Micro RM)
(Al + 10% Micro RMLoad : 30NSpeed : 200 RPM)
Fig. 42. Plots showing wear rate at 30 N and 200 rpm (Al + 10% Micro RM)
(Al + 10% Micro RMLoad : 30NSpeed : 400 RPM)
Fig. 43. Plots showing wear rate at 30 N and 400 rpm (Al + 10% Micro RM)
(Al + 10% Micro RMLoad : 30NSpeed : 600 RPM)
Fig. 44. Plots showing wear rate at 30 N and 600 rpm (Al + 10% Micro RM)
The deformation studies have shown that, for all the compositions, the wear resistance is increased with deformation. This could be due to the increased dislocation density with increased deformation. The strain hardening increases with the increased deformation and caused for the reduced wear. The decreased wear indicates that the addition of red mud to aluminium matrix caused for the increase in ductility and no brittleness enhancement.
4.2.4 Effect of deformation on wear rate (Al+10% nano red mud):
The hardness of the pure aluminium as well as Al-Red mud composites was increased with increase in deformation. This might be due to the existence of strain hardening effects form matrix materials and also from the rule of mixture of composite strengthening (Callister, 2007). The coefficient of friction in all cases decreases with the increase of normal load. This decrease in value occurs likely as a result of particulate standing above the surface making contacting area of the specimen smaller. In addition, this decrease in coefficient of friction may be attributed to the wear of the matrix from the pin surface leaving the particulates standing proud. A similar change in coefficients of friction has been observed by M.H. Korkut (2003) for the newly developed Al 2024 composites. The effect of deformation on wear rate with sliding distance at various loads and sliding velocities are furnished in Fig 45.
Fig 45. The effect of deformation on wear rate with sliding distance
4.3 Microstructural observations:
The worn-out surfaces of some selected specimens after the wear test are observed under optical microscope and are shown in Fig 46 and 47. It is observed that cavities are formed in the matrix of the composite and have aligned parallel to the direction of sliding during slow sliding velocity i.e. at 200 RPM. The amount of cavities is reduced with increase in sliding velocities and minimum cavities are observed with sliding velocity 600RPM. In some regions, the substructures are aligned parallel to the sliding direction. The worn surfaces at higher sliding speeds are relatively smoother than at lower sliding speeds. Cracks have appeared for the same sliding speed with increased load and these might have helped in chipping of hard red mud particles. With increase in applied load although the amount of cavitations appears to be low but deep cracks and grooves are clearly visible in the optical micrographs at higher loads. The optical micrographs depict that when the sample is rubbed, against steel wheel, at low sliding speed and low applied load hard particles might have chipped off and the aluminium grains are grown into bigger sizes with increase in applied load and the aluminium matrix appears to be smeared along the direction of the sliding. From the micrograph, it is seen that some cracks are originated at the grain boundaries of aluminium. This might be due to (Savchenko et al., 2002) strain hardening of aluminium during sliding with the applied load and due to pulling up of hard red mud particles from the aluminium grain boundaries (Korkut, 2004). With increasing the applied load this effect is more pronounced. This might have been caused also due to embrittlement of hard particles during sliding.
(10µ) (10µ) (b) (a)
(c) (10µ)
Fig 46. Optical micrographs of Al-10% nano structured red mud composite after wear tests at 10N load (a) 200 RPM (b) 400 RPM (c) 600 RPM
(10µ) (a)
(10µ) (b) (cw) (10µ)
Fig. 47 Optical micrographs of Al-10% nano structured red mud composite after wear tests at 600 RPM speed (a) 10N (b) 20N (c) 30N
4.4. Regression Modelling
Polynomial additive and multiplicative models were tried and the following model has been developed using regression analysis.
Where F is the load applied, Vs is the sliding velocity, C is the percent composition of redmud and D is the percent deformation.
The consistency and fitness with the experimental data was tested using R-Software. The following empirical values were obtained for the above model.
A0 = 0.6257456, A1 = -0.0548196, A2 = -0.00390050, A3 = 0.00247220, A4 = 0.00006446
The model fitness is measured with R square value and accuracy of forecast is measured with mean absolute percent error (MAPE). The R square value for the above model is 0.9775 and MAPE is 12.96%. If MAPE calculated is less than 10%, it is interpreted as excellent accurate forecasting, between 10-20% good forecasting, between 20-50% acceptable forecasting and over 50% inaccurate forecasting [20]. An R square value of 0.9 or above is very good, a value above 0.8 is good, and a value of 0.6 or above may be satisfactory in some applications [21]. The R square and MAPE values obtained are in the well acceptable range and hence the present model can be adapted effectively.
4.5. Artificial neural network modelling
The main components of artificial neuron are, weights, addition function, activation function and outputs and is represented in figure 48. Input data can be obtained from external environment or the other artificial neurons. The quantities (wij) demonstrate the effect of a data point when it arrives at artificial neural cell. The addition function netij calculates the net input on a neural cell.
..... (3)
Where Ɵi is the threshold value of ith process element, xi indicates the i input, wij is the connection weight from j element to i element.
The artificial neuron output value, which depends on the selected activation function employs a sigmoid function as the activation function and is calculated using eq.4
..... (4)
The sigmoid function is the most common activation function in the ANN because it combines nearly linear behaviour, curvilinear behaviour, and nearly constant behaviour [22,23].
Fig. 48 Mathematical model of neuron cell
In the present investigations, volumetric wear of the composite is modelled using ANN. Deformation, Composition, Load and sliding velocity are taken as the inputs and the volumetric wear is the output for the model. The experimental data is grouped into training data and test data. The training data is used for training the ANN and the test data is used for validating the ANN. Root mean square error and mean absolute percentage error is calculated using the following equations.
(5)
...... (6)
Where ti is the experimental value and tdi is the model prediction value and N is the number of testing data.
The ANN architecture used for modelling is shown in fig. 49 with four input variables, two hidden layers with 7 and 6 neurons in the two hidden layers respectively and volumetric wear as output variable.
Fig. 49 Artificial Neural network arcitecture
4.5.1 Network training and testing
A forward feed backward propagation multilayer ANN is used for modelling and the network training and testing was carried out using MATLAB. The hyperbolic tangent sigmoid function (tansig) eq no.4 and the linear transfer function (purelin) are used as activation transfer functions. The back propagation function that updates weight and bias values according to Levenberg-marcendet optimization (trainlm) is used as training algorithm due to its high accuracy in prediction and fast convergence. The experiments in the present investigations have yielded 144 results, out of which 124 were used for training the network and 20 were used to test the ANN model. Different network configurations are evaluated by varying the number of neurons in the hidden layers between 2 and 20. The mean absolute percent error (MAPE) and Root mean square error and correlation coefficient were used to evaluate the performance of ANN model for prediction. The model with 7 and 6 neurons in the hidden layer resulted in MAPE of 7.30%, correlation coefficient of 0.989 and RMSE of 0.3177 which are in the well acceptable range and hence the model with above combination of neurons is selected. The regression analysis of the selected ANN model is furnished in figure 50.
Fig. 50 Regression analysis of the ANN model
The regression and ANN models were adapted for the experimental results and a comparative study is made. The error percentage is calculated with respect to experimental results and it is observed that both the models are in consistent with experimental results. MAPE and RMSE values reflect that the ANN model is more accurate as compared to regression model. The results obtained from the comparative study are depicted in table 27 and its graphical representation is shown in figure 51.
Table. 27: Experimental data and predicted values using regression model and ANN model
percent deformation
% composition
load
sliding velocitym/sec
Volumetric wear x 10-12 m3/sec
experimental value
reg model
% error
ann model
%error
10
10
20
0.523599
3.521145
3.060027
13.10
3.563598
-1.21
30
5
20
0.523599
3.607518
3.711845
-2.89
3.423788
5.09
10
15
30
0.523599
4.834279
5.138675
-6.30
4.55278
5.82
0
10
20
0.261799
1.60052
1.70049
-6.25
1.58974
0.67
40
5
20
0.523599
3.654368
3.775931
-3.33
3.623701
0.84
30
10
30
0.261799
1.737708
2.08737
-20.12
1.880595
-8.22
0
5
30
0.523599
5.739232
6.494499
-13.16
5.829162
-1.57
10
15
10
0.785398
2.293472
2.569337
-12.03
2.435157
-6.18
10
5
30
0.261799
2.975031
2.991535
-0.55
2.672682
10.16
0
15
20
0.523599
3.777483
3.766736
0.28
3.868963
-2.42
0
0
10
0.523599
2.353275
3.276396
-39.23
2.251735
4.31
0
10
30
0.785398
7.911143
7.652206
3.27
7.944785
-0.43
40
15
20
0.785398
5.328949
4.819502
9.56
6.221719
-16.75
20
5
10
0.785398
2.576798
2.837079
-10.10
2.714028
-5.33
30
5
30
0.785398
8.456583
8.351651
1.24
9.188548
-8.66
20
5
30
0.523599
5.996912
5.674159
5.38
5.929547
1.12
40
5
20
0.785398
5.692382
5.663896
0.50
5.414032
4.89
20
10
20
0.785398
5.075936
4.281131
15.66
4.795642
5.52
40
10
10
0.785398
2.034947
2.135434
-4.94
2.176135
-6.94
30
15
20
0.523599
3.327782
3.148916
5.37
3.349029
-0.64
MAPE
12.32091
7.294696
RMSE
0.358549
0.317371
Fig. 51. Graphical representation of regression and ANN models.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
· Nano structured redmud is successfully synthesised by High energy Ball Milling.
· Nano and micro structured redmud particle reinforced alumimium matrix composites are synthesised successfully by stir casting route.
· Improved Hardness is observed in the composites with increased redmud fraction. The addition of nano redmud particles have shown improved hardness than the micro structured redmud particle reinforced composites.
· The composites with nano structured redmud particle reinforced composites have shown significant improvement in wear resitance than the micro structured redmud of same fraction.
· About 60% inmprovement in wear resistance is observed between pure aluminium and the composite with 10% nano redmud particle reinforcement.
· Wear resitance has been significantly increased with increased deformation. The wear loss remained constant for the composites with 30% and 40% deformation with respect to sliding distance. The optimum results were obtained for the composites with 10% nano redmud particle reinforcement.
· Regression and ANN models have been successfully developed and have shown high accuracy and consistency. It is also observed that the ANN model is more accurate than the regression model.
· The R square value and MAPE value obtained for the regression model are 0.9775 and 12.96% respectively, which are in the well acceptable range and hence the developed regression model can be adapted effectively.
· The ANN model with 7 and 6 neurons in the hidden layer resulted in MAPE of 7.30%, correlation coefficient of 0.989 and RMSE of 0.3177 which are in the well acceptable range and hence can be adapted for the prediction of wear behaviour, which considerably saves the project time, effort and cost
Acknowledgements
The authors sincerely express their thanks to the UGC for extending the financial support for carrying the research work.
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List of Publications
1. G. Satyanarayana; G. Swami Naidu; N. Hari Babu, The effect of deformation on wear behaviour of Al-5% red mud particle reinforced nano composites synthesised by stir casting, Int. J. of Materials Engineering Innovation, Inderscience Publishers, 2016 Vol.7, No.2, pp.115 - 129
2. Satyanarayana G, Narayana Rao K, Swami Naidu G and Bhargava N R M R, “Nano structured Red mud – Synthesis and XRD studies”, International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Material Sciences, Serials Publications, ISSN 0974-584X, Volume 7, No. 1, pp.63-65
3. Satyanarayana G., Swami Naidu G., Hari Babu N., “Deformation behaviour of al-10 wt% red mud particle reinforced nano Composites – wear studies”, International conference on Material Processing Technology MPT-2016, Organized at Pune, during 5-7, January 2016, pp. 13-20
Al0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.145722265894937780.13531353261672840.145722265894939310.145722265894939470.133231785961087095% Micro0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.104087332782099659.3678599503890375E-29.020902174448675E-29.1076416184337566E-29.1596852848248242E-25 % Nano0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469238.3269866225680347E-27.8065499586574161E-27.2861132947469529E-27.025894962791697E-27.2861132947469751E-210% Micro0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469238.3269866225680347E-27.2861132947469931E-26.9391555188066514E-27.2861132947469931E-27.4942879603111898E-210% Nano0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469236.2452399669259785E-25.2043666391049834E-24.8574088631646507E-25.2043666391049834E-26.2452399669259785E-2
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
Al1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.161335365812253910.137915715936281910.114496066060309720.117098249379861820.115536939388130785% Micro1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.114496066060309720.104087332782099659.5413388383591161E-29.6280782823442185E-29.9923839470815526E-25 % Nano1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936877.8065499586574161E-27.5463316267022004E-27.6330710706873084E-27.6764407926798825E-27.7024626258753795E-210% Micro1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936878.8474232864784147E-27.5463316267022004E-27.1126344067767869E-27.286113294746982E-27.286113294746982E-210% Nano1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936871.0408733278209964E-21.561309991731466E-22.0817466556419802E-23.5129474813958478E-23.3307946490271814E-2
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
Al2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.166539732451359250.159600576932552170.152661421413745890.152661421413745970.15543708362126995% Micro2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.124904799338520070.117965643819713220.105243858701900960.103219938342248550.108944741645264625 % Nano2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540489.7148177263293015E-28.6739443985083695E-27.8643762546475302E-27.9800288466276403E-28.0494204018157059E-210% Micro2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540489.0209021744486528E-28.326986622568032E-28.0956814386078019E-28.3269866225680195E-28.049420401815692E-210% Nano2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540482.0817466556420031E-21.3878311037613321E-21.3878311037613321E-21.3878311037613321E-21.249047993385196E-2
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
Al0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.364305664737351880.338283831541825620.291444531789881110.260218331955250510.241482612054471415% Micro0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.249809598677039750.218583398842410570.201235510045393220.21337903220330370.216501652186767425 % Nano0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.228992132120619780.176948465729570180.159600576932552670.161335365812254440.1623762391400754610% Micro0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.218583398842411650.176948465729570180.170009310210763210.176948465729570180.1748667190739274210% Nano0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469234.1634933112839882E-23.1226199834629893E-23.8165355353436924E-23.6430566473735021E-23.3307946490271891E-2
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
Al1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.260218331955249350.252411781996591370.215113821083005530.226389948801066910.226910385464977945% Micro1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.260218331955250510.223787765481514220.211644243323602710.213379032203304290.212338158875484135 % Nano1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.249809598677039750.202970298925094410.180418043488973810.192561565646884370.181111959040853210% Micro1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.239400865398828040.218583398842410040.208174665564198920.200368115605541550.2092155388920212110% Nano1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936875.2043666391055603E-31.5613099917314953E-21.3878311037613321E-21.4312008257538845E-21.5613099917315116E-2
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
Al2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.402471020090784560.322670731624510430.290288005870079020.300118476188387380.288668869582357935% Micro2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.291444531789881110.260218331955250510.240557391318630410.246340020917635710.237319118743187065 % Nano2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.277566220752266060.249809598677039340.23593128763942670.242870443158232670.2359312876394266410% Micro2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.256748754195845810.235931287639426970.210487717403801260.217716004402558980.229686047672510% Nano2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540486.9391555188066641E-38.6739443985085537E-38.0956814386079438E-38.6739443985083767E-37.6330710706873934E-3
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
Al0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.49961919735408050.478801730797659970.340018620421525530.322670731624510760.316425491657584885% Micro0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.447575530963029660.379918764654667510.301853265068090630.320068548304958510.310180251690658665 % Nano0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.322670731624511930.296648898428984560.267157487474056320.257616148635696930.2581365852996087610% Micro0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.312261998346298970.307057631707193410.298383687308688080.296648898428984010.3060167583793742510% Nano0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469231.0408733278208813E-25.2043666391044094E-31.3878311037613321E-21.3010916597762167E-21.8735719900777707E-2
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
Al1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.416349331128398610.340886014861376320.322670731624510430.314864181665854340.306016758379374255% Micro1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.327875098263615270.301853265068089740.301853265068090020.309659815026747220.300812391740270085 % Nano1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.327875098263615270.291444531789880560.281035798511668710.252411781996591370.2550139653161450110% Micro1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.317466364985407260.309659815026747220.300118476188387380.297949990088761160.2997715184124468110% Nano1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936871.0408733278209964E-27.8065499586572034E-35.2043666391048109E-35.2043666391049914E-36.245239966925979E-3
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
Al2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.541254130466918170.419818908887804760.348114301860132870.34782517038018390.34834560704409445% Micro2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.471862575278854170.402471020090784950.335392516742322010.340018620421525140.315037660553821325 % Nano2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.33654904266212260.310527209466597120.285661902190874560.27496403743271330.28519929182295410% Micro2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.322670731624511150.320935942744808410.314575050185900980.297516292868836070.2976897717568068310% Nano2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540486.9391555188066641E-36.9391555188066641E-35.7826295990056975E-36.0717610789559114E-35.5513244150453426E-3
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
0% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.104087332782099659.3678599503890306E-29.0209021744486528E-29.1076416184337525E-29.1596852848248228E-210% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.114496066060308469.8882966142994549E-29.7148177263293015E-29.3678599503889806E-29.7842092815173448E-220% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.104087332782099658.8474232864784147E-28.326986622568032E-28.326986622568032E-28.5351612881321495E-230% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469239.3678599503889001E-28.326986622568032E-27.9800288466276029E-27.8065499586574744E-27.9106372914395914E-240% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469239.3678599503891388E-27.286113294746982E-27.2861132947470139E-27.286113294746982E-27.4942879603111801E-2
Sliding distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
0% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.114496066060309720.104087332782099659.5413388383591161E-29.6280782823442185E-29.9923839470815526E-210% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.119700432699415150.106689516101652439.5413388383591549E-29.6280782823442185E-29.784209281517367E-220% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.109291699421205840.101485149462547529.3678599503890306E-29.4979691163666266E-29.6801219487352749E-230% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.104087332782099659.6280782823441519E-29.3678599503890306E-29.3678599503890084E-29.3678599503890125E-240% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936879.8882966142995368E-29.1076416184337525E-29.0209021744486528E-28.9775324524561245E-28.9515106192605748E-2
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
0% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.124904799338520070.117965643819713220.105243858701900960.103219938342248550.1089447416452646210% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.111026488300906320.100617755022696329.9461229102895024E-20.103219938342248550.1068629949896221620% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.104087332782099659.8882966142994744E-29.7148177263293015E-29.6280782823442032E-29.8536008367055172E-230% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.107556910541502729.7148177263292626E-29.7148177263292751E-29.4545993943741025E-29.4372515055770198E-240% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.104087332782099659.5413388383591161E-29.3678599503890222E-29.3678599503890306E-29.367859950389025E-2
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
0% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.249809598677039750.218583398842410570.201235510045393220.21337903220330370.2165016521867674210% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.249809598677039750.21337903220330370.21511382108300520.221185582161961460.2206651454980508320% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.218583398842409490.19776593228598940.197765932285988930.197765932285988790.2060929189085564430% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.197765932285991260.17174409909046620.170009310210763210.171744099090465560.1707032257626434340% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.166539732451360.145722265894940060.145722265894940060.145722265894940060.14572226589494006
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
0% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.260218331955250510.223787765481514220.211644243323602710.213379032203304290.2123381588754841310% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.244605232037934580.231594315440172030.220318187722111340.226389948801066910.22066514549805120% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.239400865398829210.218583398842410570.208174665564199310.202970298925094240.2144199055311266430% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.218583398842410570.202970298925093910.185622410128077510.184755015688226910.1863163256799580440% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.187357199007779920.166539732451360.163070154691956130.166539732451359750.16341711246789742
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
0% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.291444531789881110.260218331955250510.240557391318630410.246340020917635710.2373191187431870610% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.291444531789881110.267157487474055820.245183494997835180.243737837598083980.2567487541958458120% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.242870443158233080.222052976601812170.218583398842410460.211644243323602430.2220529766018121730% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.222052976601812170.211644243323602710.197765932285989210.197765932285989210.1977659322859892140% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.194296354526586580.182152832368674220.182731095328574710.182152832368674220.18249979014461518
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
0% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.447575530963029660.379918764654667510.301853265068090630.320068548304958510.3101802516906586610% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.457984264241239610.395531864571977810.322670731624510430.320068548304958510.3268342249357938920% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.385123131293771130.312261998346298970.291444531789881110.299251081748536210.3018532650680900730% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.312261998346298970.291444531789881110.270627065233460640.270627065233460030.2706270652334602540% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.291444531789881110.228992132120619780.228992132120619030.228992132120619220.22899213212061933
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
0% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.327875098263615270.301853265068089740.301853265068090020.309659815026747220.3008123917402700810% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.385123131293770070.322670731624510760.303588053947792260.299251081748536210.3008123917402701920% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.317466364985406260.29664889842898340.29664889842898340.297949990088760890.2987306450846258230% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.29664889842898340.291444531789880560.289709742910176760.284939073490997340.2893627851342389640% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.286240165150773880.242003048718381410.242870443158232670.242003048718381410.24252348538229335
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
0% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.471862575278854170.402471020090784950.335392516742322010.340018620421525140.3150376605538213210% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.440636375444221460.407675386729891340.346957775940332950.34782517038018390.3462638603884528620% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.381653553534365420.333079464902720610.320357679784909370.320068548304958510.3205889849688698430% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.353896931459138310.312261998346298810.297227161388886270.297516292868835960.2976897717568067840% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540480.33654904266212260.242870443158233080.244026969078033510.242870443158232890.24287044315823292
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
0% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469238.326986622568032E-27.8065499586574161E-27.2861132947469404E-27.025894962791697E-27.2861132947469529E-210% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469238.326986622568032E-27.286113294746982E-26.9391555188066431E-27.025894962791697E-27.2861132947469529E-220% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469237.2861132947468918E-26.7656766308364202E-26.5921977428662723E-26.7656766308364771E-26.8697639636185734E-230% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469237.2861132947468918E-26.2452399669259785E-26.2452399669259785E-26.2452399669259785E-26.4534146324901551E-240% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469236.2452399669259785E-25.7248033030155382E-25.8982821909857014E-25.9850216349707865E-25.8288906357975803E-2
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
0% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936877.8065499586574161E-27.5463316267022004E-27.6330710706873084E-27.6764407926798825E-27.7024626258753795E-210% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936877.8065499586575313E-27.5463316267022532E-27.6330710706873084E-27.6764407926799019E-27.5983752930932902E-220% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936877.8065499586575313E-27.5463316267022532E-27.286113294746982E-27.286113294746982E-27.390200627529088E-230% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936877.286113294746982E-27.0258949627917552E-26.9391555188066431E-27.0258949627917275E-26.9738512964006932E-240% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936876.7656766308365354E-26.7656766308364771E-26.7656766308364966E-26.6355674648588839E-26.6615892980543781E-2
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
0% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540489.7148177263293015E-28.6739443985083695E-27.8643762546475302E-27.9800288466276403E-28.0494204018157059E-210% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540488.6739443985083306E-27.9800288466276403E-27.7487236626674103E-27.5463316267022171E-27.7024626258753934E-220% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540487.9800288466276792E-27.8065499586574938E-27.633071070687307E-27.806549958657473E-27.6330710706873084E-230% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540487.9800288466276792E-27.286113294746982E-27.2861132947469903E-27.286113294746982E-27.2861132947469723E-240% deformation2.82743338823081425.65486677646162768.482300164692441411.30973355292332414.1371669411540486.9391555188066431E-26.9391555188066431E-27.0548081107867408E-26.9391555188066431E-26.8697639636185734E-2
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
0% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.228992132120619780.176948465729570180.159600576932552670.161335365812254440.1623762391400754610% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.228992132120619780.18215283236867380.166539732451360.161335365812254440.1582127458287924420% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.218583398842409490.166539732451360.15266142141374620.156130999173149490.1561309991731492430% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.208174665564199310.161335365812253910.149191843654342460.148324449214492310.1478040125505812640% deformation0.942477796076937491.88495559215387612.82743338823081423.76991118430776024.71238898038469230.197765932285991260.140517899255835240.138783110376133420.137915715936282410.13739527927237191
Sliding Distance x 103 m
Wear rate x 10-6 N/m
0% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.249809598677039750.202970298925094410.180418043488973810.192561565646884370.181111959040853210% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.260218331955250510.19776593228598940.173478887970166640.170443007430688210.1727849724182851920% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.223787765481513690.174346282410017370.164804943571657590.162636457472031310.1634171124678974230% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.223787765481514830.169141915770912230.159600576932552670.160034274152478730.1602944924844345340% deformation1.88495559215387613.76991118430776025.65486677646162767.53982236861550359.42477796076936870.218583398842410570.166539732451360.15613099