25-2韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
, 2005, 79 110韓國中東學會 ˜
Water Resources in the Middle East:
Conflict and Management
중동의 수자원 분쟁과 관리:
홍 성 민
한국외대
◁ Contents ▷
. IntroductionⅠ
. Water Resources in the Middle EastⅡ
. Water Conflict and Potential 'Water Wars'Ⅲ
. Water Management under International LawⅣ
. Concluding RemarkⅤ
key Word: Water Resources, Water War,
Conflict and Management, The Middle East
80 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
. IntroductionⅠ
The great civilizations arose on the banks of great rivers. These
civilizations built large irrigation systems and made the land
productive. Thecivilizations also collapsed relying on the water
supplies failed or were improperly managed. The water resources in
the 21st century is considered as the most important increasing
worldwide concern about human health, the environment, and the
path towards sustainable development. Of all the natural resources
needed for economic development, water is one of the most
essential, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions.
At any rate, water is the most precious resource on the planet as
humanity enters the 21st century. Water is an essential element of
daily life. Water is also required for producing many industrial
products, for generating power, and for moving people and goods -
all of which are important for the functioning of a modern,
developed society. In addition, water is essential for ensuring the
integrity and sustainability of the Earth’s ecosystems.
In the Middle East, water resources shared by Israel, Jordan,
Palestine and Syria are not sufficient to meet growing demands for
freshwater needs. Annual human use of the region's water
resources currently surpasses the safe or sustainable annual
freshwater yield. Future deficits are predicted to be quite severe.
The scarcity of freshwater in this region compounded by the
historical, political and religious tensions, makes the Middle East
one of the most intractable water disputes to be found anywhere on
the planet. Adding to its scarcity, much of Middle Eastern water
stems from three major waterways: the Tigris-Euphrates, Nile and
JordanRiver systems. Mutual reliance on these resources has made
water a catalyst for conflict, spurring confrontations such as the
1967 War and the Iran-Iraq War.
Regarding water resources, this paper aims to examine the
conflict and potential 'Water Wars' in the Middle East. It also
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 81
reviews the management of water resources in the region under
International Law. This paper, thus, consists of 1) Introduction, 2)
Water Resources in the Middle East, 3)Water Conflict and Potential
'Water Wars', 4) Water Management under International Law, and 5)
Concluding Remark.
. Water Resources in the Middle EastⅡ
2.1 The Crisis of World's Water
Global freshwater consumption rose six fold between 1900 and 1995
- more than twice the rate of population growth. About one third of the
world's population already lives in countries considered to be 'water
stressed'- that is, where consumption exceeds 10% of total supply. If
present trends continue, two out of every three people on Earth will
live in that condition by 2025.
According to Vital Water Graphics1) January 2003, agriculture and
domestic use each wasted 800 cubic km of water, and industry 400
cubic km in 2000. By 2025, the report estimates, those figures will
have risen to 1000, 1100 and 500 cubic km respectively. By then, an
estimated 300 cubic km of water will be lost as well through
evaporation from reservoirs, up 50% from 2000. AS you see in <Table
2 1>, the freshwater consists of very small portion among total world
water.
<Table 2 1> The World's Water
1) Almost 50% of the world's coasts are threatened by development.
Fish-farming, on land and at sea, now produces 30% of global supplies.
Agriculture uses about 75% of global water consumption and industry 20%.
UN Environment Programme, Vital Water Graphics, published by the UNEnvironment Programme (UNEP), January 2003.
82 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
kind % form %
saltwater 97.5
freshwater 2.5locked in glaciersgroundwaterlakes and rivers
68.930.8
0.3
Source: UNEP, 2003
In recent years the availability of and access to freshwater have been
highlighted as among the most critical natural resource issues facing
the world. The increase in water withdrawals implies that water stress
will increase significantly in 60% of the world, including large parts of
Africa, Asia and Latin America. The UN environmental report GEO
2000 states that global water shortage represents a full-scale
emergency, where‘the world water cycle seems unlikely to be able to
adapt to the demands that will be made of it in the coming
decades’(UNEP,1999). Similarly, the World Wide Fund for Nature
(WWF) emphasizes that ‘freshwater is essential to human health,
agriculture, industry and natural ecosystems, but is now running scarce
in many regions of the world’(WWF,1998).
The water crisis that exists is set to worsen despite continuing
debate over the very existence of such a crisis. For many years over
the past decades, 6,000 people and mainly children under five have
died every day. Descriptions more severe than ‘a crisis’ have been
associated with events in which 3,000 people have lost their lives in a
single day. What phrase can be used for the recurrence of higher loss
of life every day of every year over decades? That the world is in a
water crisis is undeniable, and the time to take action is now.2)
Chapter 18 of Agenda 21 (UN, 1992), adopted at the Earth Summit in
Rio de Janeiro, defined the overall goal of water policy developments.
The Rio Declaration stressed the importance of human being’s role as
2) UNESCO, "The World's Water Crisis," The UN World Water DevelopmentReport Water, 2003, P.5.
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 83
the first principle: Human beings are at the center of concerns for
sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive
life in harmony with nature. Obviously water is inevitable factor to
continue the sustainable development. The World Summit on
Sustainable Development (WSSD) elaborated the five theme areas in
Johannesburg, August/September 2002. These include water and
sanitation, energy, health, agriculture and biodiversity. Furthermore
water is relevant to all three strands of development - social, economic
and environmental. Agricultural sector is still important for water use in
the world.
Water resources can only be understood within the context of the
dynamics of the water cycle. These resources are renewable (except
for some groundwater), but only within clear limits, as in most cases
water flows through catchments that are more or less self-contained.
Water resourcesare also variable, over both space and time, with huge
differences in availability in different parts of the world and wide
variations in seasonal and annual precipitation in many places. This
variability of water availability is one of the most essential
characteristics of water resource management. Most efforts are
intended to overcome the variability and to reduce the unpredictability
of water resource flows. Both the availability and use of water are
changing. The reasons for concern over the world's water resources
can be summarized within three key areas: water scarcity, water
quality and water-related disasters. Each is discussed briefly here and
expanded on throughout this report.3)
2.2 Water Shortage in the Middle East
According to the World Bank, the Middle East and North Africa
region contain less than one percent of global water resources, while
having five percent of total world population. The number of water
scarce countries in the Middle East and North Africa has risen from
3) ibid. P.10.
84 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
three in 1955 to 11by 1990, and another seven more, including Syria
and Egypt are expected to join the list by 2025. With population rates
among the highest in the world, Middle Eastern countries are
consuming water at a much higher rate than can be replenished
naturally. <Table 2-2> shows water resources in the Middle East.
<Table 2-2> Water Resources in the Middle East
Source: Marwan Haddad, "An Approach for Regional Management of Water
Shortages in the Middle East," Ali I. Bagis, ed., Water as an Element of
Cooperation in the Middle East(Ankara: Hacettepe University), 1994, P. 71.
Note : OPT: Occupied Palestinian Territory (The West Bank including East
Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip). /c = Per Capita, Share = Percent of annual
withdrawal to internal renewable resources, Km = kilometer; D = domestic; Ind
= Industrial; Agr = Agricultural, In = Into the country from other countries; Out
= Out of the country, UAE = United Arab Emirates
This depletion has been compounded by wide spread domestic
pollution which has contributed to the general decline in the quality of
Country River FlowsAnnual Withdrawal of
WaterRenewable
Water ResourcesWater Use
D Ind Agr
In Outkm³/yr
Total /c Sharekm³/yr m³ %
Total /ckm³/yr m³ %
Egypt 56.5 0.0 56.4 1202 97 1.80 30 7 5 88
Syria 27.9 30.0 3.34 449 9 7.60 610 7 10 83
Jordan 0.4 0.0 0.45 173 41 0.70 160 29 6 65
Lebanon 0.0 0.9 0.75 271 16 4.80 1620 11 4 85
OPT* 0.2 0.0 0.22 124 30 0.72 400 23 1 76
Iraq 66.0 0.0 42.80 4575 43 34.00 1800 3 5 92
Israel 0.5 0.0 1.90 447 88 1.70 370 16 5 79
S. Arabia 0.0 0.0 2.23 321 106 2.20 160 45 8 47
UAE 0.0 0.0 0.42 429 140 0.30 190 11 9 80
Turkey 7.0 69.0 15.6 317 8 196.0 3520 24 19 57
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 85
available water. Expanding initiatives in agriculture and industry have
further reduced regionalwater availability. Driven by increasing
populations, many countries have begun to over exploit their
agricultural capabilities, resulting in the reduction of arable land. As
result, per capita water availability in the Middle East has become the
worst inthe world representing only 33 percent of Asian and 15 percent
of African levels. Nor have current desalination projects in the region
proven capable of meeting growing demands. The high energy and
large cost associated with desalination has limited efforts to the oil rich
Gulf States, such as Saudi Arabia.4) The extent of the emerging water
crisis is evidenced in a recent statement by Israel’s Minister of
Environment, Dalia Itzik, who warned that “within three or four months,
and especially next year, if there is drought this winter we might have
no water in the taps, but what there is will be undrinkable."5)
In the case of Renewable fresh water resources there is no universal
uniform on it since there is no international consensus on how to define
and measure renewable fresh water resources.As seen in <Table 2-3>,
the list of water-scarce countries in 1955 was seven including three
Middle Eastern countries: Bahrain, Jordan and Kuwait.1990, 13 were
added among them eight from the Middle East: Algeria, Israel/Palestine,
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and
Yemen.UN studies anticipate adding another 10 countries by the year
2025 seven of them are from the Middle East: Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran,
Libya, Morocco, Oman and Syria. This means that by the year 2025
some eighteen countries in this troublesome region will suffer from
water shortages.
<Table 2-3> The Annual Renewable Fresh Water Available Per PERSONALRanked by 1990 Availability ( in Cubic Meters)
4) See "From Scarcity to Security: Averting a Water Crisis in the Middle East
and North Africa", World Bank Report, 1996.5) Jerusalem Post, 11 July 2000.
86 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
Country 1955 1990 2025
AlgeriaBahrainEgyptIranIraqIsraelJordanKuwait
1,7701,4272,5616,203
18,4411,229
906147
689117
1,1232,2036,029
46132723
33268
630816
2,356264121
9
LebanonLibyaMoroccoOmanQatarSaudi Arabia
3,0884,1052,7634,240
8081,266
1,8181,0171,1171,266
75306
1,11335959041057
113
SudanSyriaTunisiaTurkeyUAEYemen
11,8996,5001,1278,5096,1961,098
4,7922,087
5403,626
308445
1,993732324
2,186176152
Source: Adel Darwish, Water Wars, 1994.
The Middle East is also a region where figures of water withdrawal
as percentage of renewable water supplies are among the highest in
the world, while the renewal rate is rather slow because of the arid
nature of the land.6)
6) Ibid. http://www.mideastnews.com/WaterWars.htm 05-10-01.
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 87
. Water Conflict and Potential 'Water Wars'Ⅲ
3. 1 Water Conflict in the Middle East
Shortage of water could lead to major political conflicts around the
world. Over 20 countries depend on the flow of water from other
nations for much of their water supply. For instance, the Nile flows
through Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt. If population rises as expected in
these countries from 150 million today to 340 million in 2050, the UN
has suggested that competition for increasingly scarce water resources
may lead to regional conflict. Many as essential thus see investment in
international diplomacy alongside aid.7)
The crisis over water in the Middle East is escalating. Despite
existing agreements, dwindling resources increasingly affected by
pollution, agricultural/industrial initiatives and population growth have
elevated the strategic importance of water in the region. The number of
water-scarce countries in the Middle East and North Africa has risen
from 3 in 1955 (Bahrain, Jordan and Kuwait) to 11 by 1990 (with the
inclusion of Algeria, Israel and the Occupied Territories, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, Somalia, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen).
Another 7 are anticipated to join the list by 2025 (Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran,
Libya, Morocco, Oman and Syria).
Adding to its scarcity, much of Middle Eastern water stems from
three major waterways: the Tigris-Euphrates, Nile and Jordan River
systems. Mutual reliance on these resources has made water a catalyst
for conflict, spurring confrontations such as the 1967 War (fomented by
Syria's attempts to divert water from Israel) and the Iran-Iraq War
(which erupted from disputes over water claims and availability).
Recognition of water's role as an obstacle in interstate relations has
spurred numerous attempts at resolution, including diplomatic efforts
(most notably the 1953-1955 U.S.-brokered Johnston negotiations) and
bilateral and multilateral treaty efforts, ranging from the 1959
7) Postnote, Access to water in developing countries, No. 178,May 2002, P. 3.
88 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
Agreement for the Full Utilization of Nile Waters to the 1994
Israeli-Jordanian Treaty. Increasingly, however, and despite these
agreements, nations have begun to come into conflict over water. The
natural scarcity of regional supplies, historically a point of contention,
has been reduced to crisis proportions by a variety of factors.
Influenced by declining availability and reductions in overall quality,
crisis zones have begun to emerge along the major rivers of the region.
Evolving conflicts between Turkey and Syria over the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers; in the Jordan River Basin between Israel, the
Palestinian Authority and Jordan; among Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia
over the Nile River; and within Saudi Arabia are manifestations of
water's growing role as a strategic and political force.8)
historical, psychological and political barriers that have impeded
cooperation and deadlocked diplomacy, nations in the region are sliding
toward conflict over water. Water's growing role in the emerging hydro
politics of the region has stressed the need for a new approach to
safeguard this diminishing resource. The integration of water into
developing strategic cooperation frameworks becoming visible among
regional states could facilitate the protection and preservation of water
resources. This interaction could eventually pave theway for the
long-term security of Middle East water. In light of the formidable
barriers that have prevented agreement to date, such an approach may
represent the only method by which to turn back the tide of the new
water politics of the Middle East.9)
3. 1. 1 Turkey Syria (The Tigris and Euphrates)
The tigris and euphrates form a complex water system. The
Tigris and Euphrates are two of the longest and most famous rivers
in the world. Both rise in the high mountains of northeastern
8) Ilan Berman and Paul M. Wehbe, The New Water Politics of the MiddleEast, September 1999. http://www.freelebanon.org/articles/v33.htm.
9) Ibidem.
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 89
Anatolia and flow down through Turkey, Syria, and Iraq and
eventually join to form the Shatt Al-Arab 200 km before they flow
into the Gulf. Between them they account for about 28.5 per cent
of Turkey's total surface water flow. However the geography of the
two rivers is very different.
The contribution from each riparian country also varies sharply.
Contribution of Turkey.10) Syria and Iraq to the Euphrates and their
demands is shown in Figure 1.
(Figure 1) Contribution of Turkey, Syria and Iraq to the Euphrates and their Demands(in Billion cubic meters per year)
Source: Republic of Turkey, Water: A source of conflict of cooperation in the MiddleEast? http://www.mfa.gov.tr/grupa/ac/aci/ 05-10-01.
Despite the signing of a protocol ensuring Syrian access to Euphrates
water in 1987, Turkish development efforts have increasingly
threatened to marginalize and even eliminate Syrian access to water.
Most notably, the Southeast Anatolia (GAP) Project11) has provided
10) Republic of Turkey, Water: A source of conflict of cooperation in theMiddle East? http://www.mfa.gov.tr/grupa/ac/aci/ 05-10-01.
11) The Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) is a multi-sector and integrated
regional development effort approached in the context of sustainable
development. Its basic objectives include the improvement of living
standards and income levels of people so as to eliminate regional
90 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
Turkey, situated at the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates River
system, extensive control over the flow of Euphrates water. Turkish
disruption of the flow of the Euphrates in January 1990 to fill water
reservoirs in front of the Attaturk dam highlighted Syrian vulnerability
to Turkish control over upstream water resources. Further
complicating the issue is Syria's continued support for the extremist
PKK (Kurdish Workers'Party) in its insurgency against Turkey, a move
that has prompted Turkey to threaten a blockade of water.
In the future, Turkish-Syrian disputes over water could escalate
into regional conflict. Both Syria and Iraq, situated downstream from
Ankara, have become increasingly threatened by Turkey's
large-scale consolidation efforts. Once fully operational, the GAP
Project may reduce Euphrates water to Syria by 40% and Iraq by
up to 80%. Such activity, critical for Syria, will also be significant
enough to substantially affect Iraq, currently somewhat autonomous
because of its access to Tigris River water. In addition, aggressive
Turkish acquisition efforts, currently concentrated on the GAP
Project, are anticipated in the future to focus upon Tigris River
water as well. Though currently divided in their opposition to
Turkish efforts, such activity could nudge Syria and Iraq despite
their differences into a strategic alliance, possibly destabilizing the
region and precipitating a regional conflict.12)
development disparities and contributing to such national goals as social
stability and economic growth by enhancing productivity and employment
opportunities in the rural sector. The GAP had originally been planned in
the 70s consisting of projects for irrigation and hydraulic energy
production on the Euphrates and Tigris, but transformed into a multi-sector
social and economic development program for the region in the 80s. The
project area covers 9 administrative provinces (Adiyaman, Batman,
Diyarbakir, Gaziantep, Kilis, Mardin, Siirt, Sanliurfa and Sirnak) in the
basins of the Euphrates and Tigris and in Upper Mesopotamia. See More
details about GAP, http://www.gap.gov.tr/ 05-10-01.
12) Ilan Berman and Paul M. Wehbe, The New Water Politics of the Middle East,1999. http://www.freelebanon.org/articles/v33.htm 05-10-01.
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 91
3. 1. 2 Jordan Israel Palestinian Authority
The Jordan River Basin has also emerged as a flashpoint for conflict
over water. Resources in the area, suffering serious overuse as a result
of pollution and population growth, have increasingly impacted
interstate relations. Between Jordan and Israel, water resource issues
are reaching a fever pitch.
Despite the 1994 Israeli-Jordanian Treaty which established
comprehensive guidelines regulating the distribution, preservation and
availability of water from the Jordan and Yarmouk Rivers conflicts
over water have risen to the forefront of relations between the two
countries. Jordan, fed only by underground sources and the Jordan
River, has experienced an escalating water deficit one that is expected
to reach 250 million cubic meters (nearly 1/3rd of current annual
consumption) by 2010. At the same time, Israel currently utilizing
almost all-available water from its National Water System (consisting
of the West Bank Mountain Aquifer, the Coastal Aquifer and the Lake
Kinneret Basin) has been forced to resort to over exploitation of
available resources for expanding agricultural and industrial ventures.
As a result, water has become a critical bone of contention between
the two countries, a tension exacerbated by the recent effects of the
region's harsh climate. Facing a looming deficit in water availability
brought about by lingering drought conditions, Israel halved its annual
allocation of 2 billion cubic feet of water to Jordan in March 1999.
Jordan, hit hard and lacking adequate desalinization capabilities, has in
turn found itself unable to sustain current levels of consumption,
declaring drought conditions and mandating water rationing in May
1999.
In the north of the country, growing Syrian designs over the
Golan Heights, where Israel has remained firmly entrenched since
the 1967 War, threaten to jeopardize another source of dwindling
Israeli water, the Lake Kinneret Basin. At the same time, the
possibility of Palestinian control of the West Bank suggests, at the
92 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
very least, a further reduction of available water to Israel, currently
utilizing the majority of the West Bank Aquifer. Due to an amalgam
of factors, Israeli security prerequisites for dealing with the
Palestinian Authority the ability to protect its water sources from
hostile action, pollution or co-option are not currently met, making
water a critical emerging issue of dispute between the parties.
These fundamental disagreements have deadlocked talks between
the parties and edged them closer to confrontation.13)
3. 1. 3 Egypt Sudan Ethiopia
The beginnings of a crisis have materialized along the Nile as well.
Ethiopia, making movements toward state building for the first time in a
generation following the overthrow of the communist Mengistu regime
in 1991, has focused upon water distribution as an issue of paramount
concern. The North African country, currently ravaged by conflict with
Eritrea, possesses neither the economic stability nor the investor
confidence to facilitate desalination efforts. Consequently, Ethiopia has
increasingly objected to the water use of neighboring Egypt, claiming
present allocation regulated by a 1959 agreement over Nile water to
be extremely unequitable. Asserting the 1959 agreement to be
preferential to Egypt and Sudan, Ethiopia has hinted it may resort to a
unilateral exercise of sovereignty or a military confrontation with
Egypt.
This growing vulnerability is likely to become a major source of
political tension in the near future. Since Egypt has retained an
aggressive military stance with relation to water, domestic Ethiopian
development efforts (such as growing attempts to dam the Blue
Nile) are likely to result in increasing regional tensions. In addition,
Sudan has become an increasingly unstable factor in the Middle
Eastern water calculus. Ravaged by civil war and guided by a
13) Ilan Berman and Paul M. Wehbe, The New Water Politics of the MiddleEast, 1999. http://www.freelebanon.org/articles/v33.htm 05-10-01.
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 93
radical Islamic fundamentalist regime, Sudan has manifested
expansionist desires over Nile water, threatening to withdraw from
the 1959 Agreement in August 1995. These movements have
increasingly jeopardized the stability of neighboring nations,
endangering Ethiopian and Egyptian access to water. As a result,
tensions along the Middle East/North Africa boundary are on the
rise, as water exacerbates and destabilizes the fragile regional
status quo.14)
3. 1. 4 Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is another country rapidly approaching a dramatic
crisis over water. In Saudi Arabia's case, however, the crisis stems
from the country's lack of rivers and permanent bodies of water, as
a result of which it relies heavily upon underground water sources
for its agricultural and potable water supply. At present, 90% of
Saudi Arabia's non-renewable deep-well water is utilized for
agricultural purposes. These resources, already precariously low,
have been significantly eroded in recent years as a consequence of
the Gulf conflict. Iraq's burning of oil wells during the Gulf War
further contaminated underground water resources already degraded
by pollution seepage from agricultural activity, creating a deficit that
has failed to be resolved to date, despite significant Saudi
desalinization attempts.
Disputes are also becoming visible between Saudi Arabia and
Jordan over the Qa Disi Aquifer. Though currently utilized almost
exclusively by Saudi Arabia, Jordanian vested interest in the aquifer,
which runs beneath both countries, has increased in recent years,
with Jordan's Minister of Agriculture publicly accusing Saudi Arabia
of overuse of the aquifer as far back as November 1992. Expanding
Jordanian utilization of the aquifer, which is likely in light of
Jordan's looming water crisis, may emerge as a contentious issue
14) Ibidem.
94 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
between the parties in the near future.15)
3. 2 The Potential Wars in the Middle East
3. 2. 1 The basic argument for Water Wars
The 261 international watersheds, covering a little less than one half
of the land surface of the globe, affect about 40% of the world's
population.Water is a vital resource to many levels of human survival
for which there is no substitute; it ignores political boundaries,
fluctuates in both space and time, and has multiple and conflicting
demands on its use.The problems of water management are
compounded in the international realm by the fact that the international
law that governs it is poorly developed, contradictory, and
unenforceable.16)
Aaron T. Wolf stressed at the ADC New Millennium meeting on
International Water Management in the 21st Century, Valencia, Spain,
18-20 December 1997 that the basic argument for 'water wars'is as
follows: Water is a resource vital to all aspects of a nation's survival,
from its inhabitants' biology to their economy.scarcity of water in an
arid and semi-arid environment leads to intense political pressures,
often referred to as 'water stress,' a term coined by Falkenmark
(1989).water not only ignores our political boundaries, it evades
institutional classification and eludes legal generalizations.
Interdisciplinary by nature, water's natural management unit, the
watershed - where quantity, quality, surface- and groundwater all
interconnect - strains both institutional and legal capabilities often past
capacity.Analyses of international waterinstitutions find rampant lack of
consideration of quality considerations in quantity decisions, a lack of
specificity in rights allocations, disproportionate political power by
special interest, and a general neglect for environmental concerns in
15) Ibidem.16) Aaron T. Wolf, Water Policy. Vol. 1, No. 2, 1998. pp. 251-265..
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 95
water resources decision-making.
Furthermore, international law only concerns itself with the rights
and responsibilities of states.Some political entities that might claim
water rights, therefore, would not be represented, such as the
Palestinians along the Jordan or the Kurds along the Euphrates.In
addition, cases are heard by the International Court of Justice (ICJ)
only with the consent of the parties involved, and no practical
enforcement mechanism exists to back up the Court's findings,
except in the most extreme cases.A state with pressing national
interests can therefore disclaim entirely the court's jurisdiction or
findings.all the intricacies and limitations involved, it is hardly
surprising that the International Court of Justice has decided only a
single case regarding international water law.
The datasets of conflict are explored for those related to water -
only seven minor skirmishes are found in this century; no war has
ever been fought over water.contrast, over 3,600 treaties have been
signed historically over different aspects of international waters -
145 water-related treaties were signed in the same period.treaties,
collected and catalogued in a computerized database along with
relevant notes from negotiators, are assessed for patterns of
conflict resolution.over water seems neither strategically rational,
hydrographically effective, nor economically viable. Shared interests
along a waterway seem to consistently outweigh water's
conflict-inducing characteristics.once cooperative water regimes are
established through treaty, they turn out to be impressively resilient
over time, even between otherwise hostile riparian, and even as
conflict is waged over other issues.These patterns suggest that the
more valuable lesson of international water is as a resources whose
characteristics tend to induce cooperation, and incite violence only
in the exception.
3. 2. 2 Potential Water Wars
Oil has always been thought of as the traditional cause of conflict in
the Middle Eastpast and present. Since the first Gulf oil well gushed in
96 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
Bahrain in 1932, countries have squabbled over borders in the hope
that ownership of a patch of desert or a sand bank might give them
access to new riches. No longer. Now, most borders have been set, oil
fields mapped and reserves accurately estimated - unlike the water
resources, which are still often unknown. Water is taking over from oil
as the likeliest cause of conflict in the Middle East.17)
The potential water wars in the Middle East, where water resources
are severely limited, have been mentioned about water crisis in the
world. The crisis over water in the Middle East is escalating. Despite
existing agreements, dwindling resources increasingly affected by
pollution, agricultural/industrial initiatives and population growth have
elevated the strategic importance of water in the region. For Middle
Eastern nations, many already treading the razor's edge of conflict,
water is becoming a catalyst for confrontation an issue of national
security and foreign policy as well as domestic stability. Given water's
growing ability to redefine interstate relations, the success of future
efforts to address water sharing and distribution will hinge upon
political and strategic approaches to this diminishing natural resourc
e.18)
When President Anwar Sadat signed the peace treaty with Israel in
1979, he said Egypt will never go to war again, except to protect its
water resources. King Hussein of Jordan has said he will never go to
war with Israel again except over water and the Untied Nation
Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali has warned bluntly that the
next war in the area will be over water. From Turkey, the southern
bastion of NATO, down to Oman, looking out over the Indian Ocean, the
countries of theMiddle East are worrying today about how they will
satisfy the needs of their burgeoning industries, or find drinking water
for the extra millions born each year, not to mention agriculture, the
main cause of depleting water resources in the region.All these nations
17) Adel Darwish, Water Wars, Geneva conference on Environment and Qualityof Life, June 1994. http://www.mideastnews.com/WaterWars.htm 05-10-01.
18) TWM, The natural solution to water-related disputes,
http://www.twm.co.nz/wtrpolitics.htm 05-10-01..
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 97
depend on three great river systems, or vast underground aquifers,
some of which are of `fossil water' that cannot be renewed.
. Water Management under International LawⅣ
4. 1 The Development and Cooperation of the Euphrates-Tigris Basin19)
Iraqwas the first riparian to develop engineering projects in the
basin. The Hindiya barrage on the Euphrates was constructed
between 1911 and 1914 to prevent flooding and transfer water to
canals for year-round irrigation. In the 1950s Iraq built a second
Euphrates barrage at ar-Ramadi. Like the Hindiya Barrage, its main
objective was flood control and irrigation.
Both Syria and Turkey were slow to develop use of the waters of
the two rivers before the 1960s. During the second half of the
1950s the Russians conducted research on the Syrian reach of the
Euphrates and proposed a dam at Tabqa. In 1966 a Syrian-Soviet
agreement led to construction of the Tabqa High Dam. The dam,
renamed al-Thawrah (the Revolution), was completed in 1973. A
current Syrian water development called the Great Khabur Project is
aimed at using the Khabur River for irrigation. Syria is also
conducting technical studies for another irrigation project on the
Tigris.
Turkey began constructing the Keban Dam on the Euphrates in
1966; production of electricity began in 1974. Turkey built the
Karakaya Dam on the Euphrates in 1986, as part of the
Southeastern (Grand) Anatolia Development Project (GAP). Ataturk
Dam, the heart of the GAP, was completed in 1992.
The 20th century has witnessed various bilateral attempts at
19) Ibrahim Kaya, The Euphrates-Tigris basin: An overview and opportunitiesfor cooperation under international law, No. 44, Fall/Winter 1998.http://ag.arizona.edu/OALS/ALN/aln44/kaya.html#overview 05-10-01.
98 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
cooperation within the Euphrates-Tigris basin. In 1920 the French
and British governments, as the mandatory powers in Mesopotamia,
signed a treaty20) regarding utilization of the waters of the
Euphrates and Tigris. The Turco-French Protocol, signed in 1930,
committed the Turkish and French governments to coordinating any
plans to use the waters of the Euphrates. The principle of mutual
cooperation over water development was extended IN A Protocol
annexed to the 1946 Treaty of Friendship and Good Neighborly
Relations between Turkey and Iraq (UN 1963). The agreement
encompassed both rivers and their tributaries. At that time Turkey
and Iraq agreed to share related data and consult with each other
in order to accommodate both countries' interests. The 1946 treaty
mandated a committee to implement these agreements. Although
none of this has yet occurred, Caponera (1993) pointed out that, if
fully implemented, the 1946 Agreement would constitute a good
basis for ensuring optimal cooperative water management between
Turkey and Iraq.
The Joint Technical Committee for Regional Waters was
established between Turkey and Iraq in 1982; Syria has participated
since September 1983. The Joint Committee deals with all water
issues among the basin riparians. It helps to ensure that the
procedural principles of consultation and notification are followed as
required by international law. For example, in the Committee's
November 1989 meeting, Turkey informed its neighbors that the
Euphrates' flow would be interrupted for one month and that, prior
to the interruption.
International law cannot decide the allocation of the waters of the
Euphrates and Tigris.21) Nonetheless, law provides a basis for
20) Article 3 of this treaty provided that the two governments should set up a
commission responsible for examining irrigation plans in the region.
21) Overall, Iraqi and Syrian proposals for water allocation might be
summarized as follows: 1) Each riparian will notify the other riparians
of its water demands on each river separately; 2) Total potential
water supply of each river will be calculated, 3) if the total demand
exceeds the total supply of a given river, the 'overdraft' amount will
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 99
negotiation. Equitable utilization is inherently flexible. It willnot
produce definitive solutions and allocations, but will serve as a
foundation for negotiation and cooperation. An international
watercourse agreement would lay down rights and obligations of
riparians more precisely. In addition to the agreement a joint
watercourse institution is necessary to realize cooperation among
the watercourse states.
4. 2 Water Management in the Region
Political and economic stability in the Middle East will depend
increasingly on water availability. Annual per capita fresh
wateravailability in MENA countries was only about 1200 cubic
metres - compared with a world average of about 7000 to 7500
cubic metres.22) Almost all fresh and renewable waters such as
rivers, streams, lakes, and groundwater, which are termed
'conventional water' or 'traditional water,'have already been
exploited or will be fully developed in the countries of the Middle
East and North Africa by the end of this century.23)
The World Bank has made the politically-charged issue of scarce
water resources one of its so-called millennium development goals.
Although the MENA region accounts for five percent of the world
population, it has only one percent of accessible fresh water
worldwide, according to the World Bank. Fresh water is a scarce
resource, constituting just 2.5% of the planet's total moisture (with
two-thirds of that supply trapped in glaciers)24)
be deducted proportionally from the demand of each riparian state
(Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 1995).
22) Stanley Fischer et al, The Economics of Middle East Peace, London: MITThe Press 1993, P.246.
23) Masahiro Murakami, Managing Water for Peace in the Middle East:Alternative Strategies, The United Nations University, 1995,
http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80858e/80858E02.htm#1.1%20B
ackground 05-10-01..
24) Water Project list is introducing by
100 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
Moreover desertification, rising populations and demand coupled
with poor management leave MENA region facing immediate
difficulties. The available fresh water figure for Yemen was about
500 cubic meters less than half the water poverty line of 1000
cubic meters. And nearly 70% of municipal water in cities like
Amman went unaccounted for, while Egypt recovered only two
percent of its irrigation costs.25) Despite themany political
complications in the Middle East, there is a recent history of tacit,
although limited, cooperation over multinational river development
even among the bitterest opponents on the Nile, Euphrates, and
Jordan Rivers.26)
Water policies and management issues have taken place over the
last decade or so, particularly since the Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro. The history could even go back further, to the Mar del
Plata Action Plan of 1977, but perhaps the best starting point is the
Dublin Conferenceof 1992,from which emerged the Dublin Statement
on Water and Sustainable Development that was a contribution to
the preparation of the Earth Summit in Rio. This statement contains
much of merit, including the four Dublin Principles that have
become the cornerstone of much debate on international approaches
to water policies.27)
4. 2. 3 International Water Law and Water Agreement
4. 2. 3. 1 International Water Law
In the last few decades, a broad system of principles and
http://www.euroconsult.nl/resources/implementationeuwaterframeworkdirectiv
eprojectlist.pdf and see about Water-Resources Data in Areas of Israeli,
Jordanian, and Palestinian Interest, http://exact-me.org/trends/ 05-10-01..
25) Aljazeera, "Middle East faces water crisis", Sunday 21, September 2003..26) Masahiro Murakami, op.cit.,
http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80858e/80858E02.htm#1.1%20Backgr
ound 05-10-01.:
27) ibid. P.17.
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 101
practices has evolved, resulting in a high number of bilateral and
multilateral treaties in many international river basins around the
world. By 1990, more than 280 international treaties dealing with
trans boundarywater issues had been signed. Based on them,
international organizations and other institutions have attempted to
derive more general principles and new concepts governing shared
fresh-water resources. The work of the International Law
Association (ILA), a private organization, and the International Law
Commission (ILC) of the United Nations are among the most
important and authoritative examples. Despite not being legally
binding on states, the "Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters of
International Rivers" of 1966 codified by the ILA and the "Law of
the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses" drafted by
the ILC in 1991 are generally accepted as part of customary
international law.28)
Efforts to codify international law concerning watercourses date to
the beginning of this century, but the most important efforts are
recent: The International Law Association's (ILA) 1966 Helsinki
Rules and the United Nations' 1997 Convention on the Law of the
Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (hereafter, the
Helsinki Rules and the UN Watercourse Convention). The ILA, a
non-governmental scholarly organization, adopted the Helsinki Rules
in 1966 (ILA 1967). Delegates to this meeting proposed that
international waters have to be shared equitably and reasonably. In
1970, the United Nations General Assembly gave the International
Law Commission (ILC) the task of codifying and developing the law
regarding "non-navigational use of international watercourses"
(Resolution 2669; ILC 1994). The ILC's work ultimately resulted in
the UN Watercourse Convention, opened for signature in 1997 (UN,
1997). Like the Helsinki Rules, the UN Watercourse Convention
28) Stephan Libiszewski, "Water Disputes in the Jordan Basin Region and their
Role in the Resolution of the Arab-Israeli Conflict", ENCOP: Environmentand Conflicts Project Occasional Paper No. 13, August 1995,
http://www.mideastweb.org/Mew_water95.pdf 05-10-01.
102 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
provides for the equitable and reasonable utilization of international
watercourses. Both sets of rules list factors for determining what is
reasonable and equitable, including: geography, hydrology, climate,
past and present utilization, economic and social needs of the
riparians, population, costs of alternative measures, other resources,
practicability of compensation in instance of dispute, and how the
needs of one riparian may be fulfilled without substantial injury to
another riparian.
4. 2. 3. 2 The Water Provisions of the Jordan-Israel Treaty of Peace
Since the early 1980s, progress has been made on the ground
between Israel and Jordan. Meeting in the field, close to the
diversion point from the Yarmuk River into the Jordanian King
Abdullah Canal (KAC, earlier known as the Ghor Canal), water
experts from the two sides met to consider Jordanian requests for
increasing the diversion into the KAC. Trustful and solid relations
developed in what came to be known as the "Picnic Table Talks ",
and Israel consented to alleviate some of the water short-age in
Jordan by increasing the quantities diverted. This, however, did not
change Jordan 's position that it was entitled to more water from
the Yarmuk, as well as from the Jordan, including from the Sea of
Galilee. Jordan stood by the position that it is riparian to the entire
Jordan River (from its headwaters in the Banias, Hasbani, and Dan
springs) and saw Israel 's diversion of water from the Sea of
Galilee into its National Water Carrier as a breach of internationally
accepted principles. Israel, on the other hand, maintains, as it did
then, that Jordan is riparian only to that portion of the Jordan along
their common border, and therefore has no legitimate claim to the
Jordan River upstream of its confluence with the Yarmuk.
This was the situation when the two countries entered direct
negotiations, following the procedure established in the Madrid
peace conference of 1991. Many rounds of negotiations ensued, in
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 103
Washington and later in the region. In the beginning, there were
two Arab delegations to the Washington rounds: a Jordanian
delegation with Palestinian participation, and a Palestinian delegation
with Jordanian presence. This resulted from Israel 's refusal at the
time to recognize the Palestinians as a separate entity. Jordan
delayed its agreement to the "Agenda " for the final peace talks
until Israel and the Palestinians signed the Oslo I Accord on the
White House lawn on September 13,1993. The 'Agenda' had been
ready a year earlier, but was signed only the day after the
Israeli-Palestinian agreement, at the State Department in
Washington. This led to intensification of the negotiations, which
moved to the region, and culminated in the Peace Treaty. The state
of belligerency between the two countries came to an end with the
signing of the Peace Treaty,celebrated by a ceremony in the
Arava/Araba Valley just north of Aqaba/Eilat, on October 26, 1994
(referred to herein as 'the Treaty). It is a comprehensive
agreement, covering all areas of concern between the two countries,
including water.29)
4. 2. 3. 3 The Palestinian-Israeli Water Agreement in Oslo II
Oslo II is an interim agreement signed between the Palestinians
and Israelis in September 1995, named with reference to "Oslo I,"
the initial Declaration of Principles which initiated the peace process
in September 1993.Article 40 of the Agreement 's Annex III, entitled
"Water and Sewage," was initialed by the water negotiators Mr.
Nabil Sharif for the Palestinians and Mr.Noah Kinarti for Israel in
the early morning hours of September 18,1995.It was the first
portion of the overall Interim Agreement to be concluded between
the two sides·30)
29) Uri Shamir, "Water Agreements Between Israel and Its Neighbors," YaleSchool of Forestry & Environmental Studies, Bulletin Series 103, pp.275-276.
http://www.yale.edu/environment/publications/bulletin/103pdfs/103shamir.pdf.
104 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
4. 2. 4 Water Problem between Israel and Palestine in the
Arab-Israeli Conflict
The most important thing in the region is peacemaking between
Israel and PLO. To make mutual benefits for a water-related
cooperation between Israel and Palestine, they have to cease the
political conflict. This is the key factor to manage the water
peacefully. Peace pipeline in the Middle East is shown in Figure
4-1.
30) Ibid. 280.
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 105
(Figur 4-1) Peace pipeline in the Middle East.
106 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
Source: Libiszewski, 1995 Copyright ENCOP - Reproduced by permission
Indeed, both the Oslo and the Cairo Agreements provide for
Israeli-Palestinian cooperation in the field of water management and
joint development of additional water resources (e.g. Annex IV, Art. 2.B
of the Declaration of Principles). But the sharp separation of technical
dimensions of water management from the political question of water
distribution is blocking any progress in this field.
Considering the genetic account of water disputes in the Jordan Basin
region and the analysis of current peace negotiations it can no longer be
doubted that water has played and still plays an important part in the
Arab-Israeli conflict. However, as always in multi causal conflicts, the
interesting question does not so much concern the presence of a certain
factor in the causal process. Presumably no one at all will deny the
involvement of water in the Arab-Israeli conflict. Rather it is its relative
weight within the mix of causal factors that must be evaluated.31)
. Concluding RemarkⅤ
Human beings in the 21st century is facing formidable challenges:
rapid population growth; increasing demands for water to satisfy
people's needs, both in agriculture and in expanding urban centers;
failing water quality, pollution, and associated health and
environment impacts; groundwater depletion; and international
conflict over trans-boundary water resources.
Oil has always been thought of as the cause of conflict in the
Middle East till now. Since the first oil well discoveredin Bahrain in
1932, the Middle Eastern countries have squabbled over borders.
Now, most borders have been set, oil fields mapped and reserves
31) Stephan Libiszewski , op.cit. http://www.mideastweb.org/Mew_water95.pdf
05-10-01..
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 107
accurately estimated unlike the water resources. Water is taking
over from oil as the likeliest cause of conflict in the Middle East.
The issue of water in the Middle East can only be solved through
cooperation and agreement. However, such cooperation and
agreement depends on an official body of law in order for a treaty
to survive political disagreement between the riparian states. But
international law cannot decide the allocation of the waters of the
Euphrates and Tigris. Nonetheless law provides a basis for
negotiation. Equitable utilization is inherently flexible. It will not
produce definitive solutions and allocations, but will serve as a
foundation for negotiation and cooperation. An international
watercourse agreement would lay down rights and obligations of
riparians more precisely. In addition to the agreement a joint
watercourse institution is necessary to realize cooperation among
the watercourse states.
In the 21st century, it is clear that growing concerns in water sub
sectors represent only one symptom of a much larger global crisis
facing our social, economic, natural resource management, and
environmental systems. The problems of water management are
compounded in the international realm by the fact that the
international law that governs it is poorly developed, contradictory,
and unenforceable.
Issues of water management and water distribution are simply not
separable. The reason for this lies in the fact that improved
management is normally coupled with high economic, social and/or
political costs. This is especially the case when management options
imply development of unconventional resources like sea water
desalination or water imports from distant regions or restructuring
of water-intensive branches like irrigated agriculture. Regarding the
water resources in the Middle East, the most important thing in the
region is peacemaking between Israel and PLO. To make mutual
benefits for a water-related cooperation between Israel and
Palestine, they have to cease the political conflict. This is the key
factor to manage the water peacefully in the Middle East.
108 25-2 (2005. 2)韓國中東學會論叢 第 號
Bibliography
박희경 최동진 역 물의 위기, , . (marq de Villers). The「 Fate of our Most
서울 세종연구원Precious Resource). : . 2001.
이상훈 역 물전쟁 서울 생각의 나무, . (Vandana Shiva, Water Wars) . : .「 」
2003.
조윤승 황규호 세계의 물환경 서울 신광출판사, . . : . 1998.「 」
Abed, George T. The Palestinian Economy. Routledge: London. 1998.
Amery, Hussein A. And Wolf, Aron T. A Geography Water of In the
Middle East Peace. The University of Texas Press: Austin.
2000.
arko lu, Ali Et Al.� � The Political Economy of Regional Cooperation in
the Middle East. Routledge: London. 1998.
Dai-Yeun Jeong and Mullins Patrick. The Environment and Sustainable
Development. Cheju, Korea: Cheju National University Press.
2003.
Fisher, Stanly Et Al. The Economics of Middle East Peace.London: The
MIT Press. 1993.
Government of Israel. Development Options for Cooperation: The
Middle East/ East Mediterranean Region 1996. Version 4.
Government of Israel: : Jerusalem. 1995.
Isaac, Jad. Core Issues of The Palestinian-Israeli Water Dispute.
Applied Research Institute -Jerusalem (ARIJ)
http://www.arij.org/pub/corissues/ 05-10-01.
Libiszewski, Stephan. “Water Disputes in the Jordan Basin Region and
their Role in the Resolution of the Arab-Israeli Conflict.”
ENCOP: Environment and Conflicts Project Occasional Paper
No. 13. August 1995.
http://www.mideastweb.org/Mew_water95.pdf 05-10-01.
Mairesse, Michelle. The Global Water Crisis.
http://www.ramsar.org/w.n.3wwf_wwf3.htm 05-10-01.
Paul Michael Wihbey And Ilan Berman."The Geopolitics of Water,
Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management 109
Institute for Advanced Strategic and Political Studies". IASPS
Research Papers in Strategy, September 2000. No. 10.
http://www.iasps.org.il/strat10/strat10.htm 05-10-01.
Peter H. Gleick, The World's Water, Water Conflict Chronology, Pacific
Institute, August 18. 2003.
http://www.worldwater.org/conflict.htm 05-10-01.
Richards, Alan And Waterbury, John. A Political Economy of The Middle
East. Cairo: AUC Press. 1991.
Rodman, David "Israel's National Security Doctrine: An Introductory
Overview." MERIA Journal. Volume 5, No. 3 - September 2001.
http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/meria/journal/2001/issue3/jv5n3
a6.html 05-10-01.
Shafik, Nemat. Prospects for Middle East And North African
Economies. Macmillan Press Ltd: New York, N.Y. 1998.
The Global Water Crisis and the Co modification of The World's Water
Supply. http://www.twm.co.nz/glowtrcris.html 05-10-01.
The UN World Water Development Report Water for People, Water for Life.
http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/table_contents.shtml
05-10-01.
UN Environment Programme (UNEP). Vital Water Graphics. January
2003. http://www.unep.org/vitalwater/ 05-10-01.
Water And Water Crisis. http://www.fivas.org/pub/power_c/k1.htm 05-10-01.
Water Disputes in the Middle East: An International Law Analysis of the
Israel-Jordan Peace Accord.
http://www.mafhoum.com/press5/140E20.pdf 05-10-01.
Weill, Asher(Ed.) ARIEL. Cultural And Scientific Relations Division/
Ministry For Foreign Affairs: Jerusalem. 2002.
Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies. "Transformations of
Middle Eastern Natural Environments: Legacies and Lessons."
Bulletin Series 103.
http://www.yale.edu/environment/publications/bulletin/103.html
05-10-01.
중동의 수자원 분쟁과 관리:
홍 성 민
한국외대
중동지역에 있어서 물의 부족은 중동지역을 지구상에서 가장 다루기 어려
운 수자원 분쟁지역으로 만들면서 역사적 정치적 및 종교적 긴장 등으로 복,
합적으로 관련돼 있다.
물의 부족에 부가하여 중동의 물은 주된 세가지 수로 티그리스 유프라테: -
스강 나일강 및 요르단 강으로부터 발원한다 수자원에 관한 상호의존은, .
년 중동전쟁과 이란 이라크 전쟁과 같은 대치상황을 유발함으로써 물이1967 -
분쟁을 위한 기폭제가 되고 있다 이와 관련하여 본 논문은 중동에 있어서 물. '
전쟁의 분쟁과 가능성을 고찰한다 본고는 또한 국제법하에서 이 지역의 수자' .
원 관리를 고찰한다.
석유는 항상 중동분쟁의 원인으로 현재까지 인식되고 있다 그러나 물은 이.
제 중동에 있어서 석유로부터 분쟁의 원인을 대체하고 있다.
중동에서 수자원 분쟁은 협력과 합의를 통할 때 만 해결이 가능하다 그러.
나 국제법은 유프라테스나 티그리스강의 물의 배분을 정할 수 없다 그럼에도.
불구하고 법은 협상을 위한 기본을 제공한다 하지만 수자원 관리의 문제는.
그것을 관리하는 국제법이 개발되어 있지 못하고 모순적이며 강제력이 없다
는 사실 때문에 기능을 발휘하지 못하고 있다.
수자원의 관리와 배분은 단순히 분리할 수 없는 것이다 개선된 관리는 높.
은 경제적 사회적 정치적 비용과 정상적으로 일치한다는 사실에 기인하고 있, ,
다는 것이 그 이유이다 특히 관리의 옵션이 해수의 담수화나 물의 수입과 같.
은 전통적인 자원의 개발을 의미하는 경우에는 더욱 그렇다 중동에서 수자원.
문제와 관련하여 가장 주요한 문제 중 하나는 이스라엘과 간의 평화협상PLO
이다 이는 중동에서 물문제를 평화적으로 해결하는 중요한 요인이 되고 있다. .
주제어: Water Resources in the Middle East: Conflict and Management