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Supplementary Education in Japan:
The Insecurity Industry
“The World-Wide Growth of Supplementary Education”
University of Waterloo, June 4-6 , 2010
Julian DierkesInstitute of Asian Research
University of British Columbia, Canada
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The Japanese Education System: History
Rapid implementation of nation-wide education after 1868 Meiji Restoration
Hierarchical and centralized control until 1945
Basic Law of Education (1947) as foundation of postwar education
1960s opening of upper secondary and higher education
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The Japanese Education System: Structure
Preschool and daycare < 6 yrs.
Compulsory: 6-15 yrs./grades 1-9
6+3(+3 > 90%)(+4 > 70% some tertiary)
Private and public schools at all levels
Curricula for primary and secondary promulgated by national Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science & Technology ( – 文部科学省 MEXT)
Some role for local boards of education
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Supplementary Education: Definitions and Scale
( 学習 ) 塾 (gakushū)juku vs. 予備校 yobikō
50,000 juku
No statistics on participation
2008 Benesse Time Use Survey
• From 10% ( 高 1• 北海道 ) to 70% ( 中 3• 近畿 )
• 50% once or twice/week
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Supplementary Education: History
Historical continuity from pre-modern
education?
Exam-oriented pedagogy
“Juku-boom” of the 1970s:
a) disposable income,
b) fewer children,
c) meritocratic access to careers/SES,
d) rankings of educational institutions
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Supplementary Education: Policy
Juku regulated only as businesses
Juku as indication of the failure of public
education
History of attempts to incorporate into
educational policy
Some reforms-from-below
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Supplementary Education: A Market
Voluntary participation
Selection of options
Information on options
For-profit
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Supplementary Education: Curriculum and Pedagogy
“Shadow education”: Virtually no
departure from official curriculum or
school pedagogy
Variety of social settings
Variety of delivery methods
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Supplementary Education: Organizational Forms
Historic roots in small institutions, but corporate growth since 1990s
Chains, franchises, independent
Local, regional, national
Learning aids industry
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Supplementary Education: Teaching Personnel
No formal qualifications
Careers in the shadow (businessmen, teachers)
Recruitment of graduates
Successor challenges
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Supplementary Education: Interaction with Schools
Accelerated teaching leads to wide discrepancies in classrooms
Public opposition to supplementary education: bureaucracy, unions
No direct communication between schools and supplementary education
Experimental PPPs: Supplementary education in (public) schools, teachers’ training
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Supplementary Education: The Insecurity Business
Historical origins eclipsed by current
insecurity as motivator
“The lost decade(s)”
State of semi-permanent policy crisis
Sensationalization of social ills
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Supplementary Education: The Future
Demography = demise
Education markets = conglomerates
Policy insecurity = PPPs
Social ills and individualization = “free schools”