Saussurean Paradox
“How can a language continue to be used effectively as a vehicle for expression and communication while it is in the middle of a change, or rather in the middle of a large number of changes?”
Trask, R. L. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, 1996, 267.
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Variation in Speech
“No two people speak exactly the same”
And no individual speaks exactly the same every time he/she speaks.
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Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 131.
Speaker Innovation—Not Language Change
“In reality, it is not so much that language itself changes as that speakers and writers change the way they use the language. Speaker innovation is a more accurate description than language change.”
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Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 206.
Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 1)
Page Location Trend Source of Change
Example or Comment
207 New Zealand new/ nuclear /nju/ /nu/ American influence
208 Isle of Wight (UK) Vr Vr V London influence (3 gen)210 Martha’s Vineyard (US)
light /ai// i/ Attitude: solidarity/identify house au/ / u with island culture
4/18Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, pp. 207-210.
Page Location Trend Source of Change
Example or Comment
213 Sydney (Aus) High-Rise Terminal NZ? (more young people)
2nd French (France) 204 Nasalization /n/ nasal V
2nd New Zealand 207 milk, fill, feel, silk Vl V England?? child
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Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 2)
Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 213.
Page Location Trend Source of Change Example or Comment
208 English
Scouse accent increased use Liverpool boys: peers
209 Charmey, Switz. (French?)
pronun innovations the young and women
210 Ucieda (Spain)
standard Castilian women
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Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, pp. 208-210.
Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 3)
Page Location Trend Source of Change
Example or Comment
210 Ucieda (Spain)
standard Castilian women
213 Norwich (Britain)
Cockney slang; London influence on
glottal stops; commuter Sam
h-dropping
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Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, pp. 210-213.
Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 4)
Page Location Trend Source of Change
Example or Comment
205 David (England?) wireless / radio familiarity for 3 gen
213 New Zealand far out one American boy
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Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, pp. 205, 213.
Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Vocabulary)
Wave Metaphor of Variation Spread
9/18Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 215.
Progress of Linguistic Change
Holmes, Janet. 1992. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London: Longman, p. 222. 10/18
Does TV spread new forms?
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“A popular compromise is the view that the media can soften listeners up by exposing them to new forms in the speech of admired pop stars or TV personalities. When people are subsequently exposed to a particular form in the speech of a real person, they are then more likely to adopt it.”
Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 227.
Spreading—Traditional Model
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Spreading—TV Model?
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Early Modern English Pronunciation Change
mate meat meet
Middle English /a:/ /ε:/ /e:/
Vowel Shift /e/ /i/
16th century /met/ /met/ /mit/
17th century /met/ /mit/ /mit/
Trask, R.L.. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold; based on descriptions on pp. 281-284. 14/18
Morris Halle’s Explanation for mate, meat, and meet
“In 1962, the distinguished Chomskyan linguist Morris
Halle, in apparent desperation, put forward an
astounding explanation: taking advantage of the
abstract underlying forms permitted by Chomskyan
linguistics, he suggested that several generations of
speakers must have manage to keep the mate and meat
vowels distinct in their heads, even though they always
pronounced these vowels identically, and even though
they never heard anybody else making the distinction.”
Trask, R.L.. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, p. 283. 15/18
Evolution of “do” Support in English Questions
1388: NONE Wycliffe 1526/1611: Some Tyndale / AV Today: ALWAYS 1
1 Except when there are modals and BE and maybe HAVE
Trask, R.L.. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, p. 283. 16/18
Resolution of the Saussurean Paradox
“Changes can proceed without disrupting the system of a language because the vehicle of change is variation, and variation is always present—indeed, it is a central characteristic of speech.”
Trask, R.L.. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, p. 281. 17/18
Saussurean Paradox“How can a language continue to be used
effectively as a vehicle for expression and communication while it is in the middle of a change, or rather in the middle of a large number of changes?” (p. 267)
Resolution of the Saussurean Paradox“Changes can proceed without disrupting the
system of a language because the vehicle of change is variation, and variation is always present—indeed, it is a central characteristic of speech.” (p. 281)
Trask, R.L. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, pp. 267, 281. 18/18