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Nuclear Reactions
Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Decay
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The Atom
The atom consists of two parts:
1. The nucleus which contains:
2. Orbiting electrons.
protonsneutrons
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XA
Z
Mass number
Atomic number
Element symbol
= number of protons + number of neutrons
= number of protons
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XA
Z
A = number of protons + number of neutrons
Z = number of protons
A – Z = number of neutrons
Number of neutrons = Mass Number – Atomic Number
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U235
92U
238
92
There are many types of uranium:
A
Z
Number of protons
Number of neutrons
A
Z
Number of protons
Number of neutrons
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U235
92U
238
92
There are many types of uranium:
Isotopes of any particular element contain the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons.
A 235
Z 92
Number of protons 92
Number of neutrons 143
A 238
Z 92
Number of protons 92
Number of neutrons 146
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Most of the isotopes which occur naturally are stable.
A few naturally occurring isotopes and all of the man-made isotopes are unstable.
Unstable isotopes can become stable by releasing different types of particles.
This process is called radioactive decay and the elements which undergo this process are called radioisotopes/radionuclides.
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Radioactive decay results in the emission of either:
• an alpha particle (),
• a beta particle (),
• or a gamma ray
Radioactive Decay
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He42
A. Types of Radiation• Alpha particle ()
– helium nucleus paper2+
Beta particle (-) electron e0
-11-
leadPositron (+)
positron e01
1+
Gamma () high-energy photon 0
concrete
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An alpha particle is identical to that of a helium nucleus.
It contains two protons and two neutrons.
Alpha Decay
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XA
ZY
A - 4
Z - 2+ He
4
2
Alpha Decay
unstable atom
more stable atom
alpha particle
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Alpha Decay
Ra226
88
Rn222
86
He4
2
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XA
ZY
A - 4
Z - 2+ He
4
2
Ra226
88Rn
222
86+ He
4
2
Alpha Decay
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Rn222
86He
4
2+Po
218
84He
4
2
Rn222
86+Y
A
ZHe
4
2
Alpha Decay
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He4
2U
234
92+Th
230
90He
4
2
X A
Z+Th
230
90He
4
2
Alpha Decay
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Th 230
90+Y
A
ZHe
4
2
Alpha Decay
He4
2+Ra
226
88He
4
2Th
230
90
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X A
Z+Pb
214
82He
4
2
Alpha Decay
He4
2+Pb
214
82He
4
2Po
218
84
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Beta Decay
A beta particle is a fast moving electron which is emitted from the nucleus of an atom undergoing radioactive decay.
Beta decay occurs when a neutron changes into a proton and an electron.
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Beta Decay
As a result of beta decay, the nucleus has one less neutron, but one extra proton.
The atomic number, Z, increases by 1 and the mass number, A, stays the same.
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Beta Decay
Po218
84
0
-1
At218
85
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XA
ZY
A
Z + 1+
0
-1
Beta Decay
Po218
84At
218
85+
0
-1
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Th234
90Y
A
Z+
0
-1
Beta Decay
Th234
90Pa
234
91+
0
-1
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X A
ZPb
210
82+
0
-1
Beta Decay
Tl210
81Pb
210
82+
0
-1
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Bi210
83Y
A
Z+
0
-1
Beta Decay
Bi210
83Po
210
84+
0
-1
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X A
ZBi
214
83+
0
-1
Beta Decay
Pb214
82Bi
214
83+
0
-1
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Gamma Decay
Gamma rays are not charged particles like and particles.
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation with high frequency.
When atoms decay by emitting or particles to form a new atom, the nuclei of the new atom formed may still have too much energy to be completely stable.
This excess energy is emitted as gamma rays (gamma ray photons have energies of ~ 1 x 10-12 J).
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Nuclear Decay• Beta Emission
e Xe I 0-1
13154
13153
electronPositron Emission
e Ar K 01
3818
3819
positron
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Nuclear Decay• Electron Capture
Pd e Ag 10646
0-1
10647
electronGamma Emission
Usually follows other types of decay. Transmutation
One element becomes another.
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Nuclear Decay• Why nuclides decay…
– need stable ratio of neutrons to protons
He Th U 42
23490
23892
e Xe I 0-1
13154
13153
e Ar K 01
3818
3819
Pd e Ag 10646
0-1
10647
DECAY SERIES TRANSPARENCY
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Half-Life• is the required for
of a radioisotope’s nuclei to decay into its products.
• For any radioisotope,# of ½ lives %
Remaining
0 100%
1 50%
2 25%
3 12.5%
4 6.25%
5 3.125%
6 1.5625%
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C. Johannesson
Half-life• Half-life (t½)
– Time required for half the atoms of a radioactive nuclide to decay.
– Shorter half-life = less stable.
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Half-Life• For example, suppose you have 10.0 grams
of strontium – 90, which has a half life of 29 years. How much will be remaining after x number of years?
• You can use a table:# of ½ lives Time
(Years)Amount Remaining (g)
0 0 10
1 29 5
2 58 2.5
3 87 1.25
4 116 0.625
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Half-Life• Or an equation!
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C. Johannesson
Half-life Fluorine-21 has a half-life of 5.0 seconds. If you
start with 25 g of fluorine-21, how many grams would remain after 60.0 s?
GIVEN:
t½ = 5.0 s
mi = 25 g
mf = ?
total time = 60.0 s
n = 60.0s ÷ 5.0s =12
WORK:
mf = mi (½)n
mf = (25 g)(0.5)12
mf = 0.0061 g
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Half-Life
• Example 1: If gallium – 68 has a half-life of 68.3 minutes, how much of a 160.0 mg sample is left after 1 half life? ________
2 half lives? __________ 3 half lives? __________
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Half-Life
• Example 2: Cobalt – 60, with a half-life of 5 years, is used in cancer radiation treatments. If a hospital purchases a supply of 30.0 g, how much would be left after 15 years? ______________
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Half-Life
• Example 3: Iron-59 is used in medicine to diagnose blood circulation disorders. The half-life of iron-59 is 44.5 days. How much of a 2.000 mg sample will remain after 133.5 days? ______________
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Half-Life
• Example 4: The half-life of polonium-218 is 3.0 minutes. If you start with 20.0 g, how long will it take before only 1.25 g remains? ______________
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Half-Life
• Example 5: A sample initially contains 150.0 mg of radon-222. After 11.4 days, the sample contains 18.75 mg of radon-222. Calculate the half-life.
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Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fission and FusionFusion
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Nuclear power• Power can be obtained two ways.
• Fission Splitting atoms• Get energy if the nucleus is big.
• The smaller ones are more stable.
• What we do in nuclear reactors.
• Fusion Joining atoms• Get energy if the nuclei are small.
• The larger one is more stable.
• This is how the sun works.
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NUCLEAR FISSION
A reaction in which an atomic nucleus of a radioactive element splits by bombardment from an external source, with simultaneous release of large amounts of energy, used for electric power generation
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Nuclear FissionFission is the splitting of atoms
These are usually very large, so that they are not as stable
Fission chain has three general steps:
1. Initiation. Reaction of a single atom starts the chain
(e.g., 235U + neutron)
2. Propagation. 236U fission releases neutrons that
initiate other fissions
3. Termination.
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Nuclear Fission
• A very heavy nucleus splits into more stable nuclei of intermediate mass.
• The mass of the products is less than the mass of the reactants.
• Missing mass is converted to energy
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Fission of 238U
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Neutron induced in U235
Fission is Exothermic
The sum of the masses of the resulting nuclei is less than the original mass (about 0.1% less)
The “missing mass” is converted to energy according to E=mc2
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Neutrons may:1 - Cause another fission by colliding with a U235 nucleus
2 - Be absorbed in other material
3 - Lost in the system
If sufficient neutrons are present, we may achieve a chain reaction
Each split (fission) is accompanied by a large quantity of E-N-E-R-G-Y
• Creates two smaller nuclides and free neutrons• The free neutrons potentially collide with nearby U235 nuclei• May cause the nuclide to split as well
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Uranium IsotopesUranium Isotopes
Naturally occurring Uranium contains Naturally occurring Uranium contains two major isotopestwo major isotopes
Uranium-238 (99.3%)Uranium-238 (99.3%)Uranium-235 (0.7%)Uranium-235 (0.7%)As it turns out the only isotope of As it turns out the only isotope of
Uranium that undergoes fission is Uranium that undergoes fission is Uranium-235Uranium-235
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235235U FissionU Fission 235235
9292U + U + 1100n n 236236
9292UU**
and 10and 10-14-14 seconds later... seconds later... 236236
9292UU** 92923636Kr + Kr + 141141
5656Ba + Ba + 3 3 1100nn + + ENERGYENERGY
50 possible sets of fission products (sum of 50 possible sets of fission products (sum of atomic numbers = 92)atomic numbers = 92)
3 neutrons released for ONE 3 neutrons released for ONE 2352359292UU
each neutron can split another each neutron can split another 2352359292UU
CHAIN REACTIONCHAIN REACTION POSSIBLE POSSIBLE If amount of If amount of 235235
9292U is sufficient (U is sufficient (CRITICAL MASSCRITICAL MASS) ) then the number of neutrons generated is high then the number of neutrons generated is high enough to result in a enough to result in a nuclear explosionnuclear explosion ) )
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Where does all this Where does all this energy come from?energy come from?
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E = mcE = mc22
E = Energy (joules)E = Energy (joules)m = mass (kg)m = mass (kg)
c = speed of light c = speed of light = =
3 x 103 x 1088 m/s m/s
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Nuclear Fission & POWER
• Currently about 103
nuclear power plants in
the U.S. and about 435
worldwide.
• 17% of the world’s
energy comes from
nuclear.
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Fusion
• Light-mass nuclei combine to form a heavier, more stable nucleus.
• More energetic than fission reactions
• Source of energy for the H-bomb
• Origin of the elements
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Nuclear Fusion
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FUSIONFUSION
411H 4
2He + 2 ? + + energy
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Stars energy is produced through fusion
reactionsFusion occurs until Fe is produced because less energy is released than
required to fuse Fe nuclei = _____ ____ ____
Star burns out
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The most destructive force on the planet
H-bombs 1000s of times more powerful than A-bombs
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Cold Fusion:Efforts are
being made to start and sustain a fusion reaction at lower temperatures, in other words with a lower amount of input energy