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List of Indian inventions and discoveriesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This list of Indian inventions and discoveries details the inventions, scientific discoveries andcontributions of India, including both the ancient and medieval nations in the subcontinent historicallyreferred to as India and the modern Indian state. It draws from the whole cultural and technological

history of India, during which architecture, astronomy, cartography, metallurgy, logic, mathematics,metrology and mineralogy were among the branches of study pursued by its scholars. During recenttimes science and technology in the Republic of India has also focused on automobile engineering,information technology, communications as well as space, polar, and nuclear sciences.

Contents

1 Inventions2 Discoveries

2.1 Agriculture

2.2 Mathematics2.3 Medicine2.4 Mining2.5 Science

3 Innovations4 See also5 References6 Bibliography7 External links

Inventions

See also: List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization

Button, ornamental: Buttonsmade from seashellwere used in the Indus Valley

Civilization for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.[1] Some buttons were carved intogeometric shapes and had holes pieced into them so that they could attached to clothing by

using a thread.[1] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used moreas an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the

Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old." [2]

Calico: Calico had originated in the subcontinent by the 11th century and found mention inIndian literature by the 12th when writer Hemacandra mentioned calico fabric prints done in a

lotus design.[3] The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th

century and calico fabrics from Gujarat appeared in Egypt.[3] Trade with Europe followed

from the 17th century onwards.[3] Within India, calico originated in Calicut.[3]

Carding, devices for: Historian of science Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of bow-

instruments used in textile technology to India.[4] The earliest evidence for using bow-

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10/23/2011http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries


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Map showing origin and diffusion of

chess from India to Asia, Africa, and

Europe, and the changes in the native

names of the game in corresponding

places and time.

instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).[4] These carding devices, called

kaman and dhunaki would loosen the texture of the fiber by the means of a vibrating string. [4]

Chaturanga and Shatranj: The precursors of chessoriginated in India during the Gupta dynasty (c. 280 -

550 CE).[5][6][7][8] Both the Persians and Arabs ascribe

the origins of the game of Chess to the Indians.

[7][9][10]

The words for "chess" in Old Persian and Arabic arechatrang and shatranj respectively terms derived

from caturaga in Sanskrit,[11][12] which literally

means an army of four divisions orfour corps.[13][14]Chess spread throughout the world and many variants

of the game soon began taking shape.[15] This gamewas introduced to the Near East from India andbecame a part of the princely or courtly education of

Persian nobility.[13] Buddhist pilgrims, Silk Roadtraders and others carried it to the Far East where it

was transformed and assimilated into a game oftenplayed on the intersection of the lines of the board

rather than within the squares.[15] Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, the Byzantine

empire and the expanding Arabian empire.[14][16] Muslims carried Shatranj to North Africa,

Sicily, and Spain by the 10th century where it took its final modern form of chess. [15]

Chintz: The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India. [17] The

origin of the word chintz itself is from the Hindi language word ](chitr), which means aspot.[17][18]

Coherer, iron and mercury: In 1899, the Bengali physicist Jagdish Chandra Bose announced

the development of an "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paperpresented at the Royal Society, London.[19] He also later received U.S. Patent 755,840(http://www.google.com/patents?vid=755840) , "Detector for electrical disturbances" (1904),for a specific electromagnetic receiver.

Cotton gin, single-roller: The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton

gin in use by the 5th century.[20] This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were

made in form of foot powered gins.[21] The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanicaldevice known as charkhi, more technically the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This

mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.[4]

Crescograph: The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was invented in theearly 20th century by the Bengali scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose.[22][23]

Crucible steel: Perhaps as early as 300 BCEalthough certainly by 200 CEhigh qualitysteel was being produced in southern India also by what Europeans would later call the

crucible technique.[24] In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were

mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. [24] The firstcrucible steel was the wootz steel that originated in India before the beginning of the common




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Cotton being dyed manually in

contemporary India.

era.[25] Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in

existence in South India well before the Christian era.[26][27][28][29]

Dock (maritime): The world's first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located away from the

main current to avoid deposition of silt.[30] Modern oceanographers have observed that theHarappans must have possessed great knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dockon the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime

engineering.[30] This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and

service ships.[30] It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their

effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks.[31] This knowledgealso enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the

highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary.[31] Theengineers built a trapezoidal structure, with north-south arms of average 21.8 metres (71.5 ft),

and east-west arms of 37 metres (121 ft). [31]

Incense clock: Although popularly associated with Chinathe incense clock is believed to have originated in India,

at least in its fundamental form if not function.[32][33]

Early incense clocks found in China between the 6th and8th century CEthe period it appeared in China all seemto have Devangarcarvings on them instead of Chinese

seal characters.[32][33] Incense itself was introduced toChina from India in the early centuries CE, along with the

spread of Buddhism by travelling monks.[34][35][36] EdwardSchafer asserts that incense clocks were probably anIndian invention, transmitted to China, which explains the

Devangarinscriptions on early incense clocks found in China.[32] Silvio Bedini on the otherhand asserts that incense clocks were derived in part from incense seals mentioned in Tantric

Buddhist scriptures, which first came to light in China after those scriptures from India weretranslated into Chinese, but holds that the time-telling function of the seal was incorporated by

the Chinese.[33]

India ink, carbonaceous pigment for: The source of the carbon pigment used in India ink

was India.[37][38] In India, the carbon black from which India ink is produced is obtained by

burning bones, tar, pitch, and other substances.[38][39] Ink itself has been used in India since at

least the 4th century BCE.[40]Masi, an early ink in India was an admixture of several chemical

components.[40] Indian documents written in Kharosthi with ink have been unearthed in

Xinjiang.[41] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in

ancient South India.[42] Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink. [43]

Indian clubs: The Indian clubwhich appeared in Europe during the 18th centurywas used

long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.[44] During the British Raj theBritish officers in India performed calisthenic exercises with clubs to keep in for physical

conditioning.[44] From Britain the use of club swinging spread to the rest of the world. [44]

Kabaddi: The game ofkabaddi originated in India during prehistory.[45] Suggestions on howit evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective




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The Great Stupa at Sanchi (4th-1st

century BCE). The dome shaped

stupa was used in India as a

commemorative monument

associated with storing sacred relics.

self defense but most authorities agree that the game existed in some form or the other in India

during the period between 1500-400 BCE.[45]

Ludo: Pachisi originated in India by the 6th century.[46] The earliest evidence of this game in

India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.[46] This game was played by theMughal emperors of India; a notable example being that of Akbar, who played living Pachisi

using girls from his harem.

[46][47]

A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way toEngland during the British Raj.[46]

Muslin: The fabric was named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, Mosul, inwhat is now Iraq, but the fabric actually originated from Dhaka in what is now Bangladesh.[48][49] In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named Sulaiman makes note of the material's

origin in Bengal (known asRuhml in Arabic).[49]

Palampore: (Hindi language) of Indianorigin[50] was imported to the western worldnotable

England and Colonial americafrom India.[51][52] In

17th century England these hand painted cotton fabricsinfluenced native crewel work design.[51] Shippingvessels from India also took palampore to colonial

America, where it was used in quilting.[52]

Playing cards: Playing cards are believed to have

been invented in Ancient India.[53][54][55][56]

Prayer flags: The Buddhist stras, written on cloth inIndia, were transmitted to other regions of the world.[57] These sutras, written on banners, were the origin of

prayer flags.[57]

Legend ascribes the origin of theprayer flag to the Shakyamuni Buddha, whose prayers were written on battle flags used by the

devas against their adversaries, the asuras.[58] The legend may have given the Indian bhikku a

reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying his commitment to ahimsa.[59]This knowledge was carried into Tibet by 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no

later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified.[59] The Indian monk Atisha (980-1054

CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.[58]

Prefabricated home and movable structure: The first prefabricated homes and movablestructures were invented in 16th century Mughal India by Akbar. These structures were

reported by Arif Qandahari in 1579.[60]

Rocket artillery, iron-cased and metal-cylinder: Thefirst iron-cased and metal-cylinder rockets weredeveloped by Tipu Sultan, ruler of the South IndianKingdom of Mysore, and his father Hyder Ali, in the1780s. He successfully used these iron-cased rocketsagainst the larger forces of the British East IndiaCompany during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysorerockets of this period were much more advanced thanwhat the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of




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Wayang Kulit (shadow puppet) in

Wayang Purwa type, depicting five

Pandava, from left to right: Bhima,

Arjuna, Yudhishtira, Nakula, and

Sahadeva (Museum Indonesia,

Jakarta). Ghosh, Massey, and

Banerjee (2006) trace the origins ofpuppetry in India to the Indus

Civilization.

iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabledhigher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to2 km range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the FourthAnglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore ironrockets, they were influential in British rocketdevelopment, inspiring the Congreve rocket, and were

soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[61][62]

Ruler: Rulers made from Ivory were in use by theIndus Valley Civilization in what today is Pakistan and

some parts of Western India prior to 1500 BCE. [63]Excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE) have yielded one

such ruler calibrated to about 1/16 of an inchless than 2 millimeters.[63] Ian Whitelaw(2007) holds that 'The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 inches(33.5 mm) and these are marked out in decimal subdivisions with amazing accuracytowithin 0.005 of an inch. Ancient bricks found throughout the region have dimensions that

correspond to these units.'[64] Shigeo Iwata (2008) further writes 'The minimum division ofgraduation found in the segment of an ivory-made linear measure excavated in Lothal was

1.79 mm (that corresponds to 1/940 of a fathom), while that of the fragment of a shell-madeone from Mohenjo-daro was 6.72 mm (1/250 of a fathom), and that of bronze-made one from

Harapa was 9.33 mm (1/180 of a fathom).'[65] The weights and measures of the Indus

civilization also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were further modified. [65]

Seamless celestial globe: Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, it wasinvented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in between 1589 and 1590 CE, and twentyother such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire.[66][67] Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists tobe technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern

technology.[67] These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting in order

to produce these globes.[67]

Simputer: The Simputer (acronym for "simple, inexpensive and multilingual people'scomputer") is a self-contained, open hardware handheld computer, designed for use inenvironments where computing devices such as personal computers are deemed inappropriate.It was developed in 1999 by 7 scientists of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, led by

Dr. Swami Manohar in collaboration with Encore India, a company based in Bangalore.[68][69]Originally envisaged to bring internet to the masses of India, the Simputer and its derivativesare today widely utilized by governments of several Indian states as part of their e-governance

drive, the Indian Army, as well as by other public and private organizations.[70][71]

Snakes and ladders: Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality. [72]During British rule of India, this game made its way to England, and was eventually

introduced in the United States of America by game-pioneer Milton Bradley in 1943.[72]

Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley

Civilization's archaeological site at Mohenjodaro in Pakistan.[73] The three features ofstepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE,which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious

importance into one structure.[73] The early centuries immediately before the common era saw




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the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture.[73] Both the

wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism.[73] Rock-

cut step wells in the subcontinent date from 200-400 CE. [74] Subsequently the wells at Dhank

(550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.[74]

Stupa: The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd century BCE India.[75] It was used as a

commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.[75]

The stupa architecturewas adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it evolved into the pagoda, a Buddhist

monument used for enshrining sacred relics.[75]

Toe stirrup: The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that held

the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCE[76] or perhaps by 200 BCE according to

other sources.[77][78] This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was

at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather.[78] Such a configuration made it suitable for

the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot. [78] A pair ofmegalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in Junapani in thecentral Indian state of Madhya Pradesh have been regarded as stirrups although they could as

well be something else.[79] Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi, Mathura and the Bhajacaves dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate

saddles with feet slipped under girths.[80][81][82] Sir John Marshall described the Sanchi reliefas "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world".[82] In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long and

cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups.[77] However theform, the conception of the primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving

into the stirrup of today.[78][81]

Wootz steel: Wootz originated in India before the beginning of the common era.[25] Wootz

steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe, China, the Arab world, andbecame particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as Damascus steel.Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in

South India well before the Christian era.[26][27]

Discoveries

Agriculture

Cashmere wool: The fiber is also known aspashm orpashmina for its use in the handmade

shawls of Kashmir, India.[83] The woolen shawls made from wool in Kashmir region of India

find written mention between 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE.[84] However, thefounder of the cashmere wool industry is traditionally held to be the 15th century ruler of

Kashmir,Zayn-ul-Abidin, who employed weavers from Central Asia.[84]

Cotton, cultivation of: Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the Indus Valley

Civilization by the 5th millennium BCE - 4th millennium BCE.[85] The Indus cotton industrywas well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be

practiced till the modern Industrialization of India.[86] Well before the Common Era, the use of

cotton textiles had spread from India to the Mediterranean and beyond.[87]




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Jute plants Corchorus olitorius and

Corchorus capsularis cultivated first

in India.

Indigo dye: Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India,which was also the earliest major center for its production and

processing.[88] TheIndigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was

domesticated in India.[88] Indigo, used as a dye, made its way tothe Greeks and the Romans via various trade routes, and was

valued as a luxury product.[88]

Jute, cultivation of: Jute has been cultivated in India since

ancient times.[89] Raw jute was exported to the western world,

where it was used to make ropes and cordage.[89] The Indian juteindustry, in turn, was modernized during the British Raj in India.[89] The region of Bengal was the major center for Jutecultivation, and remained so before the modernization of India'sjute industry in 1855, when Kolkata became a center for jute

processing in India.[89]

Sugar refinement: Sugarcane was originally from tropical South

Asia and Southeast Asia.

[90]

Different species likely originated indifferent locations with S. barberi originating in India and S.

edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.[90] Theprocess of producing crystallized sugar from sugarcane was

discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas,[91] and the earliest

reference of candied sugar comes from India.[92] The process was

soon transmitted to China with traveling Buddhist monks.[92]Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India,initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.[93] Each mission returned with results on refining sugar.[93]




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Mathematics

H i n d u N u m b e r

H i n d u N u m b e r H i n d u N u m b e r

H i n d u N u m b e r S y s t u m

S y s t u m S y s t u m

S y s t u m

O r i y a

O r i y a O r i y a

O r i y a

E .

E .E .

E . N a g a r i

N a g a r i N a g a r i

N a g a r i

D e v a n a g a r i

D e v a n a g a r i D e v a n a g a r i

D e v a n a g a r i

G u j a r a t i G u j a r a t i G u j a r a t i G u j a r a t i

G u r m u k h i G u r m u k h i G u r m u k h i G u r m u k h i

T i b e t a n

T i b e t a n T i b e t a n

T i b e t a n

B r a h m i

B r a h m i B r a h m i

B r a h m i

T e l u g u

T e l u g u T e l u g u

T e l u g u

K a n n a d a

K a n n a d a K a n n a d a

K a n n a d a

M a l a y a l a m

M a l a y a l a m M a l a y a l a m

M a l a y a l a m

T a m i l T a m i l T a m i l T a m i l

B u r m e s e

B u r m e s e B u r m e s e

B u r m e s e

K h m e r

K h m e r K h m e r

K h m e r T h a i

T h a i T h a i

T h a i

L a o

L a oL a o

L a o

B a l i n e s e

B a l i n e s e B a l i n e s e

B a l i n e s e

J a v a n e s e

J a v a n e s e J a v a n e s e

J a v a n e s e

AKS primality test: The AKS primality test is adeterministic primality-proving algorithm created andpublished by three Indian Institute of TechnologyKanpur computer scientists, Manindra Agrawal,

Neeraj Kayal, and Nitin Saxena on August 6, 2002 in apaper titled PRIMES is in P




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The half-chord version of the sine

function was developed by the Indian

mathematician Aryabhatta.

Brahmagupta's theorem (598668)states thatAF= FD.

(http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/manindra/algebra/primality_v6.pdf) .[94][95] Commenting onthe impact of this discovery, Paul Leyland noted: "One reason for the excitement within themathematical community is not only does this algorithm settle a long-standing problem, it alsodoes so in a brilliantly simple manner. Everyone is now wondering what else has been

similarly overlooked".[95][96]

Algebraic abbreviations: The mathematician Brahmagupta had begun using abbreviations

for unknowns by the 7th century.[97] He employed abbreviations for multiple unknowns

occurring in one complex problem.[97]

Brahmagupta also used abbreviations for square rootsand cube roots.[97]

Basu's theorem: The Basu's theorem, a result of Debabrata Basu (1955) states that any

complete sufficient statistic is independent of any ancillary statistic.[98][99]

BrahmaguptaFibonacci identity, Brahmagupta formula, Brahmagupta interpolationformula Brahmagupta matrix, and Brahmagupta theorem: Discovered by the Indian

mathematician, Brahmagupta (598668 CE).[100][101]

Chakravala method: The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate

quadratic equations is commonly attributed to Bhskara II, (c. 11141185 CE)[102][103][104]

although some attribute it to Jayadeva (c. 950 ~ 1000 CE). [105] Jayadeva pointed out thatBrahmaguptas approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number

of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations. [106]Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhskara II in hisBijaganita treatise to be known as

the Chakravala method, chakra (derived from cakra\ ) meaning 'wheel' in Sanskrit,relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.[106][107] With reference to the Chakravalamethod, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhskara, nor much

later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.[102][106][108]




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Hindu number system: The Hindu numeral system was developed in India between the 2000-1500 BC during the Indus Valley Civilization.

Zero: Zero first evolved in India towards 2000-1500 BC during the Indus VallyCivilization.In those earlier times a blank space was used to denote zero, later when it createdconfusion a dot was used to denote zero(could be found in Bakhshali manuscript).In 500 ADAryabhata again gave a new symbol for zero(0) with some new rules.

Infinite series for Sine, Cosine, and arctangent: Madhava of Sangamagrama and hissuccessors at the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics used geometric methods toderive large sum approximations for sine, cosin, and arttangent. They found a number ofspecial cases of series later derived by Brook Taylor series. They also found the second-orderTaylor approximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approximation for sine.[109][110][111]

Law of signs in multiplication: The earliest use of notation for negative numbers, as

subtrahend, is credited by scholars to the Chinese, dating back to the 2nd century BC.[112] Likethe Chinese, the Indians used negative numbers as subtrahend, but were the first to establishthe "law of signs" with regards to the multiplication of positive and negative numbers, which

did not appear in Chinese texts until 1299.[112] Indian mathematicians were aware of negative

numbers by the 7th century,[112] and their role in mathematical problems of debt was

understood.[113] Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with negative numbers were

formulated,[114] and the diffusion of these rules led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to

Europe.[113]

Pell's equation, integral solution for: About a thousand years before Pell's time, Indianscholar Brahmagupta (598668 CE) was able to find integral solutions to vargaprakiti (Pell's

equation):[115][116]

whereNis a nonsquare integer, in hisBrhma-sphua-

siddhnta treatise.[116]

Pi, infinite series: The infinite series for is now attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c.

1340-1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.[117][118] He made use of the

series expansion ofarctanx to obtain an infinite series expression for .[117] Their rationalapproximation of the errorfor the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They

manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for .[119] They used the

improved series to derive a rational expression,[119]104348 / 33215 for correct up toeleven decimal places, i.e.3.14159265359.[120][121]

Ramanujan theta function, Ramanujan prime, Ramanujan summation, Ramanujangraph and Ramanujan's sum: Discovered by the Indian mathematician Srinivasa

Ramanujan in the early 20th century.[122]

Shrikhande graph: Graph invented by the Indian mathematician S.S. Shrikhande in 1959.

Sign convention: Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early formin India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the

use of letters to represent unknown quantities.[97] By the 7th century Brahmagupta had alreadybegun using abbreviations for unknowns, even for multiple unknowns occurring in one

complex problem.[97] Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and




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Cataract in the Human Eye

magnified view seen on examination

with a slit lamp. Indian surgeon

Susruta performed cataract surgery by

the 6th century BCE.

Amastigotes in a chorionic villus.Upendranath Brahmachari (December

19, 1873 - February 6, 1946)

discovered Urea Stibamine, a

treatment which helped nearly

eradicate Visceral leishmaniasis.

cube roots.[97] By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern

times, except for the bar separating the numerator and the denominator.[97] A dot symbol for

negative numbers was also employed.[97] The Bakhshali Manuscript displays a cross, muchlike the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolized subtraction when written just after the

number affected.[97] The '=' sign for equality did not exist.[97] Indian mathematics wastransmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the

scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.[123]

Trigonometric functions, adapted from Greek: The trigonometric functions sine andversine were adapted from the full-chord Greek version (to the modern half-chord versions)

by the Indian mathematician, Aryabhata, in the late 5th century.[124][125]

Medicine

Ayurveda: Traditional system of medicine dating back

to Iron Age India[126] (1st millennium BC) and stillpracticed today as a form of complementary and

alternative medicine. Means "knowledge forlongevity".[126]

Cataract surgery: Cataract surgery was known to the

Indian physician Sushruta (6th century BCE).[127] InIndia, cataract surgery was performed with a specialtool called theJabamukhi Salaka, a curved needleused to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the

field of vision.[127] The eye would later be soaked with

warm butter and then bandaged.[127] Though thismethod was successful, Susruta cautioned that cataract

surgery should only be performed when absolutelynecessary.[127] Greek philosophers and scientiststraveled to India where these surgeries were performed

by physicians.[127] The removal of cataract by surgery

was also introduced into China from India.[128]

Inoculation and Variolation: The earliest record ofinoculation and variolation for smallpox is found in8th century India, when Madhav wrote theNidna, a79-chapter book which lists diseases along with their

causes, symptoms, and complications.[129] He included

a special chapter on smallpox (masrik) anddescribed the method of inoculation to protect against

smallpox.[129]

Leprosy: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the firstmention of leprosy is described in the Indian medical

treatise Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[130]However, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to




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Medicine holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in

theAtharva-veda (15001200 BCE), written before the Sushruta Samhita.[131]

Plastic surgery: Plastic surgery was being carried out in India by 2000 BCE.[132] The system

of punishment by deforming a miscreant's body may have led to an increase in demand for

this practice.[132] The surgeon Sushruta contributed mainly to the field of Plastic and Cataract

surgery.

[133]

The medical works of both Sushruta and Charak were translated into Arabiclanguage during the Abbasid Caliphate (750 CE).[134] These translated Arabic works made

their way into Europe via intermidiateries.[134] In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare

Tagliacozzi of Bologna became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.[134]

Lithiasis treatment: The earliest operation for treating lithiasis, or the formations of stones in

the body, is also given in the Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[135] The operation involved

exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.[135]

Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of: The Indian (Bengali) medical practitioner UpendraNath Brahmachari (December 19, 1873 - February 6, 1946) was nominated for the Nobel

Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for his discovery of 'ureastibamine (antimonialcompound for treatment of kala azar) and a new disease, post-kalaazar dermal

leishmanoid.'[136] Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt of para-

amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.[137] Following the discovery ofUrea Stibamine, Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for

some underdeveloped regions.[137]

Mining

Diamond, mining, engraving, and use as tool: Diamonds were first recognized and mined in

central India,[138][139][140] where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found

along the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. It is unclear when diamonds were first minedin India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago. [141] India remained the world's only

source of diamonds until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in 18th century. [142][143][144]

Golconda served as an important center for diamonds in central India.[145] Diamonds then

were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.[145] Early references to diamonds

in India come from Sanskrit texts.[146] TheArthashastra of Kautilya mentions diamond trade

in India.[144] Buddhist works dating from the 4th century BCE mention it as a well-known and

precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting.[138] Another Indiandescription written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity,brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of

a diamond.[138]

A Chinese work from the 3rd century BCE mentions: "Foreigners wear it[diamond] in the belief that it can ward off evil influences".[138] The Chinese, who did not finddiamonds in their country, initially did not use diamond as a jewel but used as a "jade cutting

knife".[138]

Zinc, mining and medicinal use: Zinc was first recognised as a metal in India. Zinc mines of

Zawar, near Udaipur, Rajasthan, were active during 400 BCE.[147] There are references of

medicinal uses of zinc in the Charaka Samhita (300 BCE).[147] The Rasaratna Samuccayawhich dates back to the Tantric period (c. 5th - 13th century CE) explains the existence of two




13/27

Bengali Chemist Prafulla Chandra

Roy synthesized NH4NO2 in its pure

form.

A Ramachandran plot generated from

the protein PCNA, a human DNA

clamp protein that is composed of

both beta sheets and alpha helices

(PDB ID 1AXC). Points that lie on

the axes indicate N- and C-terminal

residues for each subunit. The green

regions show possible angle

formations that include Glycine,

while the blue areas are forformations that don't include Glycine.

types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used

for medicinal purpose.[147][148]

Science

Ammonium nitrite, synthesis in pure form: Prafulla

Chandra Roy managed to synthesize NH4NO2 in itspure form, and became the first scientist to have done

so.[149] Prior to Rays synthesis of Ammonium nitrite itwas thought that the compound undergoes rapidthermal decomposition releasing nitrogen and water in

the process.[149]

Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance:Invented jointly by Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar and K.N.Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-MathurMagnetic Interference Balance' was a moderninstrument used for measuring various magnetic

properties.[150] The first appearance of this instrumentin Europe was at a Royal Society exhibition inLondon, where it was later marketed by British firm

Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.[150]

Bhabha scattering: In 1935, Indian nuclear physicistHomi J. Bhabha published a paper in the Proceedingsof the Royal Society, Series A, in which he performedthe first calculation to determine the cross section of

electron-positron scattering.[151] Electron-positronscattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honor

of his contributions in the field.[151]

BoseEinstein statistics, condensate and Boson: OnJune 4, 1924 the Bengali professor of PhysicsSatyendra Nath Bose mailed a short manuscript toAlbert Einstein entitled Planck's Law and the LightQuantum Hypothesis(http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/jaa/15/3-7.pdf) seekingEinstein's influence to get it published after it wasrejected by the prestigious journal Philosophical

Magazine.[152] The paper introduced what is today

calledBose statistics , which showed how it could beused to derive the Planck blackbody spectrum from the

assumption that light was made of photons.[152][153]Einstein, recognizing the importance of the papertranslated it into German himself and submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious

Zeitschrift fr Physik.[152][153] Einstein later applied Bose's principles on particles with mass

and quickly predicted theBose-Einstein condensate.[153][154]




14/27

Chandrasekhar limit and Chandrasekhar number: Discovered by and named afterSubrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 for his work

on stellar structure and stellar evolution.[155]

Galena, applied use in electronics of: Bengali scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose effectively

used Galena crystals for constructing radio receivers.[156] The Galena receivers of Bose were

used to receive signals consisting of shortwave, white light and ultraviolet light.[156] In 1904Bose patented the use of Galena Detector which he called Point Contact Diode using Galena.[157]

Mahalanobis distance: Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician PrasantaChandra Mahalanobis (June 29, 1893June 28, 1972), this distance measure, based upon thecorrelation between variables, is used to identify and analyze differing pattern with respect to

one base.[158]

Mercurous Nitrite: The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 by the Bengalichemist Prafulla Chandra Roy, who published his findings in theJournal of Asiatic Society of

Bengal.[149] The discovery contributed as a base for significant future research in the field of

chemistry.[149]

Ramachandran plot, Ramachandran map, and Ramachandran angles: TheRamachandran plot and Ramachandran map were developed by Gopalasamudram NarayanaIyer Ramachandran, who published his results in theJournal of Molecular Biology in 1963.He also developed the Ramachandran angles, which serve as a convenient tool for

communication, representation, and various kinds of data analysis.[159]

Raman effect: The Encyclopdia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wavelength oflight that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named forSir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, who discovered it in 1928. When a beam of light

traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the lightemerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scatteredlight is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that

of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect." [160]

Raychaudhuri equation: Discovered by the Bengali physicist Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri in1954. This was a key ingredient of the Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems of general

relativity.[161]

Saha ionization equation: The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist Meghnad Saha(October 6, 1893 February 16, 1956) in 1920, conceptualizes ionizations in context of stellar

atmospheres.[162]

Innovations

Iron working: Iron works were developed in the Vedic period of India, around the same timeas, but independently of, Anatolia and the Caucasus. Archaeological sites in India, such asMalhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day Uttar Pradesh show iron

implements in the period between 1800 BCE1200 BCE.[163] Early iron objects found inIndia can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method of radiocarbon dating. Spikes,




15/27

knives, daggers, arrow-heads, bowls, spoons, saucepans, axes, chisels, tongs, door fittings etc.ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered from several archaeological sites of

India.[164] Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BC, iron smelting waspracticed on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be

placed earlier.[163] In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron appeared as early as 11th to12th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with

the northwest of the country.

[165]

In the time of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375413 CE),corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the Iron pillar of Delhi, which has withstood

corrosion for over 1,600 years.[166]

See also

History of science and technology in IndiaInventions of the Islamic Golden AgeList of Pakistani inventions and discoveriesTimeline of historic inventions

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