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INTRODUCTION “It’s best to keep the established laws, until the
very day we die” (Creon)
This study guide has been created to help you
explore one of the greatest tragedies ever written
– Antigone by Sophocles. You can use this guide to
help you with two units of the Higher Drama
course:
Drama Skills
Drama: Production Skills
Throughout this guide, we will explore a number
of areas including:
The Background & Context of the play
The Plot
The Characters
Themes & Issues
Directing Concepts
Now, it’s time to delve into a story of war,
conflict, power, rebellion, family and religion…it’s
time to hit tragedy – Ancient Greek Style!
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The Play Written around 1 BC by the playwright,
Sophocles, Antigone tells the story of a
princess who defies the law set down by her
uncle, the king and is condemned to death
as a result.
The play is widely considered to be one of
the best tragedies of all time, studied by
actors, directors and designers all over the
world.
Antigone focuses on the danger of having a
tyrant leader who makes bad decisions. It
also explores how an individual can stand
up for what they believe in. Many directors
have used the play to make comparisons with
modern-day dictatorships and conflicts.
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The Playwright Sophocles was an ancient greek
playwright who lived from
around 467 B.C. until 405/6 BC.. in
ATHENS. Along with Aeschylus and
Euripedes, He is widely regarded as
one of the most successful tragic
playwrights of his time
He is believed to have written around 120 plays in
his life, however, only seven of these survived in
their full form:
Ajax
Oedipus The King
Oedipus at colonus
Antigone
Electra
The Women of Trachis
Philoctetes
Sophocles competed regularly at
the Festivals of Lenaea & Dionysia,
winning around times and
never placing lower than second.
This made him the most successful
playwright in Ancient Greek
history that we know of.
Known as the Theban
Plays
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Why is he so important? Sophocles played a huge role in how drama
developed into what we know and love today. He
was writing at a time when Athens was the
intellectual and cultural centre of Europe.
One of the main achievements of Sophocles was his
ground-breaking decision to add a third actor on
the stage. This diminished the importance and role
of the traditional chorus and allowed his plays
to develop characters to a much deeper level due
to increase in dialogue.
He was also praised by the great PHILOSOPHER,
Aristotle for developing a formula for the perfect
tragic play – a formula which would be applied
by other playwrights for centuries.
Furthermore, he was also credited is being the first
person to use skenographia – painted scenery in his
plays,
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Plot summary The play takes place at the
end of a civil war in Thebes
– a city state in ancient
Greece. Two brothers, Eteocles
& Polynices fought against
each other in the war, both
dying in battle. The new
King (and their uncle), Creon
sides with Eteocles and gives him a full military
burial. However, Creon decrees that Polynices’ body
must be left unburied outside the city gates as
punishment for his rebellion – a punishment that
goes against the religion of the ancient greeks. He
declares that anyone who disobeys this order will
be put to death.
Meanwhile, Antigone &
Ismene, the sisters of the
dead brothers discuss Creon’s
decree inside the city walls.
Antigone is angry that
Creon has issued such an
order, and vows to bury
Polynices’ body. Ismene fears
the death penalty and refuses to take part in the
burial – causing Antigone to disown her.
Back in Creon’s court, the king gains support for
his law from a chorus of elders. However, a sentry
arrives bringing news that somebody has buried
Polynices’ body – but they don’t know who. Creon
is furious and orders the sentry to find the culprit
or face death himself. The sentry soon returns with
Antigone as his prisoner, revealing that they
caught her in the act trying to re-bury the body
when they exhumed it.
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Creon questions Antigone, who doesn’t deny her
crime. Instead, she argues with Creon about the
lawfulness of his decree, stating that it was
against the will of the gods. She also argues that
it was her moral duty to bury the body, as well
as her religious duty. Creon becomes EVEN ANGRIER
and decides to accuse Ismene as well, believing that
the two sisters must have plotted together. Ismene
is dragged in sobbing. She tries
to falsely confess so she can
die with her sister, but
Antigone refuses to let her be
a part of it. Creon places them
both in prison whilst he
decides their fate.
Meanwhile, Creon’s son, Haemon speaks with his
father about the situation. Haemon is engaged to
Antigone and whilst he begins the conversation as
if he is willing to forsake her, he soon tries to
convince Creon to spare her life. He tries to inform
Creon that the people of Thebes would not be happy
with her execution. Creon becomes more stubborn
and argues with his son. The argument ends with
haemon claiming he never wishes to see his father
again.
Creon decides to spare
Ismene, but sentences
Antigone to be buried alive
in a cave. Antigone remains
defiant in the face of her
imminent death. She argues
her point one last time
before being dragged off to
be sealed in the cave. The
chorus of elders express sorrow for her fate.
A stubborn and prideful Creon is then visited by a
blind prophet, Tiresias. In the past, Creon has always
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followed Tiresias’ advice. However, when Tiresias
criticises his decision to leave Polynices unburied
and to kill Antigone, Creon verbally attacks the
prophet – accusing him of being corrupt. Tiresias
then predicts that Creon will lose his own son and
his family will meet a tragic end. Creon, shaken by
Tiresias’ prophecy changes his mind and sets off with
his guards to free Antigone.
The chorus offer a blessing to the god Dionysus,
whilst Creon’s wife, Eurydice awaits news of
Antigone’s fate. A messenger soon arrives explaining
that the men got there too late – Antigone and
Haemon had already committed suicide. Antigone
had hung herself; Haemon stabbing himself when he
found the body. A grief-stricken Eurydice runs into
the palace.
Creon enters with the body of his son, blaming
himself for what has happened. A second messenger
then arrives, explaining to Creon that his wife has
now committed suicide as well, due to the grief
for the loss of her son. Creon is left without his
family, regretting his prideful ways. As he is helped
into the palace, the chorus lament that the order
and law that he wanted has
been upheld, but he has lost
his family as a result. They
end the play with the message
that making mistakes like this
teaches us an important life
lesson – the Gods punish the
proud, but it is these
punishments that bring about
wisdom.
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Character summary Antigone
The oldest daughter of
Oedipus. Her name in Greek
means “One who is of the
opposite opinion” (Anti =
against, gnomi = Opinion).
After her brothers died
fighting in battle against
each other, their uncle
Creon forbids the burial of
the eldest brother, Polynices
because he dared to attack
thebes. Antigone is outraged by the decree
and going against the advice of her younger
sister, Ismene, she buries the body. As a result,
Creon sentences her to death, even though
she is engaged to his son, Haemon. Antigone is
walled up inside a cave so that she starves
to death. However, she commits suicide by
hanging herself with a rope. Creon, realises
his mistake too late and unseals the cave
to find her dead. Antigone is a strong,
rebellious character. She hates creon with a
passion and believes that he is undermining
the gods. She stands up for what she believes
in and reacts badly towards those who
disagree with her.
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Creon
The brother of
Jocasta and King
of Thebes. After
the deaths of the
Theban princes,
Polynices &
Eteocles, Creon
claims the throne
for himself as the brother of the late queen.
His first edict forbids the burial of polynices
or any of the soldiers who attacked Thebes.
After his niece, Antigone disobeys the law, he
sentences her to death. He also plans to kill
Antigone’s younger sister, ismene, but holds
back when reminded of her innocence by the
chorus. He also ignores the advice of the
prophet Tiresias who warns him of his pride.
Creon is selfish, erratic and foolish. He is not
a wise ruler – often acting on impulse. Creon
suffers for his ignorance after realising his
mistakes too late. He loses his family through
his decisions – Antigone, His son Haemon and
his wife, Eurydice all commit suicide. Creon is
left humble, heartbroken and full of regret
at the end of the play.
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Ismene
The youngest
daughter of Oedipus.
Her name in Greek
means “to linger
towards” (Eis =
towards, mene =
linger). She tells
Antigone to obey
Creon’s decree, but her sister does not listen.
Ismene believes that women have no place
opposing men and that it is foolish to
challenge Creon. After Antigone is captured
and sentenced to die for burying polynices,
Ismene insists that she helped commit the
crime so that she can die with her sister.
Antigone tells the truth that Ismene had no
part in the burial at all, and Ismene is
spared. Throughout the play, she is a weak,
obedient citizen who is easily dominated by
others. Unlike her bold leader of a sister,
Ismene is a follower.
Haemon
Creon’s youngest son who is engaged to
Antigone. When Antigone is sentenced to
death, Haemon warns Creon that many
Thebans believe that she should live, as she
was following the law of the Gods. He
becomes very upset when Creon openly mocks
him in front of the citizens of Thebes for
standing up to him. After failing to convince
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his father, Haemon rushes to Antigone’s tomb.
When creon arrives, Haemon tries to stab him,
but misses. Then distraught, he stabs himself
to be with the woman he loves.
Tiresias
A blind old prophet.
Many years earlier,
Tiresias had
warned the Theban
king, Oedipus
(Antigone & ismene’s
father) that he
was guilty of
incest and patricide, but Oedipus had heeded
the warning too late. Now, the prophet
returns to Thebes, guided by a young boy to
warn Creon that the Gods are angry with
him for forbidding the burial of Polynices.
Creon accuses Tiresias of acting only for
money and scare-mongering. Tiresias is
angered by Creon’s refusal to listen and
warns him that he will pay a terrible price
for his pride and stubbornness. Tiresias
predicts that there will be further attacks
on Thebes that will devastate the city. Just
as Oedipus had, Creon realised his mistakes
too late – losing his family. Tiresias is well
respected by the citizens and elders of Thebes
due to his accurate prophecies in the past.
Creon used to trust and follow his advice,
but changes when the advice given goes
against his own will.
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Sentry
A soldier who tells Creon about the illegal
burial of Polynices’ body. He later is the one
who captures Antigone for committing the
crime. He is afraid of Creon’s anger when
initially informing him of the crime. Creon
threatens the Sentry with a death sentence
unless he captures the culprit – forcing him
to find Antigone. The Sentry is pardoned
when he bring Antigone to Creon.
Eurydice
The wife of Creon and mother of Haemon.
Eurydice had lost her oldest son, Megareus
in the battle and blamed Creon for his
death. After learning that her only
remaining son, haemon had committed suicide
with Antigone, she is overcome with grief. She
commits suicide, leaving Creon alone at the
end of the play mourning the loss of his
family.
Messenger
A man who tells Eurydice about her son,
Haemon’s suicide. Although the wise Chorus is
concerned about Eurydice as she runs away
abruptly after hearing the news, the
messenger sees no danger and praises Creon’s
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leadership. After Eurydice’s suicide, he delivers
the news to a devastated Creon.
Chorus & Leader
The chorus
is comprised
of Theban
Elders and
citizens,
with a
Leader
speaking as
an advisor
to Creon. First arriving as obedient to the
King, the chorus gives opinions about events
that occur in the story, as well as recalling
events of the past. In addition, there is a
gradual progression of the Chorus as it
increasingly provides more advice to Creon,
urging him to take Tiresias’ advice. At the
end of the play, the Chorus help lead a
Broken-hearted Creon away after lamenting
the importance of obeying the will of the
Gods.
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Non-Featured Characters A number of characters are mentioned in
the play but do not feature on stage:
Oedipus
The former king of Thebes
and the father of
Antigone, Ismene, Eteocles &
Polynices. His name in Greek
means “limping Foot” (oido =
to swell, pous = foot). He
was given this name after
his Father, Laius sliced his
ankles when he was a baby
so that he would die in the
wilderness, disabled. Laius
was worried by a prophecy
that Oedipus would one
day kill him. Oedipus grew up in exile, not
knowing the identity of his parents. Once
Grown, Oedipus kills his father and marries
his mother, Jocasta – not knowing that he
has committed incest and patricide. After
learning of his crimes, he tore out his own
eyes and was exiled from Thebes. After his
departure, his sons, Polynices & Eteocles
fought for the throne.
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Jocasta
The former Queen of Thebes and
Oedipus’ mother. When she
discovers that she has married
her son, she commits suicide by
hanging herself in the palace.
Polynices
The oldest son of Oedipus and brother of
Antigone & ismene. After his youngest brother,
Eteocles unjustly claims the Theban throne
for himself, Polynices assembles seven armies
to attack the city and regain his rightful
place as King. He dies in battle, as does his
brother. After his death, his uncle Creon
declares him a traitor and forbids his burial.
His sister Antigone, ignores the edict and
buries him.
Eteocles
The youngest son of Oedipus and brother of
Antigone & Ismene. Although his older
brother, Polynices is next in line for the
throne of Thebes, Eteocles claims the throne
for himself with the support of their uncle,
Creon. He exiles Polynices from Thebes.
Polynices attackes Thebes and kills Eteocles
in battle. After the battle, Creon seizes
power and buries Eteocles with full military
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honours, declaring him a hero for defending
Thebes.
Megareus
The youngest son of Creon & Eurydice and
brother of Haemon. Despite being warned by
Creon not to fight, Megareus joins the battle
for Thebes – fighting for Eteocles. Due to his
inexperience as a soldier, he is killed quickly.
His mother, Eurydice blaims his father Creon
for his death.
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Historical Background Drama expresses ideas about people, about
their relationships, about their hopes and
fears, their material and spiritual lives. It
comments on the society in which they live.
It caters for the interests and opinions of
the audience for whom it intended.
Therefore, in order to understand the Drama
of any period, it is necessary to view it in
the social, historical and cultural context
on the society in which it was written.
Greece in the fifth century B.C.
When the surviving Greek Tragedies were
written, Greece was not a single unified
state as it is today. It was made up of many
small, independent city-states. Each state
had its own government, political system
and military. Some of the more prominent
city-states were Thebes, Corinth, Sparta and
Athens. They has some things in common –
particularly their language and culture.
However, there was frequent warfare
between the City-States as they strived to
gain more power.
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The frequent warfare amongst the various
states caused a great deal of suffering for
the people of Greece. Many of the
playwrights used the stories from these wars
to influence their writing.
ATHENS
The City-State of
Athens is extremely
important to the
development of
Greek Drama. It was
here that Tragedy
was primarily
developed. All of
the remaining Greek
Tragedies were written to be performed in
Athens – making it the “home” of Greek
Tragedy. The development of the tragedy
genre came at a time when Athens was a
confident and expanding State.
By the middle of the Fifth Century B.C.,
Athens was establishing and consolidating
her power over many of the smaller city-
states. An alliance was formed between the
states called The Delian Confederacy.
Although this seemed like a typical alliance,
in effect it was controlled by Athens –
making it more of an Athenian Empire.
In addition to its political power, Athens
was becoming the centre for philosophy,
science and the arts. Many great thinkers
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and talented Greeks flocked to the city to
be a part of this cultural growth.
Citizenship was generally restricted to
native-born males of whom there were
around 25,000. Only Citizens were permitted
to take part in the city’s politics. Women,
Slaves and Foreigners were not allowed to
participate.
Prior to the Fifth Century B.C., Athens was
generally ruled by the aristocracy. However,
their grasp over the State was gradually
weakened in a series of bloody struggled. As
a result, Democracy was born in Athens –
one of the most influential political changes
in history. The rise of Democracy coincided
with the rise of Greek Tragedy in the
Theatre.
DEMOCRACY in ATHENS
The Ecclesia was a
council which all
citizens of Athens
were eligible to
attend. This council
decided upon policy
which governed the
day-to-day running
of Athens. A quorum of 6000 was required for
important votes to be decided. Justice was in
the hands of a range of people’s courts –
with juries paid to attend. Many of the
leading state offices were allocated by lot
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and held for only a year – encouraging a
rotation of power and fresh ideas.
The political life of Athens was dominated
by a statesman called Pericles who
explained:
“Our constitution is called a democracy
because the power is in the hands, not of a
minority, but of the whole people”
The active participation of the citizens in
government and justice, as well as the
Athenian respect for Education developed a
society which appreciated rhetorical and
performance skills. The philosopher Plato
wrote:
“Lack of training in singing, dancing and
poetry is synonymous with lack of
education.”
Tragedy therefore developed in the hothouse
climate of a relatively small, highly self-
conscious city, in which, philosophical,
political and social debates were flourishing.
People regularly discussed the relationships
between:
the individual & the establishment
Man & Nature
Man & The Gods
Men & Women
And many others…
Although Tragedy was based on stories from
the mythical past of Greece, it is clear that
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they reflected events & themes that were
important in the contemporary world of
Athens.
Becoming a Citizen
The journey to becoming a citizen of Athens
was linked heavily to ceremony and
religion. There were two main stages in the
“coming of age” of a young man in Athens.
At age 16, a boy
was given full
membership of the
festival of
Apatouria (the
festival linked to
citizenship). As part
of this ceremony he
would:
Offer wine to Heracles
Offer wine to his companions
Take part in the ceremonial cutting of
his hair
Celebrated with a sacrifice and a fest
At age 18, the boy would then begin two
years of military service, swearing the
following oaths:
Not to dishonour his weapons
Not to abandon a comrade in battle
To help make Athens greater
To obey the laws of the city
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To honour the cults of the fathers
After swearing the oath, he had to visit all
of the main temples and shrines in the city.
Upon completion of his service, he was then
made a citizen of Athens.
RELIGION IN ANCIENT ATHENS
Religion played a
vital part in
Athenian life. The
people believed in
many gods and
goddesses who each
had special interests.
The Athenian Gods
resembled humans in
their appearance and attitudes, but were
immortal.
The Gods demanded worship and respect, but
did not require the people to love them. The
gods also did not impose a moral code on
humans. All they wanted was for their
power to be recognised and respected.
If men showed respect through prayer and
sacrifice, they believed that the gods would
help them in all aspects of their life – from
granting a successful harvest to increasing
their chances of conceiving a baby. It was
also believed that a failure to show respect
to the gods would be punished with disaster
and heartache.
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In summary, there was:
No bible
No set of beliefs
No need to behave well
No need to love the Gods
an absolute requirement to worship and
respect the gods and their power
The main Gods
Whilst there were a great number of Gods
in Ancient Greek Religion, there were a group
of the most powerful and important gods –
“The Olympians”
ZEUS
King of the gods and ruler of
Mount Olympus; god of the sky, and
thunder. Youngest child of the
Titans Cronus and Rhea. Symbols
include the thunderbolt, eagle, oak
tree, sceptre, and scales. Brother
and husband of Hera, although he
had many lovers. Brother of
Poseidon and Hades
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Hera
Queen of the gods and the goddess
of marriage and family. Symbols
include the peacock, pomegranate,
crown, cuckoo, lion, and cow.
Youngest daughter of Cronus and
Rhea. Wife and sister of Zeus. Being
the goddess of marriage, she
frequently tried to get revenge
on Zeus' lovers and their children.
Poseidon
God of the seas, earthquakes, and
tidal wave. Symbols include the
horse, bull, dolphin, and trident.
Middle son of Cronus and Rhea.
Brother of Zeus and Hades.
Married to the Nereid
Amphitrite, although, like most male Greek
Gods, he had many lovers.
Demeter
Goddess of fertility, agriculture,
nature, and the seasons. Symbols
include the poppy, wheat, torch, and
pig. Middle daughter of Cronus and
Rhea.
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Athena
Goddess of wisdom, handicrafts,
defence, and strategic warfare.
Symbols include the owl and the
olive tree. Daughter of Zeus and the
Oceanid Metis, she rose from her
father's head fully grown and in
full battle armour after he
swallowed her mother.
Apollo
God of light, knowledge, healing,
plague and darkness, the arts,
music, poetry, prophecy, archery,
the sun, manly youth, and
beauty. Son of Zeus and Leto.
Symbols include the sun, lyre, bow
and arrow, raven, dolphin, wolf,
swan, and mouse. Twin brother of
Artemis.
Artemis
Goddess of the hunt, virginity,
childbirth, archery, the moon, and
all animals. Symbols include the
moon, deer, hound, she-bear, snake,
cypress tree, and bow and arrow.
Daughter of Zeus and Leto and
twin sister of Apollo.
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Ares
God of war, violence, and
bloodshed. Symbols include the boar,
serpent, dog, vulture, spear, and
shield. Son of Zeus and Hera, all
the other gods (except Aphrodite)
despised him. His Latin name, Mars,
gave us the word "martial."
Aphrodite
Goddess of love, beauty, and desire.
Symbols include the dove, bird,
apple, bee, swan, myrtle, and rose.
Daughter of Zeus and the Oceanid
Dione, or perhaps born from the
sea foam after Uranus' semen
dripped into the sea after being
castrated by his youngest son,
Cronus, who then threw his
father's genitals into the sea.
Married to Hephaestus, although
she had many adulterous affairs, most
notably with Ares. Her name gave us the
word "aphrodisiac", while her Latin name,
Venus, gave us the word "venereal".
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Hephaestus
Master blacksmith and craftsman
of the gods; god of fire and the
forge. Symbols include fire, anvil,
axe, donkey, hammer, tongs, and
quail. Son of Hera, either by Zeus
or alone. Married to Aphrodite,
though unlike most divine
husbands, he was rarely ever licentious. His
Latin name, Vulcan, gave us the word
"volcano."
Hermes
Messenger of the gods; god of
commerce, thieves, and games. Symbols
include the caduceus (staff
entwined with two snakes), winged
sandals and cap, stork, and tortoise
(whose shell he used to invent the
lyre). Son of Zeus and the nymph
Maia. The second-youngest Olympian,
just older than Dionysus.
Hestia
Goddess of the hearth and of the
right ordering of domesticity and
the family; she was born into the
first Olympian generation and
was one of the original twelve
Olympians. Some lists of the
Olympians omit her in favour of
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Dionysus, but the speculation that she gave
her throne to him in order to keep the peace
seems to be modern invention. She is the first
child of Cronus and Rhea, eldest sister of
Hades, Demeter, Poseidon, Hera, and Zeus. Also
the eldest of the Olympians.
Dionysus
God of wine, celebrations, and
ecstasy. Patron god of the art of
theatre. Symbols include the
grapevine, ivy, cup, tiger, panther,
leopard, dolphin, goat and pinecone.
Son of Zeus and the mortal Theban
princess Semele. Married to the
Cretan princess Ariadne. The
youngest Olympian, as well as the
only one to have a mortal mother.
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Festivals
One of the central
activities of Athenian
life was participation
in festivals. These
festivals were called
“Days of release.” The
festivals were
celebrated for a
number of reasons:
To honour the Gods
To relax and feast
Enjoyment and Merriment
Developing a sense of community
TO enjoy Drama
To enjoy Athletics
To give all social classes a chance to
participate
To recognise the stages of life
To show off wealth and power to other
states
There were different festivals throughout
the year including:
Monthly festivals – usually the first 8
days of a new month. These were used to
celebrate the gods’ birthdays
Agricultural Festivals
Festivals to honour the dead
Festivals recognising important family
events e.g. Births, Coming-of-age etc.
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State Festivals
Women in Religion
Despite not being able to participate in
political life in Athens, Women played a
vital role in religious life. They participated
in a number of ways:
PARTHENOI (Virgins)
Every year, between two and four girls of
noble birth were selected to live in the
Acropolis and to weave the Peplos – the robe
to be put on the wooden statue of AthenA.
They also had to tend her sacred olive tree
and carry certain objects in a basket on
their heads to the shrine of Aphrodite in the
gardens below the Acropolis. Two other
young girls were chosen as ‘washing girls’ to
give the olive-wood statue a ritual washing
in the sea.
Priestesses
These women usually
served the goddesses
rather than the male
gods. The pythia was
an exception. They
had very little power.
They were in charge
of rituals and the running of the
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sanctuary. They were greatly respected
despite the lack of political power.
Participation in Cults
A number of cults were exclusive to Women
– as were some of the festivals e.g. the Skira
and the Thesmophoria festivals. They served
as Maenads or worshippers of Dionysus. As
women were given little opportunity to
meet outside of the home in Athens,
participation in Cults was a good way of
socialising with other women.
Midwives
The midwife’s duty at the birth of a child
was to ensure that the religious rituals
were performed correctly. She gave out
drugs, recited spells and prayed to Artemis
to ease the pain of birth. Since doctors were
rarely present at a birth, the midwives were
very important. The only qualification
necessary was to be above childbearing years
of age.
Tending Corpses and the grave
Women played the central role in rituals
concerning the disposal and care of the dead.
It was the women who bathed and dressed
the corpse, sang the lament and tended the
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tomb regularly. Again, funerals provided an
opportunity to leave the house and socialise.
DEATH RITUALS IN ANCIENT GREECE
A death was a
significant event in
Ancient Greek
society. There was
a series of rituals
that had to be
performed to
prepare the dead soul for the afterlife:
Three Days of Fasting
A cypress branch or lock of hair was
hung on the door to indicate death
A bowl of water was placed outside the
door so that visitors to the house could
purify themselves when leaving
The eyes and mouth of the dead person
were closed by the nearest male relative
The body was washed and clothed by the
women of the house
The body was given a crown of gold or
parsley
If the dead person was a woman, her hair
and jewellery would be arranged AS IN
EVERYDAY LIFE
Young unmarried people were buried in
wedding clothes
After this preparation took place, a 24-hour
long funeral took place:
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The body was given an Obol to pay
Charon
The body was placed on a bier, covered,
and with feet facing the door
Branches and oil jars were placed
around the bier
Mourners stood around and sang
laments. Some funerals paid for
professional mourners
Relatives tore their hair and cheeks
whilst pounding their chests
The body would then be buried. After this,
The GOD, Hermes is believed to have led the
souls to Charon – the ferryman. Charon
would accept the payment of an Obol to
ferry the souls over the river Styx. On the
other side, the souls were judged by Minos,
Aeacus & Rhadymanthus. Upon judgement,
souls were sent to one of three places:
The Asphodel Fields if they were neither
very good nor very bad in their life
The Elysian Fields if they were good –
usually reserved for brave warriors
Tartarus if they were very wicked –
where the god Hades would punish them
forever
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Development of Greek
Theatre The word “Drama” is derived from the Ancient
Greek word, “Draein” which means “to do.”
Academics and scholars have debated for
many years about the origin of Drama.
However, all agree that Drama was linked
to the worship of the God, Dionysus.
The religious rites in his honour involved
many different activities. It was not
uncommon to see songs, sacrifices, drunkenness
and even orgies at a Dionysian festival.
In the early years of ancient Greece, ecstatic
songs and hymns that were sung to Dionysus
were called DITHYRAMBS – it is believed that
theatre evolved from these.
Around the seventh century B.c., Arion of
Corinth, a poet fixed the rules for a
dithyramb. There were to be fifty singers
and, for the first time, dialogue between the
leader and the other singers.
In the sixth century B.C., Thespis of Attica
developed Arion’s idea further. He introduced
an actor – the Hypocrites which means
“person who plays a part.” Thespis was no
longer a member of the chorus. The actor
would introduce the story and dress up to
play the various characters. He stood apart
from the chorus and had a small tent for
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changing. Masks were
used and, when the
actor left to change
roles, the chorus filled
the gaps with singing
and dancing.
Thespis was also the
first man to introduce
stories that were not
directly about
Dionysus. He acted in
his own plays which
had features of later
greek drama: prologue,
Choral odes, Long speeches and dialogue with
the chorus leader. He produced a play for
the very first competition in 534 B.C.
Actors have been known as “Thespians” ever
since!
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Dionysus & The Theatre As stated above, the Patron God of the
Theatre, Dionysus played a vital role in the
development of Drama in Ancient Greece. Not
only does he feature as a character in a
number of plays – but the plays were
written to be performed at Festivals
dedicated to his worship.
There were four annual festivals associated
with the worship of Dionysus:
The Rural Dionysia
Held in December in various parts of Attica,
these were fertility rituals. There was a
procession followed by the sacrifices and
revelry around the god’s altar. Finally,
plays were performed, some of them new, but
most of them repeats of plays which were
debuted at the City of Dionysia Festival the
previous March.
The LenaEa
Held in January, women with torches, flutes
and sacred wands danced wildly to arouse
the sleeping god. Around 440 B.C., contests in
Drama were introduced – mainly
concentrating on Comedy.
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The ANthesteria
Held in late February, this was mainly
concerned with opening the new wine jars
and drinking the contents. Not surprisingly,
no plays were performed at this festival as
everyone was too drunk!
The City (or great) Dionysia
Held around the
end of March in
Athens, this was
the most
important and
prestigious of
the festivals.
Spectators came
from all over
the world – not just Greece to witness it.
Allied city-states brought tributes to Athens.
Ambassadors came to meet with the Athenian
Government. War hostages were paraded in
public. Prominent citizens were given public
honours. The law-courts were closed. Even
prisoners were released on bail to attend
the festivities.
Dramatic performances were added to the
festival around 534 B.C.
The festival was so grand and opulent that
they started planning the next year’s events
the day after the current one ended. It was
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the ‘Glastonbury’ or ‘T in the Park’ of its
time.
For the Drama competition, three tragic
playwrights were chosen. Each had to
provide three tragedies and a satyr play.
Any tragic dramatist who wished to enter
the contest applied to the Archon Eponymous
– the chief magistrate who then made the
choice of who was to compete. Once selected,
each playwright was granted a chorus and
a choregos – a wealthy Athenian who would
meet the expenses of the plays. A flute player
was also assigned to the playwright. From
the middle of the fifth century B.c., a
Protagonist – Leading actor was also
assigned. Rehearals could then begin.
Costumes and Scenic effects were also
constructed.
Immediately prior to the opening of the
festival, an even more elaborate system for
choosing the judges was initiated. The city
council drew up a list of suitable men from
each of the ten tribes of Attica. Each name
was written on a separate tablet. These
were then sealed in ten tribal caskets and
locked in the acropolis. If anyone tampered
with them, they faced the death penalty!
The Athenians took drama competitions very
seriously!
On the first day of the festival, a name was
drawn from each casket in the theatre. This
provided the list of ten judges. The judges
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then sat in special seats and took a sacred
oath to judge fairly.
The City of Dionysia Schedule
The festival lasted six days and followed
the same schedule of events every year:
Day One
A procession to
the temple of
Dionysus, led by
a girl of noble
birth who
carried the
offerings. Next
came the choregoi in splendid robes.
Days Two, Three and Four
Each tragic playwright presented three
tragedies and a satyr play. A comic poet
presented one comedy.
Day Five
Men’s choral singing competition. Fourth
comedy presented.
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Day Six
Boy’s Choral singing competition. Fifth comedy
presented.
The theatre was considered to be the right
of everyone in Athens. Audiences took a keen
interest in the outcome of these competitions.
Admission was initially free for all, but
eventually a small charge of two obols was
charged. A public fund was established to
provide funding to buy tickets for the poor.
Prizes were awarded to the best group of
tragedies and to the best comedy. The
winning playwright and his Choregos were
crowned with ivy wreaths inside the
theatre. There were also smaller prizes for
the best tragic actor and the best choral
singers.
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46
What is Tragedy? In modern-day
theatre, tragedy
is often reduced
to a genre where
the play doesn’t
have a happy
ending. However,
when discussing
Greek Tragedy, it
is so much more!
An Athenian in the Fifth Century B.c. may
have defined Tragedy as:
“a play performed at the Dionysian festivals,
usually dealing with figures from the
mythical past. It generally involves people
killing each other, or threatening to do so
and being prevented. It involves song, dance,
music and spoken
dialogue. It tends to
be written in a
slightly old-fashioned
language to make it
sound grand…”
It wasn’t until a century later that
philosophers and critics began to discuss the
features of a Greek Tragedy. One of the most
important critics to enter the debate was
Aristotle.
Aristotle was born in 384 B.C., the son of a
doctor at the court of macedon. He studied
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for twenty years at
Plato’s academy. Later, he
was appointed as tutor to
a young Alexander the
Great.
Aristotle’s major work on
Drama, “Poetics” has had a
major effect on the
development of Drama
across the centuries. The
book also provides a
valuable insight into how Ancient greeks
viewed Drama in their society. Before writing
it, he read and studied every greek tragedy
ever written and traced the features that
they all had in common.
Aristotle outlined many key aspects of what
makes a good greek tragedy. Firstly, they
followed a set structure:
1. Prologue – the opening scene, involving
dialogue
2. The Parados – The first entrance and
song of the chorus
3. The first Episode – A dialogue scene
4. The first Stasimon – A choral Song
Episodes and Stasimon are then alternated
until…
5. The EXODOS – The final dialogue scene
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Aristotle then outlined a set of ‘rules’ for
an effective Greek Tragedy. The table below
outlines the rules, and shows how well
Antigone sticks to these.
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Antigone: Tragic Analysis TRAGEDY MUST CONCERN THE GODS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON HUMAN AFFAIRS
In “Antigone,” the gods are frequently mentioned but do not actually appear. Antigone obeys the law of the gods by burying her brother, Polynices. Creon is warned by Tiresias that he has offended the gods by stubbornly refusing to change his mind about forbidding the burial of polynices. He further angers them when he sentences Antigone to die. For this, he is punished – losing his wife, his only remaining son and his niece to suicide. At the end of the play, he pays the price for defying the gods.
Tragedy Must Concern people of importance
In “Antigone,” The action centres upon the royal family of thebes. The Theban royal family were believed to be distantly descended from Zeus.
The central character must experience Peripeteia – a gradual change from contentment to ruin
In “Antigone,” Creon is first seen as the new king, proud of his position and rather smug. As the play progresses, he becomes less contented. Antigone angers him by breaking his decree and he sentences her to death. He is then confronted by haemon, Ismene, Tiresias and The Chorus who all warn Creon of his wrong-doing. Creon changes his decree in the last scene but it is too late. He is left alone, broken and humble.
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The Central Character’s journey follows a set structure – Hubris,
Hamartia and Anagnorisis Hubris is an excess of pride or ambition which offends the gods. Hamartia is a fatal error of judgement Anagnorisis is a realisation and acceptance of responsibility of one’s own actions In “Antigone,” Creon’s Hubris is the pride he has in his ambition, believing that he can rule Thebes with supreme authority. He even decrees that Polynices cannot be buried – against the God’s wishes Creon’s Hamartia occurs when he sentences Antigone to death for following her conscience and the law of the gods. Creon’s Moment of Anagnorisis occurs when he realises his error of judgement following tiresias’ terrible prophecy. He is then left admitting his faults when cradling his dead son’s body whilst his wife’s body is lying nearby.
In a Tragedy, the main characters must explain what is motivating their actions. This motivation is
called Ethos and Dianoia. In “Antigone,” we discover that Creon’s actions are motivated by his inflexible respect for his own authority as the head of state. Antigone’s actions are motivated by love and respect for her dead family. She is also motivated by respect and fear of the gods.
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In a Tragedy, the audience must experience Catharsis – a release of
emotions of fear and sorrow
In “Antigone,” the audience might be expected to feel fear when Tiresias is describing his failed sacrifice, or when Creon begins to rage against his own son, Haemon. The audience might experience sorrow when Antigone, on her way to be buried alive in a cave, says her last mournful farewell to the city of Thebes. They may also experience sorrow when they see Creon embrace his dead son at the end of the play.
A Tragedy must be written in verse and music
“Antigone” is written in blank verse – its dialogue is effectively poetry. All of the choral odes were sung to the accompaniment of a flute. Some other tragedies were written in iambic tetrameter. The composition of the verses was down to the individual playwright’s preference. Some playwrights used Stichomythia –single lines of the same length uttered about in turn by two actors in order to emphasise pace.
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A Tragedy must fit the Structure outlined above
“Antigone” fits Aristotle’s structure. The prologue features Antigone seeking ismene’s help whilst outlining what is happening to set the scene. The chorus then enters and performs the Parados – a hymn to the rising sun. Then the first episode features Creon repeating his decree and discovering that it has been broken. Then the first Stasimon is performed by the chorus. This pattern then repeats until the final scene – the exodus where Creon is left a broken man,
In a tragedy, death must not be enacted on the stage. Instead, it should be reported or shown as a tableau on the Ekkyklema – truck.
In “Antigone,” the messenger delivers the news of Antigone’s suicide, as well as Haemon’s. The dead body of Eurydice is shown to the audience as a tableau on the Ekkyklema.
In a tragedy, the characters must be convincing. In addition, female characters must not be shown as manly or clever. “Antigone” meets the first part of this rule, but not necessarily the second. The main characters are convincing: Antigone is the rebellious, god-worshipping princess, Creon is the stubborn and proud ruler, Ismene is the frightened, emotional sister, Haemon is the passionate idealistic prince. Each of these characters can be brought to life through skilful acting. However, “Antigone” is shown to be more than a match for Creon intellectually. She
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debates with flair. Even Ismene, although more submissive is shown to be thoughtful and intelligent when trying to convince Antigone to follow Creon’s decree. With the strong female characters in Antigone appearing – it can be argued that Sophocles created a feminist tragedy – one of the first of its kind.
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The Theatre of Dionysus In Athens, plays were presented in the
Theatre of Dionysus on the south-east slope
of the acropolis – close to the temple of the
gods.
Ancient Greek
Theatres looked
very different
to many of the
modern theatres
that exist.
However, The
Theatre of
Dionysus
underwent
many
architectural changes throughout the
centuries.
The Ruins that have been preserved by
archaeologists are actually more likely to
be of the roman era version of the theatre.
Historians have worked for years to try and
reconstruct a picture of what the theatre
would look like with the evidence from
historic writings and ruins.
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Theatre Architecture In general terms, there were three main
sections of an Ancient Greek Theatre:
The Orchestra
The Proskenion
The THEATRON
The Orchestra
The word derives from the Greek word for
“Dancing place.” This was a complete, flat
circle of space. It measured around twenty
metres in diameter. This is where the Chorus
would perform. Originally, the altar of
Dionysus stood at its centre, surrounded by
a raised seat for the flute player and the
leader of the chorus.
The Proskenion
The acting area – a low, narrow platform
about three metres deep. This is where the
principal action of the play took place. It
was also known as the Logeion – “Speaking
place.” This was backed by the SKENE – a long,
low building that was originally intended
to be a place for actors to dress and make
entrances. There was one central doorway,
about three metres wide with double doors.
The structure had two projecting side wings
– Paraskenia. GrADUALLY, THE skene CAME TO
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BE USED AS A SCENIC BACKGROUND FOR THE
ACTION. Its roof came to be used as a high-
level acting area, usually for the
appearance of the gods. This became knowen
as the Theologeion. On either side of the
stage, a wide passageway separated it from
the audience – these were called the PARADOS.
Parados were used as an entrance for the
chorus and some actors.
The Theatron
“The Seeing Place.” This area was sometimes
known as the Auditorium – “The Hearing
place.” This was a tiered seating area which
surrounded two-thirds of the orchestra. In
the late fifth century, the theatron of the
theatre of Dionysus could accommodate 15,000
audience members. Whilst most had a distant
view of the action, the acoustics of the
large bowl-shaped structure were excellent,
allowing them to hear the action. The
Theatron was split into wedge-shaped
sections of seating, called Kerkis. The stairs
that separated the seating were called
Klimakes.
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59
Whilst many of the Ancient Greek theatres
are nothing more than ruins now, one of
the best preserved examples can be found at
Epidaurus.
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Scenery and Effects There are two opposing views on the use of
scenery in ancient greek theatre. One school
of thought argues that realistic scenery
was neither used nor necessary and that
the audience used their imagination. The
opposing view is that painted canvas sets
were fixed to the wall of the Skene and
changed as necessary. These canvasses
depicted the location of the action e.g. a
Palace, Temple or the Coastline.
In some theatres, Periaktoi were fixed at
either end of the acting area. These were
large, tall prisms which could be revolved.
The different faces of the pillars could be
painted to depict a different location.
Some plays required an altar on the acting
area, in addition to the orchestra. This was
often used to represent a tomb.
Scenes that required a character to rise
from the earth utilised a small tunnel
under the acting area which led to a trap-
door.
There were also painted wooden statues of
each god available for use. These could be
dressed up and used on stage.
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As death was
never shown on
stage in Greek
Tragedy, the
corpse was often
shown to the
audience on
Ekkyklema – a
wheeled platform
which ran on
tracks from the
central door of
the Skene to the acting area. The death
scene was often displayed in a tableau.
The other principal staging effect was the
use of the Mechane – a crane by which
actors playing gods could fly in from above
the acting area and solve the problems of
the characters. This dramatic technique is
known as “Deus Ex Machina”.
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Props Personal and hand props may have been used
to indicate the nature of particular
characters. The king would carry a septre.
Travellers wore wide-brimmed hats. Heralds
would carry wreaths. The Furies would
carry lit torches. The gods would carry
their own emblems e.g. Zeus would carry a
thunderbolt and Poseidon would hold a
trident.
Costume and Masks The main garment worn by greek
men and women was the Chiton.
This was a rectangular piece of
undyed woollen cloth, wrapped
around the body and pinned at
the shoulders. It was then pinned
down the open side and belted. A
man’s chiton was usually knee-
length, woman’s to her ankles. A
woollen cloak called a Himation
was worn over the Chiton,
particularly in winter.
An actor wore the same basic costume,
usually with modifications for spectacle and
convenience. His Chiton and Himation were
long, highly coloured and embroidered with
rich designs to suit the character being
played. The Chiton was sewn rather than
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pinned, enabling faster changes.
It was fitted with long sleeves
to cover men’s hairy arms when
portraying a woman – as well
as to protect them from cold
when performing in winter.
Special costumes were made for
certain roles: There was a
recognised mourning costume, A
costume to symbolise foreigners
and a ragged costume for a
hero in distress.
Tragic actors usually wore soft,
high-topped boots on their feet.
All actors wore masks made of linen, cork
or wood. The masks were skilfully painted.
Light brown masks signified a male
character, white signified a female
character. They had hair and beads
attached a necessary. There were several
reasons for wearing masks:
Actors had to portray many different
roles on the stage
All actors were male, but had to portray
characters of both genders
The range of age and character types
played was vast
Masks made character changes instant
and distinctive.
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Acting: Voice and Movement From the fifth
century B.C., the
number of actors
in a greek
tragedy seems to
have been
restricted to
three. There were
“extras,” but these
roles were not considered to be real actors.
All actors were male and portrayed various
roles. Since masks hid their faces,
characterisation, mood and emotion had to
be conveyed through voice and movement.
Some passages were spoken unaccompanied,
some spoken to a flute accompaniment.
Choral passages were usually sung. Therefore,
an actor had to be able to speak, recite and
sing. Their voices had to be strong enough to
fill the vast theatre without straining, yet
with enough emotion and range to portray
characters from a young girl to a King or
God.
Gestures had to be obvious and broad. Some
common gestures were:
Opening the arms wide
Kneeling
Beating the breast
Pointing with the whole arm
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Yet none of these could look stiff or
awkward. Because of the size of the theatre,
delicate or subtle movement would have
been ineffective. The plays themselves also
refer to rapid movement – fighting, running,
escaping or wrestling. To counter the effect
of the masks, there may have been a range
of specific movement to symbolise kissing,
crying and smiling for example.
Historians are still
undecided on the
specific style of
acting used, as
there is not enough
definitive evidence
in the remaining
written works of
the time. The plays
often call for a
very naturalistic
approach – weeping,
arguing, romance.
However, there are
also strong
arguments for a
more stylised
approach – actors
would have to play
a range of characters in a short space of
time, there was regular musical elements in
the performances and some stories had an
abstract structure.
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However, what is clear is that the actors
had to engage the audience’s sympathy and
attention to achieve Catharsis.
The role of the Chorus From the fifth
century B.C., the
chorus numbered
fifteen. Usually,
they performed in
unison but, at
times, could be
divided into A
LEADER AND TWO
SEMI-CHORUSES OF
SEVEN. These might perform in turn, exchange
or divide speeches. The leader – The
Coryphaeus might have solo lines, engaging
in conversation with the main characters –
as seen in “Antigone.”
The Chorus usually entered after the
Prologue of a play, performing the parados
and remaining on stage until the end.
The chorus had many functions:
It was an actor in the Drama, expressing
opinions, giving advice, threatening to
interfere in the events of the play
It often established the ethical
framework of the play – expressing the
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playwright’s views and setting a
standard against which the characters
might be judged
It was frequently the ideal spectator,
reacting to events and characters in a
manner which the playwright would
like the audience to
It helped to set the mood and heighten
dramatic effects
It added colour, movement and spectacle.
Choral interludes were accompanied by
music and dance
It served an important rhythmic
function, pauses in which to look
backwards and forwards, contributing
to the overall emotional effect
The Chorus are absolutely essential in Greek
Drama. It is impossible to analyse a greek
play without examining the role of the
chorus. Every playwright utilised them in
different ways – but all to increase the
dramatic effect of their work.
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The key Themes of the Play There are many themes that permeate
“Antigone.” The play features a plot that
communicates a number of issues that are
pertinent to society – both Ancient greek
and contemporary. Some of the key themes
are outlined below.
PRIDE Throughout “Antigone” and indeed, Sophocles’
other plays – pride is a trait that is despised
by the gods and punishes without mercy:
The sons of Oedipus – Eteocles and
Polynices were too prideful because they
did not discuss what was best for Thebes.
They both believed they had the divine
right to rule. They both died in battle
against each other, leaving neither of
them with the throne.
Antigone is too prideful to obey the law
of the King, Creon. Instead of listening
to her ruler, Antigone buries her
brother anyway, condemning herself to
death.
Creon’s pride prompts him to turn
Polynices into a villain – despite both
he and Eteocles being guilty of the same
crime. Both men wanted to gain the
throne for their own benefit. Creon is
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corrupted by the same power that drove
the brothers into battle.
Even a lowly sentry can see what Creon
cannot. Denying burial to a man is a
crime that violates the religious laws
of the gods. The sentry suggests that the
gods buried polynices, which creon
dismisses. Creon is too prideful to realise
that he is the real criminal for making
a law that violates religious laws.
The chorus state that the laws of the
gods are greater than those of the city.
If a city wants to be prosperous, then
the king must obey the laws of the gods
whilst governing a city. Creon fails to
do this, ignoring their advice and is
punished by the gods in the end for his
prideful actions.
Creon’s pride not only makes him feel
superior to the Gods, he also feels he is
superior to women because he is a man.
Creon is insulted at the very thought
of a mere woman daring to disobey his
laws. His pride leads him to having no
respect for women.
Creon’s son, haemon gives advice to creon
that the citizens of Thebes do not want
Antigone to be condemned for what she
has done – stating that they are upset.
Creon ignores the desires of his citizens
as his pride makes him feel above their
needs and wants.
Creon’s cruel mocking of haemon isolates
his son, forcing him to run away and
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commit suicide. Creon’s pride causes him
to lose is only remaining son.
The Chorus sings about other people who
were victims of their pride: One man
tried to kill Danae’s son and was killed
for it; one man mocked Bacchus and was
torn apart by his own mother; another
man crossed paths with Zeus when he
could predict the future and was
punished.
Creon’s pride causes him to ignore the
wise advice of Tiresias, mocking the
prophet and accusing him of acting for
money. He is too stubborn to heed the
warnings given by the wise old man.
Creon finally puts his pride aside and
listens to the chorus’ wise advice. It is
difficult for him to do this, and even
then he is only doing it because he fears
the retribution of the gods.
The messenger suggests that Haemon
committed suicide because his own pride
stopped him from obeying his father’s
wishes. They argue that he died because
he was too prideful to follow his
father’s orders.
Creon’s pride eventually is gone when
he arrives at Antigone’s tomb to find
her and Haemon dead. He laments that
he has a new-found respect for the gods.
Creon is further humbled by his wife,
Eurydice’s suicide. He acknowledges that
his bad decisions led to the terrible end
for his family.
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The chorus mentions that great words
of haughty men bring great punishments
– emphasising that creon’s pride is the
main reason for his downfall.
DEATH Death features heavily in “Antigone” –
playing a central role in the plot:
Antigone’s family is filled with Death.
Her father Oedipus killed his own father
before he married his own mother. His
mother, Jocasta committed suicide. Oedipus
died in exile, ashamed of his crimes.
Antigone’s brothers, Polynices and
Eteocles died fighting each other in
battle.
The punishment laid down for burying
Polynices’ body is death. Ismene is afraid
that her sister, Antigone will die too if
she breaks the decree. Ismene is worried
that she will be the last of her family
alive.
Creon threatens the Sentry with death
if he does not find the culprit who
buried the body of Polynices.
When the sentry digs up Polynices,
Antigone rushes to the body to bury it
again – protecting it from harm. She
respects the dead.
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Antigone is angered by Creon’s decision to
pass a law that governs the dead.
Antigone believes that the laws of the
gods govern the dead – not the laws of
man.
Antigone believes that the dead cannot
rest until given a proper burial.
Creon condemns Antigone to death
without hesitation – claiming that if she
wants to be with Polynices, she should
go into the underworld with him.
When Antigone is condemned, Ismene
claims she helped her commit the crime as
she would rather die than live her life
without her sister.
Creon initially planned to execute both
Ismene and Antigone until the chorus
remind him of Ismene’s innocence.
Creon takes Death very lightly – he is
even willing to execute Antigone in
front of Haemon without worrying how
it would affect his son.
Antigone becomes obsessed with her own
death after she is condemned. She feels
that she can no longer see herself as
alive, as she is aware of her imminent
demise. She even goes as far as to say she
will marry the lord of death.
Antigone begins to long for her death, as
she believes she will be with her family
again in the underworld.
Tiresias chastises Creon for disrespecting
the dead as it goes against the laws of
the gods. Tiresias insists that creon
74
should allow Polynices to be buried and
that he should pardon Antigone as it is
a crime against the gods to bury a living
person alive.
Once creon’s own family is touched by
death, his disrespect for the dead quickly
disappears. The death of his son haemon
motivates him to change.
Haemon and Eurydice both commit suicide
– choosing death over life without loved
ones.
By the end of the play, Creon is so
distraught that he claims that he feels
like he has died.
Women As the events of the play are motivated by
the actions of a female character –
Antigone. Therefore, the role of women in
society is an important theme:
When Antigone tells her sister, ISmene
that she wishes to bury Polynices, Ismene
claims that as women, they have no
power to overthrow the laws of men.
Creon is astonished and outraged that a
woman in particular would disobey his
decree.
Creon makes particular reference to
Antigone being a woman when passing his
sentence. It could be argued that he gives
75
the death sentence out so easily because
a woman has disobeyed him.
Creon believes that women are inferior
to men – insisting that they can be
broken with a light bit – comparing them
to horses.
Creon believes that he will be mocked by
the people of thebes if he releases
Antigone – as woman got the better of
him.
Creon wants his son, Haemon to disrespect
Antigone by spitting on her. Haemon
however has the opposite view from his
father and respects Antigone.
Creon turns on Haemon when he learns
of his respect for women. He calls him a
woman’s slave.
The chorus lament about other women
in greek history who have suffered –
Danae, Pentheus’s Mother and Phineus’
wife. This draws more attention to the
fact that women are mistreated in greek
society.
Haemon dies for the woman he loves –
Antigone means that much to him.
Antigone firmly believes that women are
equal to men in the eyes of the gods.
76
Individual Vs.
Establishment Antigone is also a very good example of
the individual standing up against the
establishment.
Antigone stands up and rebels against
the law of thebes, set out by creon –
the king. She does this by burying
polynices’ body This means that she is an
individual taking on the establishment
of the royal family.
Ismene believes that no individual has
the power to stand up to the throne.
She believes that the establishment is
too strong.
Creon boldly proclaims that any man
who defends the state will be
rewarded by him in life and death –
supporting his view that the
establishment is more important than
the wants of any individual who
opposes it.
The sentry is forced to seize Antigone
to protect his own life after creon’s
threats. Therefore he is compelled as an
individual to follow the orders of the
establishment.
It could be argued that Creon is also
an individual who takes on the
77
establishment as he makes laws that
contradict the will of the gods.
When brought before Creon, Antigone
argues that the people of thebes are
too scared to stand up to Creon as
they are scared for their lives.
Antigone openly mocks the
establishment.
The chorus proclaim that Zeus and the
gods have the almighty power to
influence the lives of men – showing
that the established laws of the gods
are more powerful than the laws made
by a man.
Although Haemon tries to reason with
his father, he too rebels against him
and refuses to follow orders to
disrespect Antigone.
Before she dies, Antigone proclaims that
she hopes the Gods punish the men who
disrespect the laws.
Tiresias is angry that Creon is
disobeying the gods – warning him that
disrespecting the established laws of
Zeus will lead to his ruin.
Creon realises his mistaKES TOO LATE –
CLAIMING THAT IT IS BEST TO STICK TO THE
ESTABLISHED LAWS OF THE GODS.
Creon is ultimately punished for his
actions – losing his family.
78
79
Antigone Antigone appears at the very beginning of
the play with her sister, Ismene. She comes
across as a strong, fiery woman from her
first lines.
She immediately describes to the audience, all
of the disasters which have befallen her
family and the negative effect that Creon’s
decree will have. Antigone is distraught at
the death of both of her brothers and is
angry at creon’s decision to forbid Polynices’
burial.
She asks Ismene to help her bury their
brother, Polynices’ Body. She is determined
that nothing will stop her from doing this
final service for her brother. Ismene’s refusal
to help angers Antigone. This only serves to
make her more determined to go through
with the burial. In this Prologue, we discover
a number of personality traits that
Antigone possesses:
She is a devoted, loving sister
“And even if I die in the act, that death
will be a glory. I will lie with the one I
love and loved by him...” (86-87)
She is a very determined person
“You have your excuses. I am on my way. I
will raise a mound for him, for my dear
brother.” (94-95)
80
She is completely lacking in respect for
authority
“No, he [creon] has no right to keep me from
my own.” (59)
She can be impulsive and quick-tempered
“So, do as you like, whatever suits you best
– I will bury him myself” (84-85)
“Dear god, shout it from the rooftops. I’ll
hate you all the more for silence – tell the
world.” (100-101)
She believes that she is above being called
a traitor
“No-one will ever convict me for a traitor”
(57)
She is deeply religious
“I have longer to please the dead than please
the living here; in the kingdom down below
I’ll live forever” (87-90)
She can be very intolerant, cruel, callous
and unkind – particularly to Ismene
“I’d never welcome you in the labour, bot
with me” (83)
“Don’t fear for me, set you own life in order”
(97)
“If you say so, you will make me hate you,
and the hatred of the dead, by all rights,
will haunt you night and day” (108-110)
81
She is determined to do her duty
“I know I please where I must please the most”
(103)
She wants to be a martyr
“I will suffer nothing as great as death
without glory!” (111-112)
In this prologue, Sophocles wants his audience
to make a comparison between Antigone and
Ismene. To a greek audience, the weaker and
obedient character of Ismene would have
been more acceptable and vastly preferable
to the self-willed and determined Antigone.
The greeks would not have liked this
portrayal of a woman as their society still
placed women beneath men. The audience
would definitely have no sympathy for
Antigone at this point.
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Would a modern audience react differently to these
characters? Why?
2. How do you feel about the two sisters?
3. Which do you admire most, and why?
82
Antigone is next seen when she is dragged in
front of creon by the sentry for committing
her crime. During their argument, Creon tries
to point out that Eteocles was her brother
too and died a hero – unlike Polynices who
he believes to be a traitor. Creon accuses
Antigone of not showing loyalty to Eteocles.
Antigone refutes this claim and stays
loyal to both brothers.
“Death longs for the same rites for all” (584)
She believes that her love for her
brothers prevents her from hating
Polynices or Eteocles.
“I was born to join in love, not hate – that
is my nature” (590)
When Ismene tries to die with Antigone,
we again see Antigone’s ability to be cold
and cruel
“Who did the work? Let the dead and the
god of death bear witness! I have no love
for a friend who loves in words alone.” (610-
612)
And again…
“Never share my dying, don’t lay claim to
what you never touched. My death will be
enough.” (615-617)
While the audience might tend to agree
with Antigone at this point in the play, it
83
can be argued that she chose a very cruel,
cold way of answering Ismene’s plea to die
alongside her.
Antigone accuses Ismene of being on
creon’s side.
“Ask Creon. Your concern is all for him.” (619)
Antigone does seem to relent a little as
the scene progresses – encouraging ismene
to live her life.
“Courage! Live you life. I gave myself to
death, long ago, so I might serve the dead.”
(630-631)
Antigone’s final appearance is when she is
onstage with the chorus as she prepares to
be taken out to die.
Antigone dwells on the sorry
circumstances of late
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Do you sympathise with Antigone in this episode?
2. Do you feel that Antigone truly wants Ismene to live
her life, or is she just trying to keep the martyrdom to
herself?
3. What are Antigone’s most and least desirable qualities
in this episode?
84
“Look at me, men of my fatherland, setting
out on the last road, looking into the last
light of day. The last I will ever see” (900-
903)
The chorus try to hearten her by telling
her that at least she is still attractive and
that she is not dying of some horrible illness
or act of violence that would spoil her
looks. Antigone is unconsoled by this, and
feels sorry for herself. Eventually, the
chorus claim that she is responsible for her
own demise because of her actions. They also
bring up that she is being punished for the
sins of her father, Oedipus.
Antigone clings to this
“There – at last you’ve touched it, the worst
pain the worst anguish! Raking up the grief
of the father three times over, for all the
doom that’s struck us down, the brilliant
house of Laius.” (947-950)
Antigone then plays on the audience’s
sympathies…
“No-one to weep for me, my friends”
In her final speech, she welcomes death
as she is looking forward to seeing her
family once more
“But still I go, cherishing one good hope; my
arrival may be dear to father…Nevertheless
I honoured you – the decent will admit it –
well and wisely too.” (985-994)
85
She also shows her deep affection for the
‘blood’ family
“Never, I tell you, if I had been the mother
of children or if my husband died exposed
and rotting – I’d never have taken this
ordeal upon myself” (995-998)
She justifies this statement…
“A husband dead, there might have been
another. A child by another too, if I’d lost
the first. But mother and father both lost
in the halls of death. No brother could ever
spring to light again.” (1001-1004)
Antigone is claiming that she values her
brother more than her husband or her own
children (if she had some one day).
She then decries Creon, who is now
onstage. She refuses to accept that there
are two sides to the story.
“What law of the gods have I transgressed?
Why look to the heavens any more,
tormented as I am?” (1013-1014)
Antigone also wishes a terrible fate on
her enemies
“But if these men are wrong, let them
suffer…these masters of injustice” (1019-1021)
Despite her show of strength, it can be
argues that she shows fear of death at
the end
86
“Oh god, the voice of death. It’s come, it’s here”
(1025)
Antigone’s last words are a plea to the
gods
“Look on me, you noble sons of thebes – the
last of a great line of kings, I alone, see
what I suffer now at the hands of what
breed of men – all for reverence, my
reverence for the gods!” (1030)
STUDY QUESTIONS
Antigone spends much of this last scene bemoaning her
fate.
1. Do you feel sorry for her? Remember that she had the
choice of martyrdom
2. Do you feel that Antigone is dying for a good cause?
3. How do you think she truly feels?
87
Creon In many ways, the character of creon is
similar to Antigone. After all, they are blood
relatives. He is the brother of Antigone’s
mother, Jocasta. Creon shares many of
Antigone’s faults. In the end, Creon is proven
to be in the wrong however.
As an audience, we first hear about creon
before he actually appears. Antigone and
Ismene discuss him during the prologue. It is
clear that he is feared by ismene and hated
by Antigone for his decree.
In Creon’s opening speech to the chorus, he
makes it clear that the country needs a
stable, sensible leader – and that he is the
man for the job.
Creon shows immense patriotism – putting
his country above all else
“And whoever places a friend above the good
of his own country, he is nothing.” (203-205)
He places the highest importance on the
stability of the country
“I could never stand by silent, watching
destruction march against our city, putting
safety to rout, nor could I ever make a man
a friend of mine who menaces our country.
Remember this: our country is our safety.”
(207-211)
88
Creon is establishing himself as the saviour
of thebes from the war-mongering of
Polynices. This is despite the fact that
Polynices was supposed to be king, and
Eteocles illegally seized the throne.
Creon does not believe that his decree is an
affront to the gods. He believes that it is
his right to make the laws.
Creon places a great deal of importance
on his principles. He is determined that
his will is carried out without question
“These are my principles. Never at my hands
will the traitor be honoured above the
patriot.” (232-233)
Creon warns his chorus to be vigilant –
he appears to distrust his people,
believing that some may disobey him for
monetary gain.
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Do you feel that Creon is a just ruler?
2. Would you act differently, considering the situation?
3. Is it possible to admire Creon’s patriotism?
89
“Death is the price – you’re right. But all
too often the mere hope of money has
ruined many men.” (247-248)
Creon mentions money as a corrupting
influence on a number of occasions in the
play. This could be a device used by
Sophocles to make comment on corruption
in Athens.
Whilst the sentry offers some light
comic relief upon entering, creon’s
temper quickly appears...
“Come to the point! What’s wrong – why so
afraid?” (266-267)
“Out with it – then dismiss” (276)
When the chorus suggests that the
burial of polynices might be the work
of the displeased gods, creaon quickly
shows his lack of respect. He is obsessed
with the idea of Polynices’ guilt.
“Stop! Before you make me choke with anger
– the gods! You, you’re senile, must you be
insane? You say – why it’s intolerable – say
the gods could have the slightest concern
for that corpse?...exactly when did you last
see the Gods celebrating traitors?
Inconceivable!” (317-327)
90
Creon begins to show initial signs of
paranoia – believing that someone may
have bribed his soldiers to bury
polynices.
“They’ve perverted my own guard, bribed
them to do their work.” (333-334)
Creon shows his ruthless capacity for
cruelty when he threatens the
innocent sentry who had to deliver the
bad news to the king.
“If you don’t find the man who buried that
corpse…and produce hum before my eyes,
simple death won’t be enough for you, not
till we string you up alive and wring the
immortality out of you.” (346-350)
Whilst modern audiences may find creon to
be cruel, ancient greeks would expect a
king to behave in such a way to a lowly
sentry.
Creon’s paranoia is further shown when
he accuses the sentry of acting for
money – allowing the corpse to be
buried on his watch by turning a blind
eye.
“Yes you did – what’s more you squandered
your life for silver!” (364-365)
“If you fail to produce the criminals for
me, you’ll swear your dirty money brought
you pain” (369-370)
91
Notice Creon’s obsession with money again –
he is convinced that everyone is acting
against him for profit.
Creon is next scene in Episode 2, where he
confronts Antigone about her crimes.
At the beginning of the scene, he is
determined to show that he is a just
ruler by determining her guilt before the
chorus
“Do you deny you did this, yes or no?” (491)
He also wants to establish that Antigone
knew of the decree before she acted –
cementing her guilt
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. What are Creon’s admirable traits?
2. Would you consider him to be a strong leader? Why?
3. Why do you think Creon believes that everyone has
betrayed him for money?
4. Why do you think he is so obsessed with Polynices’ guilt?
5. Compare Creon to Antigone – they completely believe in
their own cause. Could their similarities be the main
barrier to finding a solution to the problems they face?
92
“Were you aware that a decree had
forbidden this?” (496)
Once he has established her guilt and
listened to her reasons for burying
polynices, Creon asserts his authority as
a king – and a man
“There’s no room for pride;not in a slave, not
with the lord and master standing by” (534-
535)
“I am not the man, not now; she is the man
if the victory goes to her and she goes free.”
(541-542)
Creon confirms that he will not go easy
on Antigone, just because she is his blood
relative
“Never! Sister’s child or closer in blood than
all my family clustered at my alter
worshipping guardian zeus – she’ll never
escape” (543-545)
Despite appearing to be a fair ruler at
the beginning of the scene, he displays his
cruelty when he accuses ismene of being
part of antigone’s plot
“She and her blood sister, the most barbaric
death. Yes, I accuse her sister of an equal
part…” (546-547)
Creon’s paranoia is again on show, as his
reasons for accusing Ismene are based
only on seeing her upset in the palace
93
“It never fails; the mind convicts itself in
advance, when scoundrels are up to no good,
plotting in the dark.” (550-552)
Creon ignores the fact that Antigone
protests that Ismene had nothing to do with
the crime. Haemon also re-affirms this later
in the play. He is too stubborn and full of
pride to change his mind once he has said it.
He does not even ask the chorus – the
citizens what they think.
Creon accuses Antigone of loving Eteocles
more than Polynices. Refusing to accept
that they were both worthy of a burial
“Never the same for the patriot and the
traitor.” (585)
“Once an enemy, never a friend, not even
after death.” (588-589)
Creon is also unsympathetic towards
Antigone. He is determined to see her die,
emphasising again that he is outraged
that a woman has disobeyed him
“Go down below and love, if love you must
- love the dead! While I’m alive, no woman
is going to lord it over me” (591-593)
Creon then turns on Ismene and launches
into a cruel attack – accusing her based
only on his own opinion, with no proof
94
“you viper, slinking undetected sucking my
life-blood. I never knew I was breeding twin
disasters, the two of you rising up against
my throne.” (598-601)
Creon mocks the sisters, accusing them of
insanity
“They’re both mad, I tell you, the two of
them” (632)
Even when Ismene attempts to persuade
Creon to spare Antigone’e life due to her
relationship with Haemon, creon remains
cold and unsympathetic
“There are other fields for him to plow” (642)
“A worthless woman for my son? It repels me.”
(644)
Throughout this episode, we can see how
quickly creon can jump to conclusions. He
displays his capacity for cruelty, his
tendency to over-exaggerate and his
unwavering obsession with his own power.
We also see his disrespect for women.
However, he also shows that he can be fair
– ensuring that Antigone is guilty before
passing his sentence. He also refuses to let his
family relationship with her to cloud his
judgement,
95
Creon is next seen in Episode 3, when his son
Haemon arrives to plead with him.
Creon’s greeting to his son holds a thinly
veiled warning
“Son, you’ve heard the final verdict on your
bride? Are you coming now, raving against
your father? Or do you love me, no matter
what I do?” (706-708)
When Haemon responds respectfully, Creon is
pleased. This is the expected response of a son
in the fifth century B.c.
Creon justifies his treatment of Antigone
to his son
“I’m not about to prove myself a liar. Not to
my people, no, I’m going to kill her!” (733-734)
“Why, if I bring up my own kin to be rebels,
think what I’d suffer from the world at
large” (737-738)
Creon’s reasoning is what is expected of
a strong king – he is putting the state
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. What do you think about Creon’s actions in this scene?
2. Do you think he could have been less harsh on the
sisters?
3. What could he have done if he didn’t want to back
down?
96
ahead of his own family. He emphasises
the severity of a crime against the state
“Anarchy – Show me a greater crime in all
the earth! She, she destroys cities, rips up
houses, breaks the ranks of spearmen into
headlong rout” (751-753)
He once again refers to the inferior
status of women in society to justify his
actions
“Better to fall from power, if fall we must,
at the hands of a man – never be rated
inferior to a woman, never.” (759-761)
When the chorus urges creon to listen
to haemon after his son pleads for
Antigone’s life; creon shows his
stubbornness and pride
“So, men our age, we’re to be lectured are
we? Schooled by a boy his age?” (813-814)
Haemon then tries to use a different
tact, letting creon know that the people
of thebes don’t agree with his sentence.
Creon is still stubborn
“And is Thebes to tell me how to rule?” (821)
Creon now loses his temper and turns on
Haemon – hurling vicious insults at his
own son
“Why you degenerate…” (831)
“You, you soul of corruption, rotten through
– woman’s accomplice” (836-837)
97
Even when haemon threatens creon with
his own suicide, creon does not believe
him. He believes that it is a threat
against the throne
“You’ll suffer for your sermons, you and
your empty wisdom” (846)
“Now, by heaven, I promise you, you’ll pay…”
(850)
Creon’s anger leads him to a very
extreme action
“She’ll die know, here in front of his eyes,
beside her groom!” (853)
Even after haemon’s impassioned exit, creon is
unrepentant. He threatens to execute ismene
as well, but changes his mind when the
chorus reminds him of her innocence. He ends
the episode by passing his sentence on
Antigone – she is to be walled up alive.
In this episode, creon expects complete
loyalty from his son. This was in keeping
with the society of the fifth century B.c.
Even when haemon tries to reason with his
father, creon is not willing to listen.
98
Creon next appears at the end of episode
four, as Antigone is finishing her farewell
speech to the chorus.
Creon shows no sympathy for Antigone,
even as she is led to her death.
“True. Not a word of hope – your doom is
sealed” (1026)
Then in Episode 5, creon is confronted by the
blind prophet, Tiresias.
Creon initially greets Tiresias with
respect, acknowledging that he owes
Tiresias for his prophecies in the past
“I owe you a great deal, I swear to that”
(1098)
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. How might a modern audience react differently to Creon’s
treatment of Haemon?
2. Does this type of passionate argument still exist between
fathers and sons?
3. Do fathers still expect the same loyalty and obedience
from their sons?
4. Is it still a social norm for sons to respect their fathers?
Why?
5. Why do you think Creon reacts so negatively to Haemon?
99
Despite welcoming Tiresias’ prophecies, he
quickly changes when the prophet criticises
his decree.
Creon launches a tirade at Tiresias
“Old man – all of you! So, you shoot your
arrows at my head like archers at the
target” (1144-1145)
Creon’s fury leads to him committing
blasphemy during his rant
“You’ll never bury that body in the grave.
Not even if Zeus’ eagles rip the corpse and
wing their rotten pickings of to the throne
of god! Never, not even in fear of such
defilement will I tolerate his burial…” (1151-
1155)
Creon then insults Tiresias – accusing him
of trying to make money from getting
involved – insinuating corruption
“You and the whole breed of seers are mad
for money!” (1171)
After Tiresias is forced to prophesise creon’s
and thebes’ demise, creon finally relents. This
is after the old blind seer has left.
Creon still hesitates to change his mind
however – even after such fearful
prophecies
“I know it myself – I’m shaken, torn. It’s a
dreadful thing to yield…but resist now? Lay
100
my pride bare to the blows of ruin? That’s
dreadful too.” (1218-1221)
The chorus finally persuade creon to take
tiresias’ advice. He sets off at once to free
Antigone and bury polynices - afraid of the
wrath of the gods. However, he is too late.
In the Exodos, creon is a broken man,
carrying in the body of his son, haemon.
Creon shows deep regret for his actions
and takes the blame for Haemon’s death
“So senseless, so insane…my crimes. My stubborn,
deadly – look at us, the killer, the killed.
My plans, my mad fanatic heart. My son, cut
off so young!...not through your stupidity, no,
my own.” (1393-1399)
Creon’s fall from grace is made worse by
the news of his wife’s suicide. He prays
for his own death from the gods
“Come, let it come! – the best of fates for me
that bring the final day, best fate of all.
Oh quickly now – so I never have to see
another sunrise” (1449-1452)
Creon is finally led off by the chorus, unable
to walk from his grief.
101
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. How do you feel about Creon in this scene?
2. Do you feel sympathy for him? Why?
3. Do you feel that he has got what he deserves?
4. Are the gods right to punish him the way that they have?
102
Sentry The sentry appears in two episodes in the
play – episodes 1 & 2. In contrast to the other
tragic characters in the play, he is a
working class man and may have even been
portrayed as slightly comical or light-
hearted when performed to ancient greek
audiences.
From his first entrance, we can see that
the Sentry is not happy about having to
appear in front of creon
“I can’t say I’m winded from running, or set
out with any spring in my legs either” (250)
Despite having second thoughts about
coming to creon with his bad news, he
talked himself into coming
“But at last, Look, common sense won out”
(260)
As soon as Creon questions him, the sentry
attempts to absolve himself of any guilt
“I didn’t do it, didn’t see who did” (269)
The sentry also creates suspense – setting
up the delivery of his news
“Dangerous too, and danger makes you delay
for all you’re worth” (275)
At Creon’s urging, the sentry is forced to
come out with it. Creon is growing
103
impatient. The sentry instantly tries to
lessen the seriousness of the crime
“Not that it’s buried really, just a light
cover of road dust on it” (290)
The sentry once again tries to absolve
himself and his colleagues of any wrong-
doing
“All of us pleading ignorance” (299)
After Creon loses his temper and accuses
the sentry of corruption, he commands
the sentry to find the culprit or face
the consequences. However, the sentry
does not accept his fate and go
“Please, may I say a word or two, or just
turn and go?” (358)
He tries to ascertain how deep creon’s
anger is
“Where does it hurt you, in the ears or in
the heart?” (359)
“The culprit grates on your feelings, I just
annoy the ears” (362)
He also refutes creon’s claims of
corruption
“Oh, it’s terrible when the one who does the
judging, judges things all wrong” (367)
When creon exits, the sentry vows not
to come back after barely escaping with
his life
104
“I’ll never come back, you’ve seen the last of
me” (373)
However, at the beginning of episode 2, the
sentry returns with Antigone under arrest.
He eats his words…
“Second thoughts make liars of us all” (430)
Rather than coming by choosing lot, the
sentry has returned of his own volition
– claiming the glory for catching the
culprit
“This is my luck, my prize, no-one else’s” (438)
The sentry even becomes slightly cocky
when creon asks him if he is telling the
truth
“She’s the one. With my own eyes I saw her
bury the body, just what you’ve forbidden.
There. Is that plain and clear?” (449)
When describing how Antigone was
caught, he shows no sympathy for her
“We rushed her, closed in on the kill like
hunters” (481)
He was also astonished by antigone’s
openness after being captured
“She stood up to it all, denied nothing, I tell
you. It made me ache and laugh in the same
breath” (485)
105
He does show a glimpse of regret
“It hurts a man to bring down his friends”
(487)
However the sentry reveals that it was
all done to save his own skin
“But all that, I’m afraid means less to me
than my own skin” (489)
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. The sentry is described by some as a ‘clever fool’ – do you
agree? Why?
2. How does the Sentry act differently in the two scenes?
3. Is he a coward or brave? Why?
4. How does he feel about Creon?
5. Would you play him as a comedy character?Why?
106
Haemon Haemon appears alive in only one scene –
Episode 3, but we learn a great deal about
him from this confrontation with his father.
From Haemon’s very first speech, we can
see that he is a respectful, loving son
to Creon. This is a typical fifth century
B.C. son.
“Father, I’m your son…you in your wisdom
set my bearings for me – I obey you. No
marriage could ever mean more to me than
you, whatever good direction you may
offer” (709-712)
Haemon very tactfully attempts to let
creon know that the people of thebes
are on Antigone’s side
“She [Antigone] deserves a glowing crown of
gold!” (782)
He still shows respect for Creon at this
point, saying that Creon’s success means
a lot to him
“Nothing more precious to me in the world”
(785)
However, Haemon is not blind to his
father’s faults, despite respecting him
“Now don’t please, be quite so single-minded,
self-involved or assume the world is wrong
and you are right” (788-790)
107
He also urges creon to listen to the
older and wiser citizens if he won’t
listen to his youthful son
“It’s best to learn from those with good
advice” (809)
Haemon’s reasoned argument is so
convincing that the chorus offer their
support for him. They also ask him to listen
to his father, as there are two sides to the
story.
Creon refuses to listen to Haemon and
accuses him of acting only in Antigone’s
interest. Haemon argues against this
“If you are a woman, yes – my concern is
all for you” (829-830)
Haemon worries that his father has
angered the gods. He once again swears
his loyalty to his father
“That may be, but you will never find me
an accomplice to a criminal” (837-838)
Haemon’s love for Antigone leads him to
threaten suicide if creon doesn’t relent
“Then she will die…but her death will kill
another” (843)
Creon goads Haemon into responding to
his insults
108
“If you weren’t my father, I’d say you were
insane” (847)
He also stands up for himself
“You really expect to fling abuse at me
and not receive the same?” (848-849)
When creon makes the extreme threat
of killing Antigone in front of Haemon,
we see Haemon becoming more distressed.
His parting lines show how much his
feelings towards his father have
changed
“And you will never see me, never set eyes
on my face again. Rage your heart out,
rage with friends who can stand the sight
of you” (856-859)
Throughout this scene, we see that Haemon
tries very hard to control his anger and
his emotions. He tries to remain respectful
of his father, and is genuinely proud of his
achievements. He wants creon to see reason,
and is willing to tell the truth. He knows
his father’s short-comings but tries to
appeal to his better qualities as a leader.
However, he is drawn into a mud-slinging
match when Creon reacts selfishly and
stubbornly.
109
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. How do you feel about Haemon? Why?
2. Could he have approached the situation differently?
3. Was his suicide justified/necessary?
4. Do you feel that he loves Creon more than Antigone? Or
Vice Versa?
110
Ismene Although she shares her sister’s tragic
background, Ismene has reacted very
differently to them. She does not seem to
have the same passion for self-destruction
than Antigone – however she does not also
seem to have the same courage.
We first meet Ismene in the prologue, where
she is brought by Antigone to a secret
meeting.
Ismene does not seem to be as ‘in the loop’
as Antigone about recent events
“I know nothing more, whether our luck’s
improved or ruin’s still to come” (20-21)
When Antigone asks for her help to bury
Polynices, it takes a moment for Ismene
to realise exactly what her sister
intends to do. She is horrified.
“What? You’d bury him – when a law forbids
the city?” (53-54)
She desperately wants Antigone to
reconsider and tries to persuade her. She
warns Antigone to remember their place
in society as women
“Remember we are women, we’re not born to
contend with men” (74-75)
111
Ismene then reminds Antigone of their
standing in society
“Then too, we’re underlings, ruled by much
stronger hands, so we submit in this” (75-77)
Despite being upset at Creon’s decree,
ismene ends her speech by accepting that
she must follow Creon’s orders
“I must obey the ones who stand in power”
(79-80)
Ismene believes that it is madness for
Antigone to stand up against creon. When
Antigone turns on her and accuses her of
dishonouring the gods, ismene doesn’t agree.
She admits that she has no strength to fight
creon and tries once more to convince
Antigone. However, her sister won’t listen.
After Antigone has stormed off, ismene
once again shows her love for her sister
“Then go if you must, but rest assured, wild,
irrational as you are my sister. You are
truly dear to the ones who love you” (114-
116)
112
The second and final time we see Ismene is
in Episode 2, when she is hauled in front of
Creon, with Antigone beside her. Ismene is
accused by Creon of being part of the crime,
due to seeing her distressed inside the
palace.
Upon being accused, Ismene does not
plead innocence
“I share the guilt, the consequences too”
(603-604)
She pleads with Antigone to let her
share the consequences and punishment
“Oh my sister, don’t reject me please. Let me
die beside you, consecrating the dead
together” (613-615)
She also blames creon for driving them
to commit this ‘mad’ crime
“commit cruelty on a person long enough
and the mind begins to go” (636-637)
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. We can see the difference between Antigone and Ismene
in this episode. How do you feel about Ismene?
2. Which sister do you admire the most? Why?
3. Which sister do you think the Ancient Greek audience
admired most? Why?
4. Could Ismene have done more to stop Antigone?
113
She is horrified by Creon’s decision to
kill his son’s fiancée
“What? You’d kill your own son’s bride?”
Ismene’s protests are heard by deaf ears.
Creon refuses to change his mind, and
condemns Antigone to death. Antigone
disowns her sister and rejects her plea to
join her in death. Ismene is dragged out in
a distressed state at the end of the episode.
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Ismene wants to die for her beliefs, but wasn’t willing to
commit the crime. What does this tell you about her as a
person?
2. She insists that her life is nothing without her sister. Is this
weakness or love? Why?
3. How do you feel about Ismene in this episode? Why?
4. Why do you think Ismene brings up Antigone’s betrothal
to Haemon?
5. Why does Ismene plead for her sister but not for herself?
6. Does your opinion of Ismene change in this episode from
the first episode?
7. Is Antigone’s treatment of Ismene cruel? Why?
114
115
Prologue (Pages 59-64) Why would the Prologue be important in
any production of the play?
Provides context of play and gives background
to the action/storyline
In the first speech there is mention of Oedipus and his continuing influence over the fortunes of his daughters, Antigone and Ismene.
Ismene recalls how her father and mother died.
We learn that Thebes has been at war with a neighbouring state. Antigone’s brothers have killed each other fighting on opposite sides, Eteocles defending Thebes, while Polynices led the attack.
We learn also that Thebes is ruled by a military commander. On the day of the action of the play, Creon has become King.
Creon has issued a decree to state that Polynices was a traitor and must not be given proper burial.
Begins the Plot
The audience become aware that Antigone plans to
bury the body of Polynices despite the decree by
Creon.
This is important because in Episode 2 and at the
beginning of Episode 3, the audience know more about
what has happened than do the Chorus and
principal characters. The Prologue is the only scene
which happens in private. The Prologue prepares the
audience for what is about to happen.
116
Introduces Key Characters
Antigone is the title character and is introduced
in the Prologue. She has the first lines. The
Prologue establishes her character as she shows
herself to be a determined, rebellious and
courageous character who is willing to sacrifice
herself for her ideals and for her loyalty to her
brother. The Prologue therefore shows her
motivation.
Ismene is also introduced and shown to be a
contrast to her sister. She represents the
stereotypical Greek female and this is shown
through her speech where she says, ‘remember we
are women, we’re not born to contend with men’.
The Prologue establishes the contrasting characters
of the two sisters.
Creon does not appear on stage but he is talked
about and vital clues to his character are
revealed in the Prologue. He is in authority and
expects to be obeyed. His motivation is suggested.
Establishing Central Themes & Issues
The central theme of family loyalty and
individual conscience versus loyalty to the state
is introduced.
Also established is the importance of the Gods to
the ancient Greeks and the influence of the Gods
on the actions and fates of all the characters in
the play.
Although the role of women would not have been
an issue at the time the play was written, it
could be highlighted as relevant to an audience
of today as this is a contemporary issue.
117
DIRECTING THE PROLOGUE
As a director, how will you ensure that your audience understand
the background to the play? Ancient Greeks would have been
familiar with the Oedipus myth.
Will your production establish or suggest a setting other than
ancient Greece BC?
How will it introduce your own directorial concepts? What are they
How do you want the audience to feel towards Antigone? How will
this affect the acting of her character?
How do you want the audience to feel towards Ismene? How will
this affect the acting of the character?
What kind of relationship between the sisters would you want to
create?
What attitude towards Creon would you want each sister to
suggest?
118
Episode 1 (Pages 69-75) Why would Episode 1 be important in any
production of the play?
Develops the plot
Creon delivers his decree about the burial of
Polynices’ body which the audience have heard
Antigone and Ismene discussing. His long opening
speech and subsequent instructions to the Chorus
make clear how determined he is to be obeyed.
This gives even more dramatic impact to what the
audience already know about Antigone’s
intentions.
The Sentry enters and tells Creon that someone
has tried to bury the body. The audience know
who. Creon is furious and restates the importance
of loyalty to state and king, and declares his
intention to punish whoever did the deed.
Establishes conflict/contrast between Antigone and
Creon, as Antigone is motivated by loyalty to her
family and individual conscience; Creon is
motivated by loyalty to the state and by the
desire to establish his authority. Both are
motivated by allegiance to the Gods but perceive
the wishes of the Gods in different ways. Creon
feels that the Gods would be offended if a traitor
like Polynices was given a proper burial, whereas
Antigone feels that it would be an abomination
to them to leave a body unburied.
119
Further Illustration of Themes & Issues
Loyalty to state and king is the main theme of
the episode and the audience know that this is in
conflict with Antigone’s individual conscience and
loyalty to her family.
The importance and influence of the Gods is again
shown through Creon’s desire to please the Gods
and his swearing by them ‘I swear to Zeus, as I
still believe in Zeus…’
Development of Characters & relationships
Creon’s first appearance on stage - Episode 1 allows
the audience to see Creon’s character for
themselves and to learn of his motivation through
his inaugural speech to the citizens of Thebes. In
his speech Creon states his values and his
intentions as a ruler. His motivation is to
establish his authority and command the loyalty
of the people. His attitude to those who serve him
is shown by his ruthless and perhaps unfair
treatment of the Sentry.
Introduces the Sentry. Although the Sentry is
used for the purpose of giving information to
Creon and thus advancing the plot, he does convey
some personality. It is possible to use him as a
local character with whom the audience can
identify and/or to provide a little light relief by
portraying him as a slightly comic character
without losing the importance of what he says.
His circumlocution (roundabout way of saying
things, long-windedness) is helpful to
characterisation.
120
Develops the role of the chorus
The delivery of the Leader’s lines and the acting
of the individual chorus members can communicate
to the audience the attitude of the citizens
towards Creon at the beginning of the play, and
their reaction to what the Sentry tells him.
DIRECTING EPISODE 1
How does this episode develop your overall directorial
interpretation?
How do you want the audience to feel towards Creon? How will
this affect the acting of the character?
What relationship do you want to create between Creon and the
Sentry, and also between Creon and the Chorus?
Will your directing and/or set establish the difference in status
between Creon and the Sentry/the Chorus?
How will you want the Sentry to be acted?
121
Episode 2 (Pages 79-90) Why would Episode 2 be important in any
production of the play? Develops the plot
Often taken to be the key scene of Antigone
because it is so important in terms of plot
development and character development, thus
creating dramatic tension. It is the only episode
which features four characters, three of whom
are on stage at the same time.
The Sentry brings in Antigone. She has been caught
trying to bury the body. This is the pivot of the
plot. The audience have been waiting for this.
Creon discovers from the Sentry what Antigone has
done. She has broken his decree.
First confrontation of central characters -
conflict of motivation. This creates dramatic
tension. The status and potential dominance of
each character is important throughout the
episode.
Ismene mentions that Antigone is to be married to
Creon’s son, Haemon, and so the audience are made
aware that this too could cause a conflict of
loyalty and might affect the development of the
plot.
Further Illustration of Themes & Issues
This episode centres on the conflict of loyalties of
the two central characters.
It also features many references to the importance
and influence of the Gods.
The role and expectation of women are again
highlighted through Creon’s dialogue, as in his
remark about Haemon being deprived of Antigone,
‘There are other fields for him to plough…’
122
Development of characters & Relationships
Antigone
shows her loyalty to her brother
displays her fearlessness and stubbornness
shows her attitude to Creon
shows her changing relationship with Ismene -
attacks her at first
shows her desire to make the Chorus understand
and accept her actions.
Creon
shows his loyalty to his state and his belief in his
own authority
also shows his assumption of family loyalty to him
from his nieces and from his son
could suggest the beginning of Creon’s downfall or
his potential paranoia, depending on the direction
of the scene
shows his attitude to and relationship with
Antigone
shows his attitude to and relationship with Ismene
shows his attitude to women.
Ismene
shows her change of heart and greater strength
of character
shows family loyalty to Antigone
continues to show a contrast to Antigone’s
character and to represent the stereotypical Greek
woman
shows her changing relationship with Antigone
shows her attitude to and relationship with
Creon.
123
Develops the role of the chorus
The Chorus is important as both Antigone and
Creon try to get the Chorus to side with them.
Also the Chorus show the reaction of the ‘man in
the street’ to what has happened.
Develops the role of the Sentry
The Sentry is crucial both to the reporting of off-
stage action and the building up of dramatic
tension between the central characters as he tells
Creon what Antigone did. He is vital to the plot
and development of the play.
124
DIRECTING EPISODE 2
As a director, how will you build and realise the dramatic tension in
this episode?
How does this episode develop your overall directorial
interpretation of the play? Do you want the audience to
sympathise more with Antigone or with Creon or to have
ambivalent feelings? How might you achieve this?
How will you show the dominance and status of the different
characters in this episode?
What would be Antigone’s attitude and how would this be shown
when she is brought in and when she is listening to first the Sentry
and then to Creon?
What relationship would you want to develop between Antigone
and Creon? How will this affect the acting?
How will you direct the Sentry to ensure that his storytelling is
compelling? You will need to ensure that the audience don’t feel
that they want him out of the way so that they can see the
confrontation between Antigone and Creon. How will you do this?
What attitudes and sympathies do you want the Chorus to have
and how will you communicate this to the audience?
125
Episode 3 (Pages 93-100) Why would Episode 3 be important in any
production of the play?
Develops the plot
Introduces Haemon - his only appearance in the
play, although he is mentioned earlier and again
later by other characters and by the Chorus. He
is important because he is Creon’s son, so his
interaction with his father reveals as much about
Creon as it does about Haemon. He is used as a
contrast to Creon.
Haemon tries to reason with his father, pleads for
Antigone whom he is to marry, but fails to
convince Creon. The end of the episode signals
another tragedy/death.
Episode 3 reveals how Creon is going to kill
Antigone and points to Creon’s growing paranoia -
even his son is defying him.
Further Illustration of Themes & Issues
Theme of family loyalty is further developed as
the relationship between father and son is
revealed. Creon expects his son to obey him out of
family loyalty which in turn means that Haemon
is also being loyal to the state, given that Creon
is the state.
Influence of the Gods features in the dialogue of
both main characters. Haemon claims that ‘only
the Gods endow a man with reason’ and Creon
suggests that Antigone can ‘sing her hymns to Zeus’
as she pleads for mercy. Also the role of women is
highlighted as Creon insults Haemon, accusing him
of being a ‘woman’s accomplice’ and a ‘woman’s
slave’.
126
Development of characters & Relationships
Haemon
shows loyalty to his father initially
displays intelligence and a rational approach at
first and a good understanding of what his
father expects from him; understands Creon’s need
for flattery and loyalty
shows sustained and greater loyalty to Antigone
shows that he has the courage to go against his
father
shows emotion and bravery at the end of the
episode.
Creon
Sophocles uses Haemon to show the audience more
of Creon’s character and to offer a contrast
between the two
becomes more paranoid and exhibits double
standards when he expects family loyalty from
Haemon but does not respect it in Antigone.
Develops the role of the chorus
Both Haemon and Creon try to convince the
Chorus of their point of view. The Leader appears
to see merit in both arguments.
127
DIRECTING EPISODE 3
How does this episode develop your overall interpretation of the
play?
How will you build up the dramatic tension in the episode? Do you
want the audience to think that Haemon is right and sympathise
with him? Or do you want the audience to feel sorry for Creon
when his son goes against him?
How will you want Haemon to be acted in order for his character to
develop from the rational, calm son to the angry and upset young
man who storms out at the end of the episode?
How will you want Creon to act towards Haemon?
Will the characters have close physical contact?
128
Episode 4 (Pages 101-107) Why would Episode 4 be important in any
production of the play?
Develops the plot
Antigone’s third and final scene. Note that
Antigone has three scenes whereas Creon has six, so
the protagonist has fewer appearances on stage
than the antagonist. Antigone has accepted that
she is going to die, and she wants the Chorus to
understand and sympathise with her actions.
Creon comes on at the end of the scene to have
Antigone taken away to be walled up.
Further Illustration of Themes & Issues
The influence of the Gods is an important feature.
Antigone likens herself to the Goddess Niobe, who
was also walled up alive. She also says as she is
taken away that her suffering is ‘all for
reverence, my reverence for the Gods’.
She feels that she is honouring the Gods by being
loyal to her brother and burying him. The Chorus
tell Antigone that she is paying for her father’s
‘terrible ordeal’, so Zeus is still punishing Antigone’s
family. She is powerless against the will of the
Gods.
129
Development of characters & Relationships
Antigone
shows a need for the Chorus’s understanding
compares herself to a Goddess
feels she has been cursed, relates the family
history
mentions neither Ismene nor Haemon in her final
speeches.
Creon
simply proves himself a man of his word, by
ordering Antigone to be walled up
has very little interaction with either Antigone
or the Chorus.
Develops the role of the chorus
They interact directly with Antigone. They say
she is comparing herself to a Goddess when she is a
mere mortal. They tell her that she has gone too
far this time and that she is a victim of her
passions. They are not overly sympathetic and she
accuses them of mocking her. Basically the Chorus’s
role is to comment on Antigone’s actions.
130
DIRECTING EPISODE 4
How will you want Antigone to be acted? Do you want her to glory
in her martyrdom? Do you want the audience to feel sorry for her,
admire her, or to become less sympathetic towards her?
How will you want Creon to be acted? How do you want the
audience to feel about him at this point?
How will you direct the Chorus? Will the lines be split up? Will
there be choral speaking? What stage position(s) will the Chorus
have in relation to Antigone?
131
Episode 5 (Pages 110-117) Why would Episode 5 be important in any
production of the play?
Develops the plot
Introduces Tiresias - a very important character -
he is the mediator of the Gods. He has been given
the gift of prophecy. He is blind. He foretells the
future by listening to the mood and will of the
Gods through the sounds of birds and through
their movements, which he can sense - he is an
augur and the place where he studies and
interprets the actions of the birds is called his
augury - see text. Because of his gift Tiresias
commands respect.
Tiresias foresees much fury and killing because of
the actions of Creon. In a way Tiresias picks up on
the Haemon/Creon situation by trying to reason
with Creon.
Creon is outraged and insults Tiresias by calling
him a ‘fortune teller’. Even when Haemon’s death
is prophesied, Creon refuses to reason.
Tiresias leaves. The Leader of the Chorus says that
Creon should take the advice of Tiresias; then
Creon seems to change very quickly and asks the
Leader what he should do - ‘What should I do?
Tell me . . . I’ll obey.’
The Leader tells Creon to set Antigone free and to
bury the body of Polynices. Creon agrees.
132
Further Illustration of Themes & Issues
The influence of the Gods is highlighted by the
role of Tiresias. It is the most important theme of
this scene.
Family loyalty versus loyalty to the state is the
conflict which has caused Tiresias to appear and
which has roused the anger of the Gods.
Development of characters & Relationships
Creon
quick change of character from paranoid,
irrational and all-powerful to rational and
almost humble
has always obeyed and respected the advice of
Tiresias but cannot afford to let himself listen
this time
shows respect for the advice of the Leader of the
Chorus
allows himself to show change of purpose to the
Chorus but not in front of Tiresias.
Tiresias
is used to communicate the will and likely actions
of the Gods towards Creon
shows himself to be wise, skilled in argument and
ready to rise in anger when not listened to.
Develops the role of the chorus
The Leader is very important in this episode. He is
seen to have more authority than Creon at the
end. It is the Leader who decides what should be
done.
133
DIRECTING EPISODE 5
How does this episode develop your overall directorial
interpretation?
How will you want Creon to be acted in order to show his change of
heart? When Tiresias delivers his long speeches, how will Creon be
reacting to express his discomfort? Will you also show a change of
status at the end? If so, how?
How will you want Tiresias to be acted in order to show that he/she
is blind and yet to communicate his presence and authority?
How will you position Tiresias and Creon in relationship to each
other?
How will you want the Leader of the Chorus acted in this episode?
134
Exodos (Pages 119-128) Why would the exodos be important in any
production of the play?
Develops the plot
The tragedy - deaths of Antigone, Haemon and
Eurydice.
Introduces the Messenger who tells the audience
and the characters on stage what has happened -
deaths offstage - citizens/soldiers/Creon reached
Antigone too late, she had hanged herself -
Haemon attacked his father with a sword, missed
and then killed himself - Eurydice, hearing of the
deaths, stabbed herself at the altar in the palace.
Introduces Eurydice - one speech only - her death
is used to show yet another tragic result of
Creon’s actions.
Downfall of Creon: how the mighty have fallen.
Further Illustration of Themes & Issues
The Gods have prevailed and fate has dictated the
tragedy.
The last speech of the Chorus tells us that fate
teaches us wisdom:
‘Wisdom is by far the greatest part of joy,
and reverence towards the Gods must be
safeguarded.
The mighty words of the proud are paid in full
with mighty blows of fate, and at long last
those blows will teach us wisdom.’
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Development of characters & Relationships
Creon
In the space of a day Creon has gone from being
the new all-powerful leader aiming to command
authority and respect, to being powerless and
utterly miserable - he asks to be taken away, ‘out
of sight’.
He has become almost dependent on the Leader.
Creon’s relationship with Eurydice is shown only
through his reaction to news of her death.
Eurydice
Her character is not developed - she is used as a
tragic device, nothing more.
Develops the role of the messenger
The Messenger is used in the same way as the
Sentry - to provide information about what has
happened offstage. Deaths never happened on stage
in Greek tragedy.
Develops the role of the chorus
Again the Leader is very important as he has
become the person in authority.
The last speech of the Chorus is very important as
a summary of the play.
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DIRECTING THE EXODOS
How does the Epilogue conclude your overall directorial
interpretation of the play?
How do you want the audience to feel at the end? What message
do you want them to take away?
How will you want Creon acted? Do you want the audience to feel
sorry for him or to feel that he deserved everything he got?
If you want the character of Antigone and her actions to be central
to the play, how will you highlight her importance in the Epilogue?
Or don’t you need to? Will you have her body brought on at the
end?
How will you want the Messenger to be acted? Will he/she be
played by the same actor as the Sentry?
How will the Leader and Chorus react to the tragedy and to Creon?
How will you direct the final speech?
Where will the dead bodies be placed?
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Glossary Vocabulary Definition
Anagnorisis a startling discovery; moment of epiphany; time of revelation when a character discovers his true identity.
Antagonist Chief opponent of the Protagonist Attica Peninsula in south-east Greece that
included Athens. According to legend, the King of Athens, Theseus, unified 12 states in Attica into a single state dominated by Athenian leadership and the Athenian dialect of the Greek language. The adjective Attic has long been associated with the culture, language and art of Athens. The great period of Greek drama, between the Sixth and Fourth Centuries, B.C., is known as the Attic Period. Drama itself was invented by an Attic actor, Thespis, who introduced speaking parts to accompany choral odes.
Catharsis In literature and art, a purification of emotions. The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) used the term to describe the effect on the audience of a tragedy acted out on a theatre stage. This effect consists in cleansing the audience of disturbing emotions, such as fear and pity, thereby releasing tension. This purgation occurs as a result of either of the following reactions: (1) Audience members resolve to avoid conflicts of the main character–for example, Oedipus in Oedipus Rex and Creon in Antigone–that arouse fear or pity or (2) audience members transfer their own pity and fear to the main character, thereby emptying themselves of these disquieting emotions. In either case, the audience members leave the theatre as better persons intellectually, morally, or socially. They have either been cleansed of fear of pity or have vowed to avoid situations that arouse fear and pity. In modern usage, catharsis may refer to any experience, real or imagined, that purges a person of negative emotions.
Chalmys sleeveless outer garment, or cloak, worn by some actors
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Chorus Bystanders in a Greek play who present odes on the action. A parados is a song sung by the chorus when it enters. A stasimon is a song sung during the play, between episodes of action. The chorus generally had the following roles in the plays of Sophocles and other Greek playwrights: (1) to explain the action, (2) to interpret the action in relation to the law of the state and the law of the Olympian gods, (3) to foreshadow the future, (4) to serve as an actor in the play, (5) too sing and/or dance, and (6) to give the author's views. In some ways, the chorus is like the narrator of a modern film or like the background music accompanying the action of the film. In addition, it is like text on the film screen that provides background information or identifies the time and place of the action.
cOTHURNI Boots worn by actors in ancient Greece to increase their height and, thus, visibility to theatre audiences. Singular: cothurnus.
dIALOGUE Conversation in a play between characters.
Dionysus Patron god of Greek drama; god of wine and vegetation. Dionysus, called Bacchus by the Romans, was the son of Zeus and one of the most important of the Greek gods. Dionysus died each winter and was reborn each spring, a cycle his Greek devotees identified with the death and rebirth of nature. He thus symbolized renewal and rejuvenation, and each spring the Greeks celebrated his resurrection with ceremonies that eventually included drama contests. The most prestigious of these festivals was the Greater Dionysia, held in Athens for five days and participated in by playwrights such as Sophocles, Aeschylus, Aristophanes, and Euripides. Festivals held in villages and small towns were called the Rural Dionysia.
Dithyramb In the drama of ancient Greece, a choral hymn that praised Dionysus, god of wine and revelry, and sometimes told a story. In his great work, Poetics, Aristotle wrote that dithyrambs inspired the development of Greek tragic
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plays, such as those of Sophocles. The first "play" supposedly took place in the fifth Century B.C. when Thespis, a member of a chorus, took the part of a character in a dithyramb. The action shifted back and forth between him and the chorus.
Emmelia A dance that accompanies some odes. Episode A section or scene of a greek play
which contains dialogue. They usually appear between dithyrambs and odes.
Exodos The final scene of a greek play, which appears after the last stasimon.
Hamartia Serious character flaw of the main character (protagonist) of a Greek tragedy. Often, this flaw is great pride, or hubris. But it may also be prejudice, anger, zealotry, poor judgment, an inherited weakness, or any other serious shortcoming.
Hubris Great pride that brings about the downfall of a character in a Greek drama.
Machine Armlike device in an ancient Greek theatre that could lower a "god" onto the stage from the "heavens." The Greek word for machine, mechane, later gave rise to a pejorative Latin term, deus ex machina (god from a machine).
Mask In the drama of ancient Greece, a face covering with exaggerated features and a mouth device to project the voice. Actors wore masks to reveal emotion or personality; to depict the trade, social class or age of a character; and to provide visual and audio aids for audience members in the rear of the theatre.
Ode In ancient Greece, a lyric poem on a serious subject that develops its theme with dignified language intended to be sung.
Old Comedy In Greece of the Fifth Century, BC, a genre of comedy that displayed great imagination and used cutthroat satire, caricature, and sometimes vulgar dialogue to ridicule public figures, politics, ideas, trends, and institutions. Aristophanes was the unsurpassed master of old comedy.
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Onkos Headdress worn by some actors in ancient Greece to increase their height and, thus, visibility to theatre audiences.
Orchestra Ground-level area where the chorus performed
Parabasis In the drama of ancient Greece, an ode in which the chorus addresses the audience to express opinions of the author, including his views on politics, social trends, and other topics.
Parados In the drama of ancient Greece, a song sung by the chorus when it enters; also, the moment when the chorus enters. It can also be used to describe the area of the greek theatre stage where the chorus enter & exit.
ParaSkenia Extensions or annexes on the sides of the skene.
Periaktoi In the drama of ancient Greece, a prism having surfaces painted with pictures. When it revolved, it changed the scenery on a stage.
Peripeteia In a stage tragedy in ancient Greece, a sudden reversal of fortune from good to bad.
Poetics Important work by Aristotle written about 335 B.C. It analyses Greek theatre and outlines its origin and development. One of its theses is that literature and other forms of art imitate the activity of humans. Tragedy is the higher form of the playwright's craft, Aristotle says, because it imitates the action of noble persons and depicts lofty events. Comedy, on the other hand, focuses on ordinary humans and events.
Prologos In the drama of ancient Greece, a prologue that begins the play with dialogue indicating the focus or theme of the play.
Proskenion The acting area in a greek theatre.
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Protagonist Main character in an ancient Greek play who usually interacts with the chorus. In a tragedy, the protagonist is traditionally a person of exalted status–such as a king, a queen, a political leader, or a military hero–who has a character flaw (inordinate pride, for example). This character flaw causes the protagonist to make an error of judgment. Additionally, the typical protagonist experiences a moment of truth in which he or she recognizes and acknowledges his or her mistakes, failures, or sins.
Satyr Play In the drama of ancient Greece, a play that pokes fun at a serious subject involving gods and myths; a parody of stories about gods or myths. Fragments of Sophocles's satyr play Ichneutae (Trackers) survive along with his seven complete tragedies.
SKENE The building on a greek theatre stage which could be used for entrance/exits and scenic backgrounds.
Stasimon In a Greek play, a scene in which the chorus sings a song, uninterrupted by dialogue.
Stychomithia In a stage play brief, alternating lines of dialogue spoken in rapid-fire succession. It occurs frequently in Greek drama, especially when characters are arguing or expressing strong emotions.
Tetralogy In the drama of ancient Greece, four plays (three tragedies and one satyr play) staged by a playwright during a drama competition.
Theatron Tiered seating area built into a hillside in the shape of a horseshoe.
Thymele Altar in the center of the orchestra used to make sacrifices to Dionysus.
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Tragedy Verse drama written in elevated language in which a noble protagonist falls to ruin during a struggle caused by a flaw (hamartia) in his character or an error in his rulings or judgments. Following are the characteristics of a Sophocles tragedy: (1) It is based on events that already took place and with which the audience is familiar. (2) The protagonist is a person of noble stature. (3) The protagonist has a weakness and, because of it, becomes isolated and suffers a downfall. (4) Because the protagonist's fall is not entirely his or her own fault, the audience may end up pitying him or her. (5) The fallen protagonist gains self-knowledge. He has a deeper insight into himself and understands his weakness. (6) The audience undergoes catharsis, a purging of emotions, after experiencing pity, fear, shock and other strong feelings. The people go away feeling better. (7) The drama usually unfolds in one place in a short period of time, usually about a day