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Journal o Economic Literature 2009, 47:2, 127http:www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/jel.47.2.1
1
1. Introduction
E pk v -v g , g p,v , pp ,
k ( F D. B Lw M. K 2000 vw). I p p w g.
I , w vw xpv p w w, g v xv : k p-, p, p.1
1A p p , xp, -. W xp v. T
w v p -v, xp .
T - xp. I xp w vw, v k w (.g., kp)
(.g., ). Exp replicable, xp p w - v w v kg gp. T w p v p, - g, w.
W g k (.g., p )
w v.W w k-
v . W
p w - p ; w , p .F, w w v p .
A pv pp vw xp- pg p
G D PRachel Croson and Uri Gneezy*
This paper reviews the literature on gender dierences in economic experiments.In the three main sections, we identiy robust dierences in risk preerences, social(other-regarding) preerences, and competitive preerences. We also speculate on the
source o these dierences, as well as on their implications. Our hope is that thisarticle will serve as a resource or those seeking to understand gender dierences and
to use as a starting point to illuminate the debate on gender-specifc outcomes in thelabor and goods markets.
*C: Uv Tx, D. G: U-v C, S Dg.
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g.2 W p v pp ; kg g - (pp) g p g-p g k.
T v p. S 2 vw v g k p.S 3 vw v g - p. S 4 vwv g p-v p. T pv .
2. Risk Preerences
M pp k vvk.3 I , w vw xp- xg g- k p.
2.1 Objective Probability Lotteries
T g, w g g k-kg w w v p
, w kw p . T 1 pp vg-g g k p
g p g.T g k-p w.Pv v (C C. Ek PpJ. G 2008) pg (JP. B, Dv C. M, W D.S 1999) p :
w k v v v k. T ( w)
w g (.g., , g, , g, , ).T , x w
w , v pp.
T w -g pp . F, M L.F . (2000) g - g w, g gp. T w . T p p g g k kg. T p - w g p- w. T pp RS . (1999) w -
w k v w: w g.4
3W k gg pp. W Kg (1921) - w k w kw p w xp pp. T w pp , v , g v p
. I g , w vv Kg , xp k
w p kw.4O pp , T Tk,
C F. C, Qg Ng (g), g k pp- p ( g v v v ). Hwv, p g k v p- xp .
2M- v p x-g p g g g (.g.,M B, N B Hk v F1987); gv g , v-, p (.g., J S. H, EF S J. L 1990); p v-p (.g., A Fg 1994);
(.g., B T. J A H.Eg 1989); - (.g., K D M A 1992); p , v, v (.g., Eg, Sv J. K, M G.Mk 1995); ggv v (.g., Eg
V J. S 198 6); v (.g., Eg W W 1991). I x v vw,Eg (1995) v w-v p-g g ( F 1996 American Psychologist w).
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3Croson and Gneezy: Gender Dierences in Preerences
TABLE 1
Exp
P
G/
S Rk kg
C
?
H L(2002)
S Y G C w g v.
V v p
Lw p:M > F
Hg p:M = F
Y
Hg,F-I-C, Jk (2002)
M v Dwpp
N G Wg p g-k. G kv p 10 30 p
M > F Y
D . (2005)
Rp. p Gpp
p
B Sv v xp. Sv qp v w
M > F Y
Pw A (1997)
S Y B C v - g
M > F N
Ek G(2002)
S Y B C w g v. F (g/) g w
M > F Y
Ek G(2002)
S Y B C w g v. L v w p- , w
M > F Y
F-D,G, S(2006)
S Y B G p p - g
M > F Y
Lv,S, Cp(1988)
S N B H w gv wg g, w gv g
M > F N
F . (2000)
P v N B E v gp p-p. W w kkg gp
M > F Y
S . (1999)
S Y B C w p x-
G:M > FL:M > F
Cx:M = F
N
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2.2 Portolio Selection: High StakesDecisions
I , g-k - v, v g wkg , p . I p q
w xp w k w g g-k g. O pp xp w g k
w p (.g., p w p W v g pg pw). M p w g- w-k
v w v k g. Hwv, k kg, w g v. T v pg g-k w, g g -, w .
F xp, Ak E. S BJ. S (1998) vg -
p x g -. Sg w w k p g , w vv ( F . 2000; NA Jkp Ax Bk1998). S, R P. H, Dv D.MC, J A. T (1997) pp gv- T Svg P
w v p -vv . A g pg
w v -k p- v . M w v k ( Vk L. B JkL. VD 1997).
A p p w w k v- p -
. Bk Sp Sw (2001)v g - g k -kg p. Ug v p v v p, g w w k v.
I , w w k v g w v . Wg k p v , v w xp v . I , w
p xp v ppg . W xp g pk p p.
2.3 Explanations or the Gender Dierencein Risk Taking
2.3.1 Emotions
T xp g -
k kg k . I f pp, Gg F. Lw . (2001) vp w k g ( P Sv . 2002);g , v -v k. T v - p w w w g k gv, pp. W v wk -
g g k p.W k g-p f p.
Pv pg - w xp g ( vw R. A.H A. Pv 1987). A g xp
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5Croson and Gneezy: Gender Dierences in Preerences
k . I p, w p v p gv (.g., L R. B 1993; Fk F,E D, E Svk 1991). I g-v xp w
w , w k v w g k -. T g xp , p w g , xp k v.
E pp p. Pv , , w
g (MG W 1993). T v , w v g, v gv g k w (JS. L . 2003). T w k g (.g., vwg p ), v , w v gv g g k, w k-v w.
A pv -g f g p g k-kg v. L .(2003) -w Sp 11 vg - pv p A Sp 20, 2001. T xp-g g p Sp11 ( xp g) gg p g,
w xpg p
Sp 11 (w xp ) gg g p. A k, xp w pp k , p xp g p v.
A g p g - k
p Hg F-D,M G, S (2006).I xp, k kg p p g . W k v w g p g w p . T w p p q- . Yv R Cp K. H (2001) v p wg g- w- g, g v
p wgg .2.3.2 Overconfdence
A g k v k . T w v,
w g v w(S L, B F, Lw D. Pp 1982; K Dx
E F 1977; M A. Lg,P W. Fx, J P 1994). Fxp, Rp E J H(1988) vg v- v . S wk x p p w v . Nx, wk - v .5 W
w v . I Jk B. S
J K (2004), pp wk pv g w
5N v (w v ) q p. T vv g k v g w, w vv g k- ones own estimate k .
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w Xp - w gv q w. Pp x v-: T w v Xp . B w w v-, w w( w, .58Xp w
w g xp 1 .60Xp xp 3, p w p .40X p xp 1 .51Xp xp3).
M N L V (2007) v-
v p k (vg p)
w, v p- p p -p ( p w).I k g g, w k p w.
2.3.3 Risk as Challenge or Threats
A xp w p
v k p p k . Fxp, E A (1993) xp g kkg v ppp- p. M k k g pp, w p k g v-. T w pp pv v w.
A g k v-
,p, g p k
w. R, v w g. M gg, g-vvg ; w - , v p (J H. Bk 1983).
2.4 Exceptions to the Rule: Managers andProessional Populations
M v g pp ( v v pp). Hwv, v p pp; g p.Ag pp, g k p g pp x.
F xp, S M. Ak,S B B, M B.F (2003) p p v v
x- g. T w g g p, k, -. T gg v v g v kw-g w .
J. E. V. J P. L. Pw (1994)p -kg g pp-
( w vv g g), w gpp p g- w v k .T g pp p k pp k q q, w g pp w k v . S p R M RM (1988) w pp w w
g SB (1989), w p.
T g k p g g pp x g. T ; pp kkg g p.
W w w p,
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7Croson and Gneezy: Gender Dierences in Preerences
v kp . T pv v q . I , v gg g p pp p xp w k v .
A p v g xp g p Pgg D. Dw, J H. Gk, J A. L (2002) w 2,000 v
w k k v. Hwv, v - k kg g -
w v kwg v g- ( M G, K, S 2002 ).
2.5 Conclusion
A g g - k kg; w kv . W gg w v g -. O v
k. M w - k kg. E v w v p. Hwv, g k p. M w , , v pp p- g gv k.M vw k -
g, pp , w k .
T k kg. I g xp p. F xp, w g p g k p.
F g w p vg xp : ( kkg pp p- ) g (pp p v).
3. Dierences in Social Preerences
W v x p-, p ( ) . S p (.g., G S. Bk 1974;J A 1989), v (.g., V-L
M 1995), q v (.g., G E.B Ax Ok 2000; E F K M. S 1999), p(.g., Mw R 1993; G C R 2002; A Fk UF 2006; M Dwg Gg Kg 2004). W w v -gg, x p g.
I , w w g ( w ) p - v w. W v q-v g. W v -p g g. F, w f g g PD g g /
p g pv g.6
6I , w vg-g p g (C BC E M 1998, C . 2007,Hk J. H 2000, R C, M Mk, J S 2008). S pk
wk q -gg p, vw .
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R g v . F xp, w g . W v v xp v
w xp-. R pg gg w v g ppp v (C Gg 1982). S xp g p , g w pp -gg xp- -gg .
Tg , w pv w
p pp xp.F, w k within xp v g v w pv xp. S,
w k between p v. I xp , w w
v v v. T v 3.4.
A w k p, pgv p g. M- g - g, w p p- g g (K Kpg D. W1993), pg v, w p (Eg M Cw1986), - .
3.1 Ultimatum Games
I g, w p ( p) v w . T pp k p w
w v, w p p . I p, p v ppgg. I , p
v .7 T xp- w W G, R Sg, B Sw (1982).
Ag g N q, q gp q (g p) w pp p , p p. Dv q p (, pv ) v p q-v, gvp, p. Dv q pp (, kg pv ) v p q-v, ,
() k-v.Tw xp x g
g: Ek G (2001) S J. Sk (2001).B w , g w.Hwv, - p v (Ek G 2008).
Ek G w
k p w .I , Sk w w g . T - xp. I Ek G (2001), pp p w p gp p g , w w , , x g. Pp w p w p .
I Sk (2001), pp pp- -- . H g
7N g p g- gg ( S-Rgg). W xp v pg, v x g .
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9Croson and Gneezy: Gender Dierences in Preerences
, w p wg p. G
w p ( p w H 2000gg -g pp p ()
; C F U G 2001).T 2 w p
p w . W p, vg 8.7 p- w w . W w p, vg 18.6 p w w . T gg v p v xp x (--, g
v. g ) v p.
Cpg within pv v gx-v w. I -, v -v g pp (1.8 p Sk 9.4
p Ek G).I , w qv g p (23.1 p Sk 14.1p Ek G).T p,
w, pp gg xp g x v w.I xp, G,
C S, M S (2007)k wk w g pp ( p ) -p g. I g, p-p k p p w, p (w p ), p w . T pp g k
pp -w q p , gg q v.
Hwv, gv g -, v k v ( pv ).D g w p pg v.
TABLE 2Rejection Rates in Ultimatum Games
Ek G Sk |D|
M Rp
M M 18.8% 4.5% 14.3%
F M 9.4% 6.3% 3.2%
|D| 9.4% 1.7% 8.7% Avg
F Rp
M F 17.2% 0.0% 17.2%
F F 3.1% 23.1% 20.0%
|D| 14.1% 23.1% 18.6% Avg
F M 4.7% 21.4%C ? Y N
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3.2 Dictator Games
I (R F .1994) g, pp g p v w p. B p k; p . T g p.Pp q- v , g k- v .
Tw p g vg g . I Ek G (1998), pp p - g w $10 p. T
, w gv w pp ( vg w gv $1.60 gv $0.82). I B E Kk(1995), g
w pp g v $10. Tp g pp -, p $5. T g wgv g , - g
( vg w gv $1.23 gv$1.13).Hwv, g p -
w w . A - xp g, gvg g $0.31 w gvgg $0.37. T g gg v w ( w) v xp- v .
F pp w q v gvg.
A V (2001) p- gvg p. T w w qg gw p, w w xg . DvL. Dk J T (2002) xp, xp p
kg p ( - ), . R S Ok (1998) v - g g, wpp g g , g w q-v . Dwg A M(2006) k g - g (g TN. C M 1997), w gp v w v p. T gp gv p
g gp, k p q p,g ppg w q-v .
A g -g g k g pp p w-p g.I Dwg M (2006), p-p p ()
. T xp vv , w B Kk, g w gvg.
I , Av B-N, F Kg, L P (2004) g w , , p kw g. T g - gvg w g p- kw (w gv 3.29 10, gv 3.41) (w gv 3.81, gv 3.50). Hwv, w gv g-
w (2.185) (3.81) p kwg (3.29). A p w w p w g M ( pp) M.T w v w, w --
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11Croson and Gneezy: Gender Dierences in Preerences
w M , .T pv v w v x xp ( g p) w .
Pg , D H D Sk (2007) g
w w 8 10 . C 20 M&M wv . T g gvg w v g p, g (9.8) g (7.9), - g; p< .05. I, -
pg w g (6.7) g (4.6);p > .1 (H Sk 2007, p. 10).
I , w w q v. Hwv, p- w w (Ek G B Kk), w w (B-N ., H Sk), gg w x-p .
3.3 Trust and Reciprocity
A xp x p k p.
W g v p pv-,vvg p p p. T xp -v v .Rp, , v w p p- v p p
p . I w v g w p.
M w g pg. A v g w Dv M.Kp (1990) xp C K Wg (1988). M
v w J Bg, J W. Dk, KvA. MC (1995) J B. V Hk,R C. B, M F. W(1995). I g, p , , w pw ( Kp v, ; ). T p, 3 ( 2), v p w. P w p ( -g w) p ( Kp v g; ). N
g x g v; p w w p . Hwv, v g v ; p w p w v g v p . I , w g w v: ( g p w) p w- ( g p).
T 3 xg g -g.
3.3.1. Trusting Behavior
T ( k -g g) g v. U,k v g, k p-. T w w
g, w k v.
A g - g v (C N R. B 1999; K Ck M S 2001; J C. Cx C A. Dk 2006; I B 2007;C Sw S 2008;
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TABLE 3Trust Games
S Exp T Rp
C
?
C B (1999) C g M= F M< F YU.S., C, Jp, K
Sw S (2004) C g M= F M< F N v v v v
Ck S (2001) Sq PD M= F M= F Y = 1, p= 2
Cx Dk (2004) D g M= F M= F Nv p, g/ , p
B (2006) C g ( 1) M= F M= F Y
A . (2006) C g M= F M= F YU.S., R, S A, g
Ek W (2004) D g M> F M= F Y p (p )
Mg (2006) C g M> F M= F Y
I Pg (2006) C g M> F M= F N , g /w
S (2004) M g M> F M= F Yp (g, g kw)
Kg . (2006) C g M> F M= F Yp , p, w
S K (2004) D g M> F M< F Y p (g )
C C g M> F M< F NGg (2004) p (g )
B . (2004) C g M> F M< F N g , F, M kw
S G (2006) M g M> F Y p, g , w
B Kg (2005) C g M< F M> F Y
D p S, g
Ek W (2004) D g M> F w M= F Yw p p M< F p
B-N . (2004) Sq , pg M< F Y-
Ek G (1996) Sq M< F Y
B . (2008) B v g M= F
Kw M> F
N
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13Croson and Gneezy: Gender Dierences in Preerences
B, Bk H, RZk g). O g w(Ek Rk K. W 2004; CS G K 2001; AC L Gg 2007;B, C, Sk 2008; MMg 2007; A I M G P 2006; R S2006; E G S 2009).O v w w g (C B S Kg 2003; B, H, Zk g Kw ). Wv g -
g pv w xp.T w- p pv v xp.
I Cx Dk (2006), v p v, xp (g v-), p p. T pp w
w v 64 p 32 p- w g 32
pg p. I , pp- w v 55 p 35 p g 20 p-g p. A p 4 pp p v , w . T w . . . pg - x, w pp g v pv . . . (p. 597).
I B, C, Sk (2008),
k w g; pp kw ( kw) g-p p - g. T g (x ) $1.22, w g w $1.47.T v vg
.46, w .60.W pp pv xp, p kwg g p ( w g ) , B-N . H Sk g v.
F, Ek W (2004), p-p p p. T w w v w - p, w v p. Ag, w
v v v-. T 19 pg p - w g w (92 p v 73 p-), 24 pg p w g w (64 p v 88 p).
A D J (2008)p g v w w g xpg G (2005). T
g v g w v pv g v, v g g , g . T g vw w, v g w -g . T , wv, w k pvg.
I , v
w g. B w- v x-v .
3.3.2. Reciprocal Behavior
W v g- p (Ck
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S 2001; Cx Dk 2006; Ek W 2004; Ek W 2004;B 2007; Mg 2007; I P 2006; S 2006), v w p (C B 1999; C Gg 2007; S K2001; B, C, Sk 2008;Sw S 2008; B-N .2004; Ek G 1996). O ,B Kg (2007), p w.
Tw xp - pv w -x g. B-N . (2004)
w-g g w g w p g kpg (p p) f(g p). T w f v g . T k w v g g w ; ppg v v x
v.I Ek G (1996), p-p w g p p w pv w p, w p p w pv . T w k w p . T p v v p, w v .
W p 64 p w
p, 32.7 p w xpv, w p 39.3 p- w p 40.8p w xpv.
T g [] w Gg (1982) . A g, , ,
pp: , , . . . .F w, pp pv. Choices are made with
greater consideration o the circumstancessurrounding the decision . . . . W k v g (pp. 15354, ). W xp pg, v pv v g ( w) -v w x g p.
3.4 The PD, Social Dilemmas, and Public
Goods ProvisionA g pg v
x g p g. I , ARpp A M. C (1965)w p g w, (.g., A K, J H, WL. Dv 1971; Dv Mk, P N. A, Gg P. Kg 1971). Hwv, v w w
pv (.g., S. S, S. S, A. Ep 1968; J. T. T, D.H, J. Gg 1969), w v w g (.g.,R M. Dw, J MTv, H Sk 1977; J O, Dw, Pg Sw-S 1994).
I xp, R H.Fk, T Gv, D T.Rg (1993) w g- pv p- g. A O
L K. T (1999) p p xp, g pp v .A, x gp gp (p-g 27 p 38 p pv). F, wv, g pv
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(w g 30p).
F, J M. Ck K K(2002) x g - p g g, g p . T g- w v kw p. I w g (k ) .Hwv, w v kw , g . T ( w) . . . g . . . v p -x (p. 61).
3.5 Organizing Explanation
A g wk g -gg p.Hwv, -. I xp, w , q v, p, pv , .
W v -g w v xp -
x . R p-g gg w v gppp v (K, H, Dv 1971). S xp- g p w v g p p-p pp. Sxp g p- vk p, p , p g,
pg v k w p, w p-p xp, w .
W pv w p p-p xp. F, w xp v g
k v w pv - xp. W v- w v g.
I g, w p v w g p (Ek G; Sk). I g, w w v g ( ) -p w (B-N, Kg, P; H Sk).
I , w w v w ( g-
) p (B, C, Sk 2008), w x p p (Ek
W). S, v xp p p,
w v - (Cx Dk).
I p , w g w v w pp xp. M k p-
(w) p w pv () w (Ek G). W f g -v- q g
w (B-N .). A w p g (C B; B, C, Sk;C Gg; S K; Sw S).
S, w k between p
v. Bw- p- v w k, w p .I xp , w w v v v. W w- v xp- w.
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17Croson and Gneezy: Gender Dierences in Preerences
I p v g, w p EkG Sk pp w 18.6 p w 8.7p. I gvg, w p Ek G B Kkpp gvg $0.31 w gvg $0.37w w . F, p-g v VCM xp, w g 30 p-g p, w g 21 pg p.
W v, gg Gg (1982),
x-p w. Pp g k xg g , v xp-, p, (v) p , w . T wpp ; pp w , w pp -
gg . B p w w w v context-dependent .
W w xp - v . C M J (2007) w p-g pp w w- v . T g g . W v w v p, w
w gv .
4. Competitive Behavior
I , w k g xp: - w p.R g gg w
gg pv k , gg . A, p,v w, pv -p. T pv v , p pp v w.
4.1 Reacting to Competition
W pp w pp -v p? D w pv -v? R g gg p -
pv v w- p. W ww .
I ,G, N, A R (2003)k w v p . I w- g, pp w p g p ( p v) g w-k- . U p ,
p g ( g-) w, vg 11.2 vg, p w 9.7
w. Hwv, w pp wp pv , p- g 15, w - 10.8. T g pv w p gp w, w x , w .
I , G R
(2004) p . I w- g, w v k w g p. F , p w gp. W , w g p-. I p, pv
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.163 , g .015 w w .
I pg g w pv p. Hwv, p q. F xp, kw w v k . A wq g g p gp. I , w pv v gx gp, x gp. I , wv, g p gp , N D Gp, A P,
M-C Vv (2005) p g g w.F w q.
4.2 Sel-Selection
T - g p. B w pp v ? I
w p g -
v, v w v. Sv pp vvg g v. I , pp xp p g w p : p w-k- .
N V (2007) x p p-, w g p p p. T v
gp w w w w xp p wk w p, v x k. Dp q p- (73 p-) q p p -
v, w (65 p-) q p- p.
W g v , v w w-pg v -g w p, p p-g v g. N g gg v k v.
G R (2004) wk: v (g -k) v w (vgg). W vg g, 40 p- 25 p w
p; g k w 53 p 15 p,pv. T , w pv v k, gp w w k v w.
T g (.g., DVg P Bw 2005; DGp, P, Vv 2005) gg w k -p . Y, w w -
pv v p w g.
4.3 Bargaining
O w vg p- v g p g-g. Cpv g. Cpv
w g w k g pp v, w k kg , ,
p . I w, pv vv w f,
w pv p (pv p p , v).T w p
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19Croson and Gneezy: Gender Dierences in Preerences
g p v xv; vv v.
M pg g g g p ( - A E. W, A F.S, L L. M 1998; S- W 1999; J N, J L.G, M C. G 1988; D. F.
Wk 1987). Hwv, g-g p p p: T w /k p g ( ,
). N q v g pv g.
I k g g,L Bk S Lv (2003) w v pv g- v . F xp, pp w w p w $3 $10 pp. A pp, xp k
H $3. I $3 OK? O 2.5 p pp 23 p pp q (D A. S . 2007). Bk(2002) p vg g MBA gg CgM w 7.6 p g . T v 7 p wp g ,
w 57 p pg ( H R Bw,
Bk, K L. MG 2005;B G S R 1991; LJ. K, Lg Tp, A D.Gk 2001; K, Gk, Tp2002; S W 1999).
T gg , w k x pv p , g
g, g pp- gg g .
4.4 Why are Men More Competitive thanWomen?
W w gg v? O ggxp backlash: I g w v gg -. Bw, Bk, L L (2007)w xp pp p- v g v- ( Ek G 1996).
T xp g ggv v , xp, xp w w w q(Bk 1965).
A xp- w . W T. Hg,K Sv G. L (2002), xp, w g g(, , g) k
, ( w g) kw g ( v-g 0.97 k 10, w g vg2.12 k 10). T g x gg v .
G, K L. L, L(2006) xp k xp
w g g pv v , xg p -
( M T) - ( K I). S v W v, M p p w M w (50 p v- 25 p, pv). Hwv, v g K, w
w pv v
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K ( p 39 p w w p 54p ). T pv pp g k vg pv, , .
A ppg vw, w w g -, g p
w. F C Dw g , v g p-g g .8I vw,
g v w w pg -. U xp, p
w vv g x- g. F xp,g
w pv (.g.,Sp C, J L. Spg, M. Rg Hv 2006).
Spp xp g - v. F xp, ( , ) kw w gg w g. T g g - pv ( vw, H S. Bp . 2002). P xp g
w x p v w(J T. Mg Rg P. T 2001).
D M H (2007) k v
w px p xp, w g. T gv -
8S Dw (1871), A. J. B (1948), RL. Tv (1972).
w p , pv w p , x (Mw H. MI 2006).
A g xp -g - Y C, P Kk, EO (2009) w wpv p pv p g. I -p, w w gg p , -k p -g g , wg g p w p. T -
, vg, w.
W g p g p. T -g q wg - , g, w . F .
5. Summary and Discussion
T vw xp- g kp, p, p-v p. I g, w w (w xp x).
M w k v (- 2), w p xp g- pp. W gg p
g, g, v, g.
A w p ( 3), g v. W gg ggxp v w v
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21Croson and Gneezy: Gender Dierences in Preerences
. T g v- w v , w
w v w xp w .
F, g-g w p p-v w , p pv -gg g ( 4). O p g q - w g () g (). W p v v xp, gg q gg w v wg w
.I , w v p
p w w w. E p wk p k.
W w w g. F, w g - g wg p w ( L 2006):
Y=X+T+ ,
w Y (k p-, p v, pvp), X v p-p v- (g g), T - v (xp ), p, p.
I p , - p pp w
g xp . Hw g Tp xpv g , g . T , q . T
w Xv -g v. I p-, w g w T( xp x) X( g pp).
I , w xp p - .., - v . I p,g g. W v p w w w k xp , .
S, p -
g k p pp g pp .Mv, p v g g . I , w v g g, v w p, p . Ggw, w g
g pp wp ( pg -). T w g xp -g g v p p.
I p v-, w p-p p -. I , g - . I , (.g., g w q p-
p, p g v- v), (pg v v). Fxp, w v gwg w xp v.Ig, R L. D CSv (1975)
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vg v; v xp
w v p, w pp w pv, p, p. W
w pp k p xp-, .B vg - xp.
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