gender differences in preferences croson and geezy

7/31/2019 Gender Differences in Preferences Croson and Geezy

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Journal o Economic Literature 2009, 47:2, 127http:www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/jel.47.2.1

1

1. Introduction

E pk v -v g , g p,v , pp ,

k ( F D. B Lw M. K 2000 vw). I p p w g.

I , w vw xpv p w w, g v xv : k p-, p, p.1

1A p p , xp, -. W xp v. T

w v p -v, xp .

T - xp. I xp w vw, v k w (.g., kp)

(.g., ). Exp replicable, xp p w - v w v kg gp. T w p v p, - g, w.

W g k (.g., p )

w v.W w k-

v . W

p w - p ; w , p .F, w w v p .

A pv pp vw xp- pg p

G D PRachel Croson and Uri Gneezy*

This paper reviews the literature on gender dierences in economic experiments.In the three main sections, we identiy robust dierences in risk preerences, social(other-regarding) preerences, and competitive preerences. We also speculate on the

source o these dierences, as well as on their implications. Our hope is that thisarticle will serve as a resource or those seeking to understand gender dierences and

to use as a starting point to illuminate the debate on gender-specifc outcomes in thelabor and goods markets.

*C: Uv Tx, D. G: U-v C, S Dg.

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Journal o Economic Literature, Vol. XLVII (June 2009)2

g.2 W p v pp ; kg g - (pp) g p g-p g k.

T v p. S 2 vw v g k p.S 3 vw v g - p. S 4 vwv g p-v p. T pv .

2. Risk Preerences

M pp k vvk.3 I , w vw xp- xg g- k p.

2.1 Objective Probability Lotteries

T g, w g g k-kg w w v p

, w kw p . T 1 pp vg-g g k p

g p g.T g k-p w.Pv v (C C. Ek PpJ. G 2008) pg (JP. B, Dv C. M, W D.S 1999) p :

w k v v v k. T ( w)

w g (.g., , g, , g, , ).T , x w

w , v pp.

T w -g pp . F, M L.F . (2000) g - g w, g gp. T w . T p p g g k kg. T p - w g p- w. T pp RS . (1999) w -

w k v w: w g.4

3W k gg pp. W Kg (1921) - w k w kw p w xp pp. T w pp , v , g v p

. I g , w vv Kg , xp k

w p kw.4O pp , T Tk,

C F. C, Qg Ng (g), g k pp- p ( g v v v ). Hwv, p g k v p- xp .

2M- v p x-g p g g g (.g.,M B, N B Hk v F1987); gv g , v-, p (.g., J S. H, EF S J. L 1990); p v-p (.g., A Fg 1994);

(.g., B T. J A H.Eg 1989); - (.g., K D M A 1992); p , v, v (.g., Eg, Sv J. K, M G.Mk 1995); ggv v (.g., Eg

V J. S 198 6); v (.g., Eg W W 1991). I x v vw,Eg (1995) v w-v p-g g ( F 1996 American Psychologist w).

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3Croson and Gneezy: Gender Dierences in Preerences

TABLE 1

Exp

P

G/

S Rk kg

C

?

H L(2002)

S Y G C w g v.

V v p

Lw p:M > F

Hg p:M = F

Y

Hg,F-I-C, Jk (2002)

M v Dwpp

N G Wg p g-k. G kv p 10 30 p

M > F Y

D . (2005)

Rp. p Gpp

p

B Sv v xp. Sv qp v w

M > F Y

Pw A (1997)

S Y B C v - g

M > F N

Ek G(2002)

S Y B C w g v. F (g/) g w

M > F Y

Ek G(2002)

S Y B C w g v. L v w p- , w

M > F Y

F-D,G, S(2006)

S Y B G p p - g

M > F Y

Lv,S, Cp(1988)

S N B H w gv wg g, w gv g

M > F N

F . (2000)

P v N B E v gp p-p. W w kkg gp

M > F Y

S . (1999)

S Y B C w p x-

G:M > FL:M > F

Cx:M = F

N

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2.2 Portolio Selection: High StakesDecisions

I , g-k - v, v g wkg , p . I p q

w xp w k w g g-k g. O pp xp w g k

w p (.g., p w p W v g pg pw). M p w g- w-k

v w v k g. Hwv, k kg, w g v. T v pg g-k w, g g -, w .

F xp, Ak E. S BJ. S (1998) vg -

p x g -. Sg w w k p g , w vv ( F . 2000; NA Jkp Ax Bk1998). S, R P. H, Dv D.MC, J A. T (1997) pp gv- T Svg P

w v p -vv . A g pg

w v -k p- v . M w v k ( Vk L. B JkL. VD 1997).

A p p w w k v- p -

. Bk Sp Sw (2001)v g - g k -kg p. Ug v p v v p, g w w k v.

I , w w k v g w v . Wg k p v , v w xp v . I , w

p xp v ppg . W xp g pk p p.

2.3 Explanations or the Gender Dierencein Risk Taking

2.3.1 Emotions

T xp g -

k kg k . I f pp, Gg F. Lw . (2001) vp w k g ( P Sv . 2002);g , v -v k. T v - p w w w g k gv, pp. W v wk -

g g k p.W k g-p f p.

Pv pg - w xp g ( vw R. A.H A. Pv 1987). A g xp

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k . I p, w p v p gv (.g., L R. B 1993; Fk F,E D, E Svk 1991). I g-v xp w

w , w k v w g k -. T g xp , p w g , xp k v.

E pp p. Pv , , w

g (MG W 1993). T v , w v g, v gv g k w (JS. L . 2003). T w k g (.g., vwg p ), v , w v gv g g k, w k-v w.

A pv -g f g p g k-kg v. L .(2003) -w Sp 11 vg - pv p A Sp 20, 2001. T xp-g g p Sp11 ( xp g) gg p g,

w xpg p

Sp 11 (w xp ) gg g p. A k, xp w pp k , p xp g p v.

A g p g - k

p Hg F-D,M G, S (2006).I xp, k kg p p g . W k v w g p g w p . T w p p q- . Yv R Cp K. H (2001) v p wg g- w- g, g v

p wgg .2.3.2 Overconfdence

A g k v k . T w v,

w g v w(S L, B F, Lw D. Pp 1982; K Dx

E F 1977; M A. Lg,P W. Fx, J P 1994). Fxp, Rp E J H(1988) vg v- v . S wk x p p w v . Nx, wk - v .5 W

w v . I Jk B. S

J K (2004), pp wk pv g w

5N v (w v ) q p. T vv g k v g w, w vv g k- ones own estimate k .

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w Xp - w gv q w. Pp x v-: T w v Xp . B w w v-, w w( w, .58Xp w

w g xp 1 .60Xp xp 3, p w p .40X p xp 1 .51Xp xp3).

M N L V (2007) v-

v p k (vg p)

w, v p- p p -p ( p w).I k g g, w k p w.

2.3.3 Risk as Challenge or Threats

A xp w p

v k p p k . Fxp, E A (1993) xp g kkg v ppp- p. M k k g pp, w p k g v-. T w pp pv v w.

A g k v-

,p, g p k

w. R, v w g. M gg, g-vvg ; w - , v p (J H. Bk 1983).

2.4 Exceptions to the Rule: Managers andProessional Populations

M v g pp ( v v pp). Hwv, v p pp; g p.Ag pp, g k p g pp x.

F xp, S M. Ak,S B B, M B.F (2003) p p v v

x- g. T w g g p, k, -. T gg v v g v kw-g w .

J. E. V. J P. L. Pw (1994)p -kg g pp-

( w vv g g), w gpp p g- w v k .T g pp p k pp k q q, w g pp w k v . S p R M RM (1988) w pp w w

g SB (1989), w p.

T g k p g g pp x g. T ; pp kkg g p.

W w w p,

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v kp . T pv v q . I , v gg g p pp p xp w k v .

A p v g xp g p Pgg D. Dw, J H. Gk, J A. L (2002) w 2,000 v

w k k v. Hwv, v - k kg g -

w v kwg v g- ( M G, K, S 2002 ).

2.5 Conclusion

A g g - k kg; w kv . W gg w v g -. O v

k. M w - k kg. E v w v p. Hwv, g k p. M w , , v pp p- g gv k.M vw k -

g, pp , w k .

T k kg. I g xp p. F xp, w g p g k p.

F g w p vg xp : ( kkg pp p- ) g (pp p v).

3. Dierences in Social Preerences

W v x p-, p ( ) . S p (.g., G S. Bk 1974;J A 1989), v (.g., V-L

M 1995), q v (.g., G E.B Ax Ok 2000; E F K M. S 1999), p(.g., Mw R 1993; G C R 2002; A Fk UF 2006; M Dwg Gg Kg 2004). W w v -gg, x p g.

I , w w g ( w ) p - v w. W v q-v g. W v -p g g. F, w f g g PD g g /

p g pv g.6

6I , w vg-g p g (C BC E M 1998, C . 2007,Hk J. H 2000, R C, M Mk, J S 2008). S pk

wk q -gg p, vw .

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R g v . F xp, w g . W v v xp v

w xp-. R pg gg w v g ppp v (C Gg 1982). S xp g p , g w pp -gg xp- -gg .

Tg , w pv w

p pp xp.F, w k within xp v g v w pv xp. S,

w k between p v. I xp , w w

v v v. T v 3.4.

A w k p, pgv p g. M- g - g, w p p- g g (K Kpg D. W1993), pg v, w p (Eg M Cw1986), - .

3.1 Ultimatum Games

I g, w p ( p) v w . T pp k p w

w v, w p p . I p, p v ppgg. I , p

v .7 T xp- w W G, R Sg, B Sw (1982).

Ag g N q, q gp q (g p) w pp p , p p. Dv q p (, pv ) v p q-v, gvp, p. Dv q pp (, kg pv ) v p q-v, ,

() k-v.Tw xp x g

g: Ek G (2001) S J. Sk (2001).B w , g w.Hwv, - p v (Ek G 2008).

Ek G w

k p w .I , Sk w w g . T - xp. I Ek G (2001), pp p w p gp p g , w w , , x g. Pp w p w p .

I Sk (2001), pp pp- -- . H g

7N g p g- gg ( S-Rgg). W xp v pg, v x g .

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, w p wg p. G

w p ( p w H 2000gg -g pp p ()

; C F U G 2001).T 2 w p

p w . W p, vg 8.7 p- w w . W w p, vg 18.6 p w w . T gg v p v xp x (--, g

v. g ) v p.

Cpg within pv v gx-v w. I -, v -v g pp (1.8 p Sk 9.4

p Ek G).I , w qv g p (23.1 p Sk 14.1p Ek G).T p,

w, pp gg xp g x v w.I xp, G,

C S, M S (2007)k wk w g pp ( p ) -p g. I g, p-p k p p w, p (w p ), p w . T pp g k

pp -w q p , gg q v.

Hwv, gv g -, v k v ( pv ).D g w p pg v.

TABLE 2Rejection Rates in Ultimatum Games

Ek G Sk |D|

M Rp

M M 18.8% 4.5% 14.3%

F M 9.4% 6.3% 3.2%

|D| 9.4% 1.7% 8.7% Avg

F Rp

M F 17.2% 0.0% 17.2%

F F 3.1% 23.1% 20.0%

|D| 14.1% 23.1% 18.6% Avg

F M 4.7% 21.4%C ? Y N

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3.2 Dictator Games

I (R F .1994) g, pp g p v w p. B p k; p . T g p.Pp q- v , g k- v .

Tw p g vg g . I Ek G (1998), pp p - g w $10 p. T

, w gv w pp ( vg w gv $1.60 gv $0.82). I B E Kk(1995), g

w pp g v $10. Tp g pp -, p $5. T g wgv g , - g

( vg w gv $1.23 gv$1.13).Hwv, g p -

w w . A - xp g, gvg g $0.31 w gvgg $0.37. T g gg v w ( w) v xp- v .

F pp w q v gvg.

A V (2001) p- gvg p. T w w qg gw p, w w xg . DvL. Dk J T (2002) xp, xp p

kg p ( - ), . R S Ok (1998) v - g g, wpp g g , g w q-v . Dwg A M(2006) k g - g (g TN. C M 1997), w gp v w v p. T gp gv p

g gp, k p q p,g ppg w q-v .

A g -g g k g pp p w-p g.I Dwg M (2006), p-p p ()

. T xp vv , w B Kk, g w gvg.

I , Av B-N, F Kg, L P (2004) g w , , p kw g. T g - gvg w g p- kw (w gv 3.29 10, gv 3.41) (w gv 3.81, gv 3.50). Hwv, w gv g-

w (2.185) (3.81) p kwg (3.29). A p w w p w g M ( pp) M.T w v w, w --

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w M , .T pv v w v x xp ( g p) w .

Pg , D H D Sk (2007) g

w w 8 10 . C 20 M&M wv . T g gvg w v g p, g (9.8) g (7.9), - g; p< .05. I, -

pg w g (6.7) g (4.6);p > .1 (H Sk 2007, p. 10).

I , w w q v. Hwv, p- w w (Ek G B Kk), w w (B-N ., H Sk), gg w x-p .

3.3 Trust and Reciprocity

A xp x p k p.

W g v p pv-,vvg p p p. T xp -v v .Rp, , v w p p- v p p

p . I w v g w p.

M w g pg. A v g w Dv M.Kp (1990) xp C K Wg (1988). M

v w J Bg, J W. Dk, KvA. MC (1995) J B. V Hk,R C. B, M F. W(1995). I g, p , , w pw ( Kp v, ; ). T p, 3 ( 2), v p w. P w p ( -g w) p ( Kp v g; ). N

g x g v; p w w p . Hwv, v g v ; p w p w v g v p . I , w g w v: ( g p w) p w- ( g p).

T 3 xg g -g.

3.3.1. Trusting Behavior

T ( k -g g) g v. U,k v g, k p-. T w w

g, w k v.

A g - g v (C N R. B 1999; K Ck M S 2001; J C. Cx C A. Dk 2006; I B 2007;C Sw S 2008;

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TABLE 3Trust Games

S Exp T Rp

C

?

C B (1999) C g M= F M< F YU.S., C, Jp, K

Sw S (2004) C g M= F M< F N v v v v

Ck S (2001) Sq PD M= F M= F Y = 1, p= 2

Cx Dk (2004) D g M= F M= F Nv p, g/ , p

B (2006) C g ( 1) M= F M= F Y

A . (2006) C g M= F M= F YU.S., R, S A, g

Ek W (2004) D g M> F M= F Y p (p )

Mg (2006) C g M> F M= F Y

I Pg (2006) C g M> F M= F N , g /w

S (2004) M g M> F M= F Yp (g, g kw)

Kg . (2006) C g M> F M= F Yp , p, w

S K (2004) D g M> F M< F Y p (g )

C C g M> F M< F NGg (2004) p (g )

B . (2004) C g M> F M< F N g , F, M kw

S G (2006) M g M> F Y p, g , w

B Kg (2005) C g M< F M> F Y

D p S, g

Ek W (2004) D g M> F w M= F Yw p p M< F p

B-N . (2004) Sq , pg M< F Y-

Ek G (1996) Sq M< F Y

B . (2008) B v g M= F

Kw M> F

N

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B, Bk H, RZk g). O g w(Ek Rk K. W 2004; CS G K 2001; AC L Gg 2007;B, C, Sk 2008; MMg 2007; A I M G P 2006; R S2006; E G S 2009).O v w w g (C B S Kg 2003; B, H, Zk g Kw ). Wv g -

g pv w xp.T w- p pv v xp.

I Cx Dk (2006), v p v, xp (g v-), p p. T pp w

w v 64 p 32 p- w g 32

pg p. I , pp- w v 55 p 35 p g 20 p-g p. A p 4 pp p v , w . T w . . . pg - x, w pp g v pv . . . (p. 597).

I B, C, Sk (2008),

k w g; pp kw ( kw) g-p p - g. T g (x ) $1.22, w g w $1.47.T v vg

.46, w .60.W pp pv xp, p kwg g p ( w g ) , B-N . H Sk g v.

F, Ek W (2004), p-p p p. T w w v w - p, w v p. Ag, w

v v v-. T 19 pg p - w g w (92 p v 73 p-), 24 pg p w g w (64 p v 88 p).

A D J (2008)p g v w w g xpg G (2005). T

g v g w v pv g v, v g g , g . T g vw w, v g w -g . T , wv, w k pvg.

I , v

w g. B w- v x-v .

3.3.2. Reciprocal Behavior

W v g- p (Ck

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S 2001; Cx Dk 2006; Ek W 2004; Ek W 2004;B 2007; Mg 2007; I P 2006; S 2006), v w p (C B 1999; C Gg 2007; S K2001; B, C, Sk 2008;Sw S 2008; B-N .2004; Ek G 1996). O ,B Kg (2007), p w.

Tw xp - pv w -x g. B-N . (2004)

w-g g w g w p g kpg (p p) f(g p). T w f v g . T k w v g g w ; ppg v v x

v.I Ek G (1996), p-p w g p p w pv w p, w p p w pv . T w k w p . T p v v p, w v .

W p 64 p w

p, 32.7 p w xpv, w p 39.3 p- w p 40.8p w xpv.

T g [] w Gg (1982) . A g, , ,

pp: , , . . . .F w, pp pv. Choices are made with

greater consideration o the circumstancessurrounding the decision . . . . W k v g (pp. 15354, ). W xp pg, v pv v g ( w) -v w x g p.

3.4 The PD, Social Dilemmas, and Public

Goods ProvisionA g pg v

x g p g. I , ARpp A M. C (1965)w p g w, (.g., A K, J H, WL. Dv 1971; Dv Mk, P N. A, Gg P. Kg 1971). Hwv, v w w

pv (.g., S. S, S. S, A. Ep 1968; J. T. T, D.H, J. Gg 1969), w v w g (.g.,R M. Dw, J MTv, H Sk 1977; J O, Dw, Pg Sw-S 1994).

I xp, R H.Fk, T Gv, D T.Rg (1993) w g- pv p- g. A O

L K. T (1999) p p xp, g pp v .A, x gp gp (p-g 27 p 38 p pv). F, wv, g pv

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(w g 30p).

F, J M. Ck K K(2002) x g - p g g, g p . T g- w v kw p. I w g (k ) .Hwv, w v kw , g . T ( w) . . . g . . . v p -x (p. 61).

3.5 Organizing Explanation

A g wk g -gg p.Hwv, -. I xp, w , q v, p, pv , .

W v -g w v xp -

x . R p-g gg w v gppp v (K, H, Dv 1971). S xp- g p w v g p p-p pp. Sxp g p- vk p, p , p g,

pg v k w p, w p-p xp, w .

W pv w p p-p xp. F, w xp v g

k v w pv - xp. W v- w v g.

I g, w p v w g p (Ek G; Sk). I g, w w v g ( ) -p w (B-N, Kg, P; H Sk).

I , w w v w ( g-

) p (B, C, Sk 2008), w x p p (Ek

W). S, v xp p p,

w v - (Cx Dk).

I p , w g w v w pp xp. M k p-

(w) p w pv () w (Ek G). W f g -v- q g

w (B-N .). A w p g (C B; B, C, Sk;C Gg; S K; Sw S).

S, w k between p

v. Bw- p- v w k, w p .I xp , w w v v v. W w- v xp- w.

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I p v g, w p EkG Sk pp w 18.6 p w 8.7p. I gvg, w p Ek G B Kkpp gvg $0.31 w gvg $0.37w w . F, p-g v VCM xp, w g 30 p-g p, w g 21 pg p.

W v, gg Gg (1982),

x-p w. Pp g k xg g , v xp-, p, (v) p , w . T wpp ; pp w , w pp -

gg . B p w w w v context-dependent .

W w xp - v . C M J (2007) w p-g pp w w- v . T g g . W v w v p, w

w gv .

4. Competitive Behavior

I , w k g xp: - w p.R g gg w

gg pv k , gg . A, p,v w, pv -p. T pv v , p pp v w.

4.1 Reacting to Competition

W pp w pp -v p? D w pv -v? R g gg p -

pv v w- p. W ww .

I ,G, N, A R (2003)k w v p . I w- g, pp w p g p ( p v) g w-k- . U p ,

p g ( g-) w, vg 11.2 vg, p w 9.7

w. Hwv, w pp wp pv , p- g 15, w - 10.8. T g pv w p gp w, w x , w .

I , G R

(2004) p . I w- g, w v k w g p. F , p w gp. W , w g p-. I p, pv

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.163 , g .015 w w .

I pg g w pv p. Hwv, p q. F xp, kw w v k . A wq g g p gp. I , w pv v gx gp, x gp. I , wv, g p gp , N D Gp, A P,

M-C Vv (2005) p g g w.F w q.

4.2 Sel-Selection

T - g p. B w pp v ? I

w p g -

v, v w v. Sv pp vvg g v. I , pp xp p g w p : p w-k- .

N V (2007) x p p-, w g p p p. T v

gp w w w w xp p wk w p, v x k. Dp q p- (73 p-) q p p -

v, w (65 p-) q p- p.

W g v , v w w-pg v -g w p, p p-g v g. N g gg v k v.

G R (2004) wk: v (g -k) v w (vgg). W vg g, 40 p- 25 p w

p; g k w 53 p 15 p,pv. T , w pv v k, gp w w k v w.

T g (.g., DVg P Bw 2005; DGp, P, Vv 2005) gg w k -p . Y, w w -

pv v p w g.

4.3 Bargaining

O w vg p- v g p g-g. Cpv g. Cpv

w g w k g pp v, w k kg , ,

p . I w, pv vv w f,

w pv p (pv p p , v).T w p

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g p v xv; vv v.

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Wk 1987). Hwv, g-g p p p: T w /k p g ( ,

). N q v g pv g.

I k g g,L Bk S Lv (2003) w v pv g- v . F xp, pp w w p w $3 $10 pp. A pp, xp k

H $3. I $3 OK? O 2.5 p pp 23 p pp q (D A. S . 2007). Bk(2002) p vg g MBA gg CgM w 7.6 p g . T v 7 p wp g ,

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T gg , w k x pv p , g

g, g ppgg g .

4.4 Why are Men More Competitive thanWomen?

W w gg v? O ggxp backlash: I g w v gg -. Bw, Bk, L L (2007)w xp pp p- v g v- ( Ek G 1996).

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w x p v w(J T. Mg Rg P. T 2001).

D M H (2007) k v

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8S Dw (1871), A. J. B (1948), RL. Tv (1972).

w p , pv w p , x (Mw H. MI 2006).

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, vg, w.

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5. Summary and Discussion

T vw xp- g kp, p, p-v p. I g, w w (w xp x).

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g, g, v, g.

A w p ( 3), g v. W gg ggxp v w v

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. T g v- w v , w

w v w xp w .

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p, p g v- v), (pg v v). Fxp, w v gwg w xp v.Ig, R L. D CSv (1975)

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vg v; v xp

w v p, w pp w pv, p, p. W

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