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ORIG I NALRESEARCH

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Gender differences in colour namingperformance for gender specific bodyshape images

N.A. Elliman, M.W. Green, and W.K. WanConsumer Sciences Department, Institute of Food Research, Reading, Berks, U. K.

ABSTRACT. Males are increasingly subjected to pressures to conform to aesthetic bodystereotypes. There is, however, comparatively little published research on the aetiology omale body shape concerns. Two experiments are presented, which investigate the relationship between gender specific body shape concerns and colour-naming performance. Eachstudy comprised a between subject design, in which each subject was tested on a singleoccasion. A pictorial version of a modified Stroop task was used in both studies. Subjectscolour-named gender specific obese and thin body shape images and semantically homogeneous neutral images (birds) presented in a blocked format. The first experiment investigatedfemale subjects (N = 68) and the second investigated males (N = 56). Subjects also completeda self-report measure of eating behaviour. Currently dieting female subjects exhibited significant colour-naming differences between obese and neutral images. A similar pattern ocolour-naming performance was found to be related to external eating in the male subjects.(Eating Weight Disord. 3, 17-24, 1998). ©1998, Editrice Kurtis

INTRODUCTION

Pursuit of a healthy and attractive body hasbecome increasingly more important toboth males and females in Western culture.Over the last 2 decades the average femaleunder 30 has become heavier (1), yet toachieve the ideal body shape in today’s cul-ture women have to be slimmer (2).

This trend to a slimmer body shape isreflected in the enormous increase in thenumber of magazines in the U. K. dedicatedto slimming from 0 in 1966 to 10 in 1986 (3).In addition, popular magazines are increas-ingly full of articles on weight loss and dietregimes (1). At any one time in the U. K. it isestimated that 12% of women between 16and 64 are following a weight loss pro-gramme (4), and 90% have been on a weightreducing diet at some time in their lives (5).Many women express feelings of fatnessand a desire to lose weight even when theyfall in the normal weight ranges (6).

The preoccupation with weight and bodyshape amongst non-clinically eating disor-dered women has been the subject of muchinvestigation (7, 8). Men however, have beenless thoroughly studied, yet there is a grow-ing body of evidence to suggest that men are

increasingly becoming subjected to the pressures to conform to aesthetic stereotypes (911). Indeed, there is evidence to suggest thathe incidence of eating disorders hasincreased amongst males, from below 10%of cases, (12), to one paper reportingAnorexic subjects to be 27% male (13).

Overwhelmingly, the studies addressingthese concerns have used self report questionnaires such as The Dutch EatingBehaviour Questionnaire (DEBQ) (14), theEating Disorder Inventory (EDI-2) (15) andThe Body Attitude Questionnaire (BAQ) (16)It is, however, also possible to use behavioural measures to assess these concerns. Forinstance, if it is the case that these concernsrepresent enduring schemata, or cognitivestructures, they should affect the speed awhich information is processed. This hypothesis is supported by the findings of studiesusing a modification of the Stroop colournaming task (17). In this task subjects areasked to name the colours in which a set owords in an array are printed, as quickly aspossible while being timed. If it is the casethat schema related words are processedmore quickly than schema unrelated wordsbody shape and food words should becolour-named more slowly than neutra

Key words: Male, body shape, pictorialStroop, dieting, externaleating.Correspondence: N.A. Elliman, M.D.,Consumer SciencesDepartment, Institute ofFood Research, Earley Gate,Whiteknights Road, Reading,Berks. RG6 6BZ. U. K. Received: February 11, 1998Accepted: June 5, 1998

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Body shape Stroop and gender differences

words. Female clinical eating-disordered andnon-eating disordered, high dietary restrain-ers have been shown to name body shapewords (e.g., “fat”, “obese”, “plump”) and foodwords (e.g., “cake”, “cream”, “chocolate”)more slowly than neutral words (18, 19).

An important issue in these studies is thatof an appropriate control group. Somestudies have used men as a control popula-tion (20, 21). However, concerns with bodyimage have been found in subgroups ofthis population such as sportsmen, usingself report methods to assess body imageconcerns (9, 22). Indeed, there is evidencethat males do colour-name body shaperelated words more slowly than neutralwords (23), although the variable underly-ing this effect is unclear.

The exact nature of the Stroop arrays usedmay explain why there have been severalfailures to find impaired colour-naming ofbody shape words amongst male subjects.Most studies investigating the modifiedStroop task have used verbal stimuli. Aswords chosen in the above studies werespecifically chosen to be related to the bodyshape concerns of women, these may not bea sensitive measure for males, whose bodyshape concerns may not be identical to thoseof women. It is accepted that the processingof verbal information for semantic featuresinvolves many more stages than the process-ing of symbolic or pictorial information (24).Since impaired colour-naming of body shapematerial is a function of the semantic contentof that information, it may be the case thatverbal body shape related stimuli represent arelatively insensitive index of such concernsin male subjects.

There is evidence to suggest that pictorialversions of the Stroop task reveal differ-ences in colour-naming between affectivelyvalanced and neutral stimuli. Walker, Ben-Tovim, Paddick and McNamara, (25), reporta study in which a group of DSM-III-R eat-ing disordered patients colour-named a pic-torial array of women, ranging from verythin to very fat, significantly more slowlythan a control array. This effect was not,however, demonstrated by a control popula-tion. In light of the presumed differences inaffective valence between obese and thinbody shape images (25), the failure to findimpaired colour-naming of body shapeimages amongst the control subjects may bedue to this mixing of affective valence withinthe target array. In support of this interpre-

tation, it has been found that when negativeand neutral stimuli are presented in a ran-domised fashion, rather than blocked withrespect to affective valence, the size of thecolour-naming impairment for negativestimuli is drastically reduced (26). The first ofthe current two experiments comprised aninvestigation as to whether this pictorial ver-sion of the modified Stroop task is a sensi-tive enough measure to replicate the patternof processing biases found amongst non-eating disordered dieters on a word basedversion of the Stroop task (18). The secondstudy represents an attempt to use this mea-sure to investigate the pattern of processingbiases towards body shape related stimuli inmales.

Experiment One

METHOD

SubjectsA population of 68 female undergraduatesand postgraduates aged between 18-31 yearswere recruited by advertisements placed onsports and society notice boards. All subjectsgave informed consent and the studies wereapproved by the Institute of Food ResearchHuman Ethical Research Committee. Eachsubject had normal colour vision and nor-mal, or corrected to normal, visual acuity.

Design and procedureAll subjects were tested individually, in atesting session lasting forty-five minutes.During the session subjects completed amodified version of the Stroop task, afterwhich self report measures of body imageand eating behaviour were collected. All sub-jects had their height and weight measuredwith digital scales and a stadiometer. Thepresentation order of the Stroop arrays wascounter-balanced across subjects. Subjectswere asked to name aloud the colours on theboards as quickly as possible as if they werea page of prose while being timed by a stop-watch. Prior to presentation of the test stim-ulus arrays subjects were given a practicearray. This consisted of one hundred opencircles displayed in the same manner as thetest arrays.

Stroop arraysSubjects were presented with three Strooparrays: Obese women, Thin women and a

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N.A. Elliman, M.W. Green, and W.K. Wan

neutral matched array. Each array consist-ed of one hundred images in a ten by tenmatrix on white board. Each image com-prised of a line drawn figure printed inpink, green, purple, blue or orange. Withineach matrix, images were arranged to avoidany immediate repetition of colour orimage. The Obese women array consistedof the three largest women from the set ofline drawings by Furnham and Radley (27),the Thin women consisted of the threeslimmest women from the same set. Theneutral set consisted of three semanticallyhomogeneous line drawings from the cate-gory “species of birds”.

Self report measuresThe Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire(DEBQ) (14) was used to identify subjects’levels of dietary restraint, external andemotional eating behaviour. The externaland emotional eating behaviour subscalesidentified subjects’ susceptibility to exter-nal food cues, and mood influenced eatingbehaviour. A Body Perception Index (BPI)score was obtained, using the method usedby Heilbrun and Witt (28), to obtain a mea-sure of perceived body size.

RESULTS

The subjects were classified as currentdieters, high restrainers or low to mediumrestrainers according to the procedure out-lined by Green et al. (29). Specifically, lowto medium restrainers were defined as

being those subjects scoring between 1 and3.1 on the restraint scale of the DEBQ. Highrestrainers were defined as being thosesubjects scoring 3.2 and above on this mea-sure.

Subject characteristicsMeans for BPI and Body Mass Index (BMI)are shown in Table 1.

Each of these measures was analysedusing 1-Way ANOVA, (subject group as thefactor).

BMI and BPI. There were significantgroup differences present in BMI [F (2,65)=3.53, p=0.035]. Post hoc analysis(Fisher’s L.S.D. test) revealed that the lowto medium DEBQ restraint group had asignificantly lower BMI than the highDEBQ restraint group, (L.S.D.=2.10,p=0.05). There were also significant groupdifferences for BPI [F (2, 65)=4.39, p=0.016].Post hoc analysis (Fisher’s L.S.D. test)revealed that current dieters had a lowerBPI than the high DEBQ restraint group(L.S.D.=12.90, p=0.01), and the low to medi-um DEBQ restraint group had a lower BPIthan the High DEBQ restraint group(L.S.D.=9.56, p=0.05). This indicates that theHigh DEBQ restraint group had the leastaccurate perception of their body size.Scores near 100 indicate an accurate per-ception, below 100 indicate an under esti-mation of body size and over 100 indicatean over estimation of body size.

DEBQ. There were no significant groupdifferences for Emotional eating [F (2,65)=2.32, p=0.11] or External eating [F (2,65)=2.71, p=0.74].

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TABLE 1Mean scores for self report measures for all subject groups (SEs in brackets).

Low/Medium High Current restraint restraint dieters (N =19) (N = 32) (N = 17)

Body Mass Index (BMI) 21.98 (0.45) 24.31 (1.12) 23.98 (3.39)

External eating (DEBQ) 3.10 (0.10) 2.99 (0.10) 3.39 (0.14)

Restraint (DEBQ) 2.24 (0.11) 3.53 (0.11) 3.67 (0.16)

Emotional (DEBQ) 2.66 (0.15) 2.99 (0.15) 3.17 (0.23)

Body Perception Index (BPI) 109.95 (2.65) 99.13 (4.44) 95.91 (3.39)

* BMI Calculated as being weight kg./(height in m)2


Stroop performanceThe means for colour-naming times arepresented in Figure 1.

A 2-Way ANOVA (group and Stroop arrayas factors) showed a significant interaction incolour-naming times between subject groupand Stroop array, [F (4,130)=2.89, p=0.025].Post hoc analysis (Fisher’s L.S.D. test)revealed a significant difference betweenobese women array and the neutral array(L.S.D.=5.37, p=0.01) for the dieting group.

The influence of DEBQ emotional and external eating scales on colour-naming time

Colour-naming times were analysed usinga tertile split of both the Emotional andExternal DEBQ Scales. There was no sig-nificant effect for External eating (p>0.05),there was, however, a significant interac-tion for Emotional eating [F (4,130)=2.84,p=0.027]. Analysis of the simple effectsrevealed that this interaction was due to asignificant difference for the neutral cardcolour-naming times across groups [F(2,67)=7.96, p<0.001].

DISCUSSION

The results of Experiment One reveal thatwhen the influence of the thin images wasremoved from the obese images, biased pro-cessing of body shape images was found in anon-clinical group for whom such concernswere salient. In the case of the current paperthis group comprised of current dieters. This

indicates that the absence of such an effectamongst the non-clinical group found byWalker et al (25), may have been due to themixing of emotional valance in the targetarray, and therefore, a possible lack of sensi-tivity to the relatively less intense concernswith body shape found amongst non-eatingdisordered dieters. This suggests that thepictorial version of the emotional Stroop taskmay be a sensitive measure of the intensity ofbody shape concerns in other populations,such as males. The aim of Experiment Twowas to investigate this hypothesis. Ben-Tovim et al. (23), found slower colour-nam-ing times for body shape words than neutralwords amongst non-eating disordered malesubjects. This study, however, did not con-trol for a word category semantic primingeffect, which has been found to influencecolour-naming times (30). The present studycontrolled for this potential confound.

Experiment Two

METHOD

SubjectsThe subject pool comprised 60 male under-graduates aged between 18-35 years, 4 ofwhich were excluded due to colour-blind-ness, leaving a final 56 for analysis. All hadnormal, or corrected to normal, visual acuity.

Design and procedureThe design and procedure was identical tothat used in Experiment One.

The Stroop taskThe format of the Stroop arrays was similarto that used in Experiment One, except thatthe images used were gender specific.These comprised the three fattest, and, thethree thinnest male images used byFurnham et al. (27).

Self report measuresThe self report measures were identical tothose used in Experiment One.

RESULTS

Subject characteristicsThe data were initially analysed accordingto a tertile split of DEBQ restraint scores (1-Way ANOVA), since no males reported

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FIGURE 1Mean colour-naming times for all three groups of female subjects (±SE bars included).


themselves to be currently dieting. Themean scores for the self report measuresare presented in Table 2.

BMI and BPI. There were no significantdifferences in either BPI or BMI betweenthe high, medium and low restrained eaters(p>0.05).

DEBQ. There were no differences inEmotional or External eating scoresbetween low, medium or high restrainedeaters (p>0.05).

Stroop performanceColour-naming times were initiallyanalysed according to a tertile split ofDEBQ restraint scores, since no malesreported themselves to be currently diet-

ing. A 2-Way ANOVA was performed (sub-ject group and Stroop array as factors).There was found to be no significant inter-action between subject group and Strooparray, [F (4,102)=1.41, p=0.24], indicatingthat DEBQ restraint does not predict differ-ences in colour-naming interferencebetween male subjects. However, correla-tional analysis between the two interfer-ence indices (thin images - neutral and fatimages - neutral ), and DEBQ subscales,revealed a significant correlation betweenDEBQ external eating and the fat imagearray interference index [r=0.41 p<0.01].Analyses were therefore carried out on atirtile split of DEBQ external eating scores(Fig. 2).

A 2-Way ANOVA was performed on thecolour naming times using a tertile split ofDEBQ external eating scale (low externaleaters x=2.41, SE=0.07; medium externaleaters x=3.10, SE=0.039; high external eatersx=3.77, SE=0.08). There was found to be asignificant interaction between level of exter-nal eating and Stroop card [F (4,102)=3.37,p=0.012]. Post hoc analysis (Fisher’s L.S.D.test) revealed that the high external eatingmales colour named the Obese men arraysignificantly more slowly than either the Thinman array or the neutral array (p<0.05),(L.S.D.=3.82, p=0.05). There were no othersignificant main effects or interactions forthe colour-naming times.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

Experiment One demonstrated that cur-rently dieting female subjects displayedslower colour-naming times for an array of

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TABLE 2Mean self report measures for male subject groups (SEs in brackets)

Low Medium Highrestraint restraint restraint(N = 20) (N = 18) (N = 18)

BMI 22.75 (0.76) 23.89 (0.68) 24.06 (0.83)

External eating (DEBQ) 3.27 (0.14) 3.11 (0.13) 2.96 (0.14)

Restraint (DEBQ) 1.14 (0.02) 1.73 (0.05) 2.70 (0.16)

Emotional (DEBQ) 2.02 (0.19) 2.30 (0.18) 2.20 (0.16)

BPI 100.27 (2.33) 100.94 (3.44) 101.99 (5.32)

FIGURE 2Mean colour-naming times for all three groups of male subjects (± SEbars included).

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obese women than for arrays of thinwomen or neutral images. This replicatesprevious findings of impaired colour-nam-ing times amongst female dieters for bodyshape related words, e.g., Green andRogers (18), who classified subjects in asimilar manner as the current paper.

No differences in colour-naming timesfor gender specific thin images and neutralimages were observed in either experi-ment. The difference in colour-namingtimes for obese and thin images may bedue to the relative affective valance of theseimages. Many studies have investigatedStroop colour-naming times for negativeand positive words (31-33). In each of thesestudies negative words were colour-namedmore slowly than neutral words. The pat-tern of colour-naming times for the positivewords, however, has failed to reveal anyconsistent pattern. Mogg et al. (32) foundimpairments for both positive and negativestimuli amongst high trait-anxious subjects.On the other hand Richards et al. (31),found highly trait anxious subjects colour-named a positive array significantly morequickly than a neutral array, but they didnot colour-name the negative array signifi-cantly more slowly.

The manner of stimulus presentation mayalso influence the colour-naming times. Inthe current paper, subjects were presentedwith the emotionally salient images, positive(thin women), and negative (obese women)in separate arrays; thus, keeping the affectivevalance distinct, Walker et al. (25) presentedthe positive body shape images (very thinwomen) and negative images (very fatwomen) to subjects in a single array. It hasbeen found that presenting stimuli in a ran-dom presentation, rather than blocked pre-sentation, leads to a drastic reduction in thesize of the colour-naming effect (26). Thesmaller colour-naming effects exhibited bythe control population in Walker’s et al.study (25) could, therefore, be due to pre-senting the positive and negative images in arandom order presentation and the controlimages in a block presentation. The emotion-al nature of the array for the clinical groupmay have been so large as to overcome thispotentially confounding variable, but not forthe control group, whose level of body shapeconcern is presumably not as great.

The main conclusion drawn fromExperiment One is that the pictorial versionof the emotional Stroop is a sensitive mea-

sure of negative body shape concerns ofnon-clinical subjects, when care is taken tocontrol for a number of confounding vari-ables.

The main aim of Experiment Two was toinvestigate the possible presence of colour-naming interference for body shape image inmales. The male subjects as a group showedno significant Stroop interference effect, nordid they exhibit an effect on the basis ofdietary restraint levels. There were no differ-ences between groups for BPI, indicatingthat the male subjects did not display a dis-torted body image. This suggests that, tosome extent, the results of Ben-Tovim et al.(23) can be explained in terms of method-ological confounds, such as possible primingeffects. Especially so given the lack of supple-mentary data on the dieting status and levelsof dietary restraint of the female subjects.Warren (34) demonstrated that the semanticcontent of a prime stimulus can affect colour-naming times for a subsequently presentedtarget stimulus word. Further, it has beenfound that the interference caused by theprime varies as a linear function of the asso-ciative strength between prime and colour-naming word (35). A growing body of evi-dence suggests that it is possible to explainthe effects obtained from the modifiedStroop task in terms of some form of prim-ing effect (36). Both Experiments One andTwo were designed to control for this effect,by ensuring that all target arrays comprisedof a single semantic category. Male subjectsdid, however, show a significant Stroopcolour-naming effect when split according totheir External eating score from the DEBQ.Males in the high external eating groupcolour-named the obese men pictorialStroop array significantly more slowly thanthe low and medium External eating groups.

The results of the current two studiesindicate that, amongst females, currentdieting status is the variable most closelyassociated with impaired colour-naming ofobese body shape images. Amongst malesubjects, however, neither dieting status orrestraint were significant predictors ofcolour-naming performance. Rather, exter-nal eating scores proved to be the crucialvariable. There are a number of possibleexplanations as to why this should be thecase. One may lie in the somewhat skeweddistribution of DEBQ restraint scoresamongst the male subjects. Specifically, themale subjects demonstrated a marked skew

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towards lower levels of dietary restraint.The overall lower levels of dietary restraintamongst the male subjects may, therefore,account for the observed pattern of results.Without the presence of a group of malehighly restrained eaters, however, thisexplanation can only be speculative. Thefact that the external eating proved to be animportant predictor of colour-namingtimes is somewhat more difficult to explain.A tentative explanation, however, mayrelate to fundamental differences in bodyshape concerns of males and females (22).

In conclusion, the current two studiesindicate that a pictorial version of the modi-fied Stroop task is a sensitive measure ofsome aspect of body shape concernamongst both male and female subjects. Thevariable most closely associated with differ-ences in colour-naming times between gen-der specific obese body shape images andneutral images was found to be different inmen to that in women.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was supported by theBiotechnology and Biological Sciences ResearchCouncil.

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