DesignforNext

12thEADConferenceSapienzaUniversityofRome

12-14April2017

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Designforsocialsustainability.Areflectionontheroleofthephysicalrealminfacilitatingcommunityco-design. MirianCalvoa,AnnalindaDeRosabaInstituteofDesignInnovation,TheGlasgowSchoolofArt,UKbDepartmentofDesign,PolitecnicodiMilano,Italy*Correspondingauthore-mail:m.rodriguezcalvo1@student.gsa.ac.uk

Abstract: Understanding the environmental conditions that shape the physicalsupport for developing social sustainability requires analysing the symbioticrelationshipofpeopleandplace.Placeisconsideredanessentialaspectinshapingsocialidentity,identificationandcohesion.Thus,thispaperexplorestheroleofthephysical realm in enabling co-design practices within community initiatives. Itoutlines two PhD research projects focused on strengthening communityengagement using co-design approaches. It evidences its findings analysing twodifferent settings. Firstly, a PhD research project exploring themutual influencesbetweenspatialandservicedesignalsothroughthe investigationofpublicspacesasplatformsforstrategicinterventionswithexperimentationsintheurbanfabricofMilan (Italy). Secondly, a doctoral research exploring the value of community co-design on rural areas in the Highlands and Islands (Scotland) associated withLeapfrog,athree-year-fundedprojectbytheArtsandHumanitiesResearchCouncil(AHRC). Conducted by two different research teams, we analyse to what extentparticipatoryprocessescanstrengthencommunitiesandtheiridentities,aswellasreflectingonplace-basedapproachesfordesignstrategiesofterritories.

Keywords:designforsocialinnovation,socialsustainability,co-design,designactivism,designethnography.

1.ContextofresearchTheaimofthispaperistodiscusstheroleofthephysicalrealminsupportingco-designpracticesandshapingsocialidentity,identificationandcohesionfromadesignresearchperspective.ItoutlinestwoPhDresearchprojectsfocusedonstrengtheningcommunityengagementusingco-designapproaches.Itevidencesitsfindingsanalysingtwodifferentsettings:firstly,aPhDresearchproject

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exploringthemutualinfluencesbetweenspatialandservicedesignalsothroughtheinvestigationofpublicspacesasplatformsforstrategicinterventionswithexperimentationsintheurbanfabricofMilan(Italy);andsecondly,adoctoralresearchanalysingthevalueofcommunityco-designonruralareasintheHighlandsandIslandsassociatedwithLeapfrog,athree-year-fundedAHRCproject.Bothresearchprojectsaredesignprocessesthatsupportsocialinnovations,whicharepartofSocialDesign-designmotivatedbysocialdemandsandnotbythemarket-thatfosterssocialchangetowardssustainability(Manzini&Meroni,2014).Humanactivitiesarehighlydependentontherelationshipspeopleestablishwiththeirmilieu1-enablingorinhibitingaction/interaction(Buchanan&Margolin,1995).Themilieuconsistsoftangibleandintangiblecomponentsthathavebeendesignedbyhumans.Consequently,itcanbesupported,implementedorradicallychangedinacontinuousprocess.Therefore,wefocusontheenvironmentimpactuponpeople'sactionswithinco-designprocesses:placeandtheinteractionsoccurringonitcomposeaninterdependentrelationshipthathasitsbasisindesignresearchandsocialsciences.

1.1SocialsustainabilityTherearemyriaddefinitionsofsustainabilityandagreatnumberofdisciplinesinvolvedinthedebate.However,almostalldefinitionsrelyonthethreepillarsestablishedbytheUnitedNations(2002):environment,economicandsocialsystems(White,2013).Dempseyetal.(2011)averthatthesethreesystemsneedtobebalancedinordertoaddressholisticallythe‘wickedproblems’(Rittel&Webber,1973)thatsustainabilityembraces.Hopwoodetal.(2005)explainthatthedominantCartesianperspectiveoftheworld,whichseparatestheenvironmentfromhumanityanditsactions,isunabletoexplainthecomplexityanduncertaintyofhumanlife.Thisdemandsalternativeframeworksabletointegratequalitativemethodsthatcanbringdeeperunderstandingaboutpeople’slivesandhelpfostersocialinnovationandsustainability.Inthisregard,designactivismplaysakeyroleinenablingsocialchangeandinraisingawarenessaboutcommunalvaluesandbeliefs(Markussen,2013),wheretheseimprovementsemergefromexistingphysicalandsocialresources(Cipollaetal.,2015).Socialsustainabilityremainsunexploredboththeoreticallyandinpractice,identifying“trust,commonmeaning,diversity,capacityforlearningandcapacityforself-organization”(Missimer,2015,p.5)ascrucialelementsfordevelopingsustainability.Thus,weemphasisethesocialsysteminsupportingtheothertwobecause,asGonzález-rey(2008)states,cultureworksasacatalystforhumanbehaviour.Therefore,enhancingsustainabilityinevitablyimpliesaprocessofsociallearning(Dyballetal.,2007)andtheco-constructionofacommonlanguage.

1.2Communityengagement:asocietalanddesignshiftRecentlywehavewitnessedhowcommunityengagementhasbecomeprominentontheagendaofgovernmentsandnon-profitorganisations(Forss&Schwartz,2011).Thisisinresponsetothecurrentsocioculturalcontextcharacterisedbytheproactiveinvolvementofpeopleincommunityinitiativesthroughbottom-upandinformalmovements(Matarrita-Cascante&Brennan,2012),asaresultofthescarcityoflocalandnationalauthorities’actions.AccordingtotheScottishGovernment(2016),communityengagementensurescitizenshipparticipationinthedecision-makingofpublicservices.Thisneedsnon-profitorganisations,publicsectorandgrassrootsmovementsworking

1Milieu:“theaggregateofobjects,activities,servicesandenvironmentsthatfillsthelifeworld”(Buchanan&Margolin,1995,p.122)

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collectively,sharingresourcesandcreatingpartnerships-developingarenewedmultidimensionalframeworkbetweeninstitutionalnetworksandinterpersonalbonding-tosupportunfetteredsociallearning.ThesepartnershipsalsogainresonanceontheEuropeanCommissionresearchagenda,wheretheco-creationofpublicgoodscanbecomeawayforengagingcitizensandstakeholdersinshapingEuropeanidentity.Yetcitizensperceivepublicengagementasatokenisticandinsufficientlyinclusiveprocess,generatingscepticismandapathy(Escobaretal.,2014).Thesechallengesrequireidentifyingwaystounderstandholisticallythecultural-historicalcontextofcommunitiesinordertodesignparticipatoryapproachesthatfostersustainableengagement.

1.3PeopleandplaceContemporaryterritoriesareincreasinglyinfiniteareasofurbanfabric(cfr.the"no-stopcity”,Branzi,1970;Burdettetal.,2011)blurringthelimitsbetweenurbanandruralspaces(Lefebvre,2003),whereinfrastructuresofeconomicsuppliesandnewformsofmobilityre-shapetheenvironmentandourlifestyles(Park,1967;Webber,1998).Here,theinfrastructuresystem-motorways,railways,electricityandthelike-hasahugeimpactonredefiningthediverseusesandidentitiesofthedifferentrural-urbangeographies(Soja,2000).Inthiscontext,therelationshipbetweenpeopleandplacehasadifferentmeaningduetotheeconomicchanges.AccordingtoCastells(1977),thecapitalistmodelneedsabalancebetweenthepublicgoods-itemsofcollectiveconsumption-andtheprivatesectorinordertosupportthesocialfabric.However,inthelastdecades,collectiveconsumptionhasbeenprivatised(Marrifield,2014),leadingtoatransformationoftherelationshipbetweencitizensandthepublicrealm,fromoneofcollectiveactiontooneofprivatisedconsumption(Hoskyns,2005).Thishasrestyledasocietythatleanstowardindividualvaluesandwheretheglobaleconomicmodelislocatedatthecentre-stageonthestrategicagendaofgovernments,andcrisesarisesurroundingtheurbanisationprocess(Harvey,2012).Thisnewcultureleadstothedevaluationofworkandtheincreasingvalueofplacewherepeopledeveloptheneedofbelongingtoaparticulargeographicplaceasawaytoredefinetheiridentity(Sennett,2006).

Concurrently,“moreandmorepeoplearecollaboratingwitheachothertolivemoresociallycohesiveandsustainablelives”(Manzini&Staszowski,2013,p.1).Thisaction-reactiontoeconomicandsocietalchallengesaffectsthetransformationofthephysicalrealm;indeed,interpersonalrelationshipsarestronglyconnectedtothedevelopmentofthesenseofcommunity,whichoccursinplacesaffectedbyrenewedusesandidentities.Hence,thephysicalspaceassumestheroleofasocialactorinenablingorpreventingsocialinteractionswherethesocialsphereisalsospatiallyconstructedandthewaysocietyworksisinfluencedbyitsspatialstructure(Marchart,1998).

1.4Designactivism:strategiesforenhancingtransformationsDesignmethodsareable“toadvancepublicandsocialinnovationandachievecreativesolutionsbeyondthereachofconventionalstructures”(Mulgan,2014,p.1),providingastrategicapproachtocomplexsystemsofthings.Designresearchisprogressivelyfocusedontheroleofdesignasanactivatorofchange:assumingthat“allwedo,almostallthetime,isdesign”(Papanek,1972,p.17)andthateverybodydesigns(Manzini,2015),“designisanactofdeliberatelymovingfromanexistingsituationtoapreferredonebyprofessionaldesignersorothersapplyingdesignknowinglyorunknowingly”(Fuad-Luke,2013,p.5).Thesewell-knownstatementsshapethescenariothatdesignstudiesanddesignthinkingmethodologiesareapproaching,pinpointingtheconsiderabledebatearoundtheboundariesofdesignandtheroleofdesignersinthe21stcentury.

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Design,asaprocessforachievingchange,embodiesactivismasaformofshiftingtonewparadigmsandvalues.Addressingourfocus,theactofdesigningisawaytointerveneinpeople’sperceptionsandassumptionsabouttheirrealities,influencingandaffectingpeople’sbehaviour.AccordingtoMarkussen(2013),“designactivismhasthepotentialtore-negotiatetherelationshipbetweenpeople’sdoing[...]andtheirfeelingsaboutthisdoing”(p.6),furthermoretheabilitytointerlacepeople’sneedsinordertoevokenewformsofinhabiting,therebyencouragingnewidentities.

Thesetwoon-goingPhDresearchprojectsfocusonconsciousdesignacts,includingParticipatoryActionResearch(PAR),aqualitativeresearchframeworkinvolvingresearchers,practitionersandpeopleactingforaplannedorganisationalchange(Avisonetal.2007)throughinclusionandcollectiveaction.Co-designisourdesignapproach,onewhichconsistsofintegratingpeoplefromdifferentbackgroundsandlevelsofexpertiseintothecreativeprocess(Sanders&Stappers,2008)enablingdesignerstoco-createwithpeopleandnotforthem(Bason,2010)inpursuitofatransformativeprocessinanimmediateproblematicsituation(Gilmoreetal.1986).Context-basedapproachesarecentralfordesigningstrategiesthatpromotenewformsofengagementandhelpdevelopasenseofcommunityidentity.Thisreflectiondefinesourtheoreticalresearchframework.

2.Thecontemporarycityasalivinglab:appliededucationalmethodologiesthroughco-designapproachThisdoctoralresearchisassociatedwiththePolimiDESISLab2,aresearchteamoftheDesignDepartmentofthePolitecnicodiMilano,inItaly.TheLab,partoftheworldwideDESISNetwork-DesignforSocialInnovationandSustainability3-involvesagroupofresearchersadoptingastrategicandasystemicapproachtodesign,particularlyfocusedondesignforservicesandinterior/spatialdesign4.Weuseacommunity-centreddesignapproachandourobjectiveistoexplorehowdesigncanenablepeople,communities,enterprisesandsocialactorstoactivateandmanageinnovationprocesses,aimedatexperimentingwithsustainable,convivialandcollaborativewaysoflivinganddoing.

MyPhDresearchprojectfocusesonanalysingthemutualinfluencesbetweenDesignforServicesandSpatialDesignas,especiallyaddressingtheirdisciplinaryconnectionsinresearchandappliedapproaches,ineducationalmethodologiesandprocesses.ThedoctoralresearchusestheDESISLab’sactivitiesandprojectsinamutualnourishment,alongwithteachingactivities-atPolitecnicoSchoolofDesignandotherpartnerinstitutions-basedonanexperientiallearningapproach.Thedialogicalrelationshipsin-betweenthetwodisciplineshavethereforebeenanalysedalsowithinthecontextofurbanpublicspacetransformation,inordertogetinsightsforoneoftheresearchquestions:howcouldspacesinfluence,generateandbeusedthroughservices,andvice-versa?

Thefieldresearchapproachestablishedinlocalcontextsbenefitsfromtheinvolvementofdesignstudentsandresearchers/professors,formingasystemofactors-includinglocalcommunitiesand 2www.desis.polimi.it3www.desisnetwork.org.DESISNetwork,bornin2009fromthreeinternationalactivities,isano-profitandculturalassociationsince2014andanevolvingnetworkofDesignLabsbasedindesignschoolsandindesign-orienteduniversitiesoperatingwithlocal,regionalandglobalpartnerstopromoteandsupportsocialchangetowardssustainability.4alongsidecontributionsfromstrategicdesign,user-centred-design,designforterritory,communication,economics,planningandsociology.TheLabisinvolvedinseverallocalandinternationalresearchprojectsandthegrouprunsalsopost-graduatecoursesanddesignstudios.

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organizations,publicadministrationsandventures-involvedindesignactionsforsocialinnovation.Theseareexperimentssupportingresearchandapplyinga‘LivingLab’methodology.The‘LivingLab’isalong-termenvironmentforopeninnovationthatenablesexperimentationwithrealpeopleinrealcontexts.Thisfacthelpsunfoldthemoreintractableproblemsthroughtakingasystemapproach-comprisingmethodsofdesignthinkingandprototypinginaniterativeway.Intheexperiments,co-briefingsessions,co-designactivitiesandtheprototypingofdesignsolutionsrepresenttangibleandintangiblecomponentsofthedesignprocess.

Theproject-basedexperiments,conductedwithinthePolimiDesisLab,pursuespecificgoalsindifferenturbancontextsinthecityofMilanandarepilot-casesformydoctoralresearchtoadvanceinsights(emergingfromthepractice)andwillsupportthedevelopmentofaframework.

Oneofthese,herebrieflydescribed,is‘HumanCities-ChallengingtheCityScale’5,aEU-fundedresearchprojectthatexploreshowinhabitantsreclaimtheconstantly-evolvingcontemporarycity,especiallythroughexperimentsinthepublicrealm,andwaysofre-inventingcitylife.TheMilanworkprogrammewithintheresearchprojecthasbeensystematisedinanoverallprocesstomakethemostofthecomplexityofanPAR-basedproject(Fig.1).

Figure1.“HumanCities/ChallengingtheCityScale”researchprocessdiagram;createdbytheMilanDepartmentofDesignteamfortheHumanCitiesexhibitionatBaseMilanoduringtheMilanDesignWeek2016.

TheLabteam(5designexperts)framedaneducationaldesignprogrammetoset-upthe‘in-the-fieldactions’conductedbydesignstudentsandresearchersworkingtogether.Theideawastoinvolveinalong-termandarticulatedprocesscitizensandlocalorganizations,selectedfortheexperimentationlabs,fromLaPiana-ahidden,elevatedandpedestriansquare-andtheneighbourhoodarounditinMilan.LaPianaisano-man’s-landpublicspaceandisactuallytheoutdoorareaofAtirRinghieratheatre.TheprocesscomprisedcollaborationwiththeactiveSocialProgrammeofthetheatre,hence

5“HumanCities–ChallengingtheCityScale”,researchprojectco-fundedbytheCreativeEuropeProgrammeofTheEuropeanUnion,2014-2018.Thenetworkincludeselevenpartners:LaCitédudesign(FR),PolitecnicodiMilano(IT),UrbanPlanningInstituteoftheRepublicofSlovenia(SI),ClearVillage(UK),ZamekCieszyn(PL),AssociationDesignWeekBelgrade(RS),ProMateria(BE),AaltoUniversity(FI),FHJoanneum(AT),AssociationofEstoniandesigners(EST),Beaz(ES)andCultureLab(BE).

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creatingalegacybetweenthelabresultsandthefutureofthephysicalrealm.Itwasinvolvedthroughout:theco-creationbriefingsessions(Oct2015),thedesignmaster-class6(Oct2015-Feb2016)andin-the-fieldexperimentations(Jan-June2016).Theparticipatoryprocesswasestablishedinordertoenhancetherelationshipbetweencitizensandthepublicspacebyusingdesignapproach,toolsandoutput.Theimpactofaddressingcontemporaryneedswithstrategicthinkingactsonmulti-levels:ontheonehand,thesixty-twointernationaldesignstudents–whoenrichedtheirskillswiththeabilitytocriticallyreflectandanalysephysicalandsocialcontexts-andontheother,theengagementoflocalcommunities(tenstakeholders:localorganizationsandinformalgroups)identifiedimplementers(collectionofneedsandstories),supporters(co-designactivities)(Fig.2),participants(experimentationlabs)(Fig.3)andreaders(disseminationprocess)throughoutthewholeprocess.Moreover,thetheatreactsasacatalystintheprocessofrestoringtheideaofasocialandculturalincubatorwithintheurbancontext.Thesetemporarydesignexperimentsallowedreachingquickconclusionsand‘putonstage’citizens’stories.

Figure2.Oneoftheco-designsessionsorganisedduringtheMasterclass“TemporaryUrbanSolutions”withintheresearchframework.Sixty-twointernationaldesignstudentsmeettenlocalorganizationsandinformalgroupsfromLaPianaareawiththesupportoftheSocialProgrammeofATIRRInghieraTheatre(localpartner).

6“TemporaryUrbanSolutions”,transdisciplinaryelectivecourse,MasterLevel.SchoolofDesign,PolitecnicodiMilano.Courseleader:DavideFassi

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Figure3.FirstExperimentationLabatLaPiana,30thofJanuary,2016:TemporaryUrbanSolutionstoinhabitthesquare.

Asstatedabove,mydoctoralresearchtakesadvantageoftheseexperimentsaspilot-cases.Itseekstolayatheoreticalfoundationforareflectiononhowtheseprocessescanevolvefromdesignexperimentstoamorestrategic,long-termdevelopment,basedontheconceptsofagonisticspaceandinfrastructuring:“amoreopen-endedlongtermprocesswherediversestakeholderscaninnovatetogether”(Hillgrenetal.,2011,p.170).ThecombinationofPARandservicedesignbecomefundamentalsincebothdeal,constitutively,withactualcontexts:currentconditions,needs,usesandusers.Theirconstantadaptabilitytochangeprovidesreflections,approachesandactionsopen-ended.Therefore,thePhDfocusisonspatialandservicedesignaspects,tryingtorespondtothefollowingquestions:howcontinuouschangesinthetransformationofthebuiltenvironmentaffectpublicspaces(physicalandserviceinfrastructuring),andtheirusesandidentitiesinanopen-endedway?Howthedesignofspacesandplacesisaffectedbytheaddeduseofservicetoolswithinthedesignprocess?HowthespatialdesignistakingadvantageofUXdesignandservicedesign?Iarguethaturbanpublicspacescouldbeunderstoodasplatformofchangeabletoconnecttrans-nationalcommunities–atthemacro-scale–andtobetested–atthemicro-scale–throughprototypeddesignscenarios(Manzini,2003).Hence,theyaregoingthroughacontinuousoverlappingofconfigurations,dependingon:(1)howpeoplereclaimtheiruseintermsoftime(temporary,mediumandlongterm)andintermsoffunction(retail,entertainment,hospitality,work,leisure,convivialityandthelike);(2)howpeoplegothroughthem(newformsofmobility);and(3)newsocietaldynamics.

Thisisthewidersenseinwhichtherelationshipofpeopleandplaceisanalysed.Startingfromalocalscaleofexperiments-throughtheapplicationofco-designactivitiesandPAR-basedmethodologies-andobservingtherippleeffectthattheseexperimentshaveonawiderurbanscale,thedoctoralresearchaimstounderstandhowtemporaryandlocalexperimentationcanbecomesustainableover

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timeintermsofservicesandspacesimpactbothintheircontextsandorientationofthinkingaswellasintheircontextsofapplication,inadditiontounderstandinghowtheyaffecttheglobalsystemaspartofawiderresearchonspatialandservicedesignmethodologiesindesigneducation.

ThefollowingphasesofmyPhDprojectaregoingtobeconductedattheUFRJUniversidadeFederaldoRiodeJaneiro(March/April2016)andattheInternationalCollegeofDesign&InnovationofTongjiUniversity,inShanghai(May/June2016).Thesefieldworkswillprovidemenewanddifferentscenariosofresearch.

Theaimistoanalyse-throughdidacticactivitiesindifferentlocalcontextsandwithstudentsfromdifferentbackgrounds-educationalmethodologiesandprocessesappliedwithafocusontheparticipativeuseofpublicspaceslookingatdirectorinverserelationshipswithlevelsofprivatisation,ononehand,andwithlevelsofengagementonthecollectiverealm,ontheother.

3.DesignethnographyontheIsleofMullThissectionoutlinesPhDresearchassociatedwith'Leapfrog',athree-year-UKdesignprojectfundedbyAHRC,concentratingtodesigningandevaluatingalternativeapproachestocommunityengagement.ThePhDresearchprojectaimstounderstandhowandinwhatwaysco-designcanbeusedasavehicletopromotesocialchange,inadditiontounderstandingsomeoftheprocesses,suchasinformallearning,thatco-designignites.Hence,thePhDresearchquestionis:Howcandesignresearchidentifyandvisualisetheinformallearningprocessthatcommunityco-designaffords?

Thepilotstudyinvolvedimmersingmyselfwithinthehumandynamicsaroundacommunityprocessinwhichpeoplegotinvolved,seekingtolearnhowtobetterengagewithintheircommunities.Thisentailedtheintroductionofco-designpracticestodevelopengagementtoolswithcommunitymembersdrawnfromdifferentorganisationslocatedontheIsleofMull,intheHighlandsandIslandsofScotland.Conductedoversixmonthswithatotaloffourvisits,thefieldworkadoptedadesignethnographyapproachenablingmetotakearoleofinsider-outsider.Designethnographyisbasedontraditionalethnography,yetitlastsashorterperiodoftime,enoughtograspthecontextforbuildingempathyandinsight(Hammersley&Atkinson,1995).Here,IusedGroundedTheoryasthetheoreticalframeworkbecauseoneoftheissuesofbeinganinsider-outsiderwithincommunitiesisthat,asresearcher,Ibringmyassumptionsandtheoreticalstandpointsandthiscanmisleadtheresearch.Inqualitativeresearch,theresearcherisanactiveactorindatacollectionandintheanalysis(CorbinDwyer&Buckle,2009),andalsoshapesthecontextalongsidethecommunitymembers.Aboutthis,Asselin(2003)recommendsresearcherstoadoptanapproachofknowingnothingaboutthecontextasawaytopreventbias.Besides,theorycannotlead;rather,itistheimmersioninthecontextthatexplainswhatishappening.GroundedTheoryreliesontheprinciplesthateverythingiscontinuallychangingandthereforenothingcanbepredeterminedbecausepeoplehavethemeanstorespondtothechangingcontextualfactors(Corbin&Strauss,1990).Thisenablesthecontexttobringforthknowledgethatcomesoutfromthepractice.

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Figure4.IsleofMullmap:locationofthepilotcase.Author:MirianCalvo.

3.1Humanscale:enclosedsemi-publicspacesInmyfirstandthirdvisits,Iattended,asaparticipant-observer,severalco-designworkshopsfacilitatedbytheLeapfrogteam.Participant-observationisanethnographicmethodthatenabledmetoenvisageagreaterawarenessofcontextandbuildempathicrelationshipswithparticipants(Calvo,Sclater&Smith,2016).Inthefirstworkshopthepurposewastoidentifybarriersandopportunitiesandafterwards,co-negotiatetheintendedoutcomesbypayingattentiontoindividuals’conflicts.Focusedonimprovingcommunityengagement,thesecondworkshopconsistedofcollectively–i.e.ingroupsofthreepeoplewithonefacilitatoreach-co-designingengagementtoolsthatwillpotentiallyenhancepublicengagement.Thereafter,inthethirdvisitwebroughttheprototypesoftheengagementtoolspreviouslyco-designed,andIconductedinterviews.Iwasalsoinvitedtocollaborateinaconsultationeventwithoneoftheparticipants(co-creators)inhercommunitysetting.

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Figure5.Axonometricdrawing:Co-designWorkshop1.Author:MirianCalvo.

Reflectingontheenvironmentalconditionsoftheroomwhichhostedtheevents,myinsightwasthatthephysicalspacewastoosmalltoaccommodatecollectiveandcreativeactivities.Thephysicalrealmplaysitsroleinenablingorpreventinghumanbehaviourandsocialinteractions(Gehl&Svarre,2013;Whyte,1980).Thespacewasoccupiedbytworectangulartablesandninechairs(Fig.5).Participantsarrived,satinoneplaceandstayedthereuntilthebreak,whenpeoplegatheredinthefood-drinkarea,creatingabottleneckandalongwaitforfood.Thenpeoplesatbackdownintheirseats.Theuseoftablesandchairsenablescertaintypesofhumanbehavioursuchastakingnotes,listening,beingcomfortableandrelaxed(seatdown),butitalsoencouragespeopletobehaveasstudents-passiveagentsinaone-wayconversation(Fig.6).Thisbehaviouralpatternislargelycausedbythetraditionaluseofthespaceandtheelementsinit.Thisalsoaffectsthepowerdynamicsbetweenparticipantsanddesignerswhohaveallthepowerintheseconversationsbecauseparticipantsadoptamorepassiveandstudentrole.

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Figure6.Axonometricdrawing:Co-designWorkshop2.Author:MirianCalvo.

Theroomhadawallthatwasusedtoprojectpresentationsandtostickidea-generationconcepts.Thewall,usedasaphysicaldisplayinworkspaces,isakeycomponentthatfacilitatesdynamicparticipation(Fruchter&Bosch-Sijtsema,2011).Moreover,itisanenvironmentalconditionthatenablesindividualandcollectivereflection-in-action(seeSchön,1987).Theproblemwasthatthefurnitureinhibitedparticipantsfrommovingfreelyandminglingwithpeopleattheothertable,aswellasinteractionswiththewall.Thiscouldbeaddressedbytakingthefurnitureout,whichwouldpermitpeopletomoveastheyplease,sparkingcollectiveconversations.Evenleavingthechairsandshapingacirclecouldignitemoreinnovativeandcreativeactivities(Fig.7).

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Figure7.Axonometricdrawing:alternativeuseofthewallandthephysicalspace.Author:MirianCalvo.

3.2Territorialscale:thegeographicphysicalrealmMyothervisitsconsistedofethnographictripsinwhichIalso‘shadowed’oneparticipantinhernaturalsetting.‘Shadowing’isanethnographictechniquethatenabledmetoholisticallyobservetheparticipant’smoods,bodylanguage,herpaceandthewaysheinteractedwithotherpeople.IntheworkshopsInoticedthatparticipants’conversationswererelatedtoaparticularphysicalplace.Hence,itbecamecrucialformetoknowbettertheterritoryandthegeographicfeaturesoftheisland.Theterritoryaffectshumansettlementsandhinderstheconstructionofinfrastructures–roads,broadbandnetworksandthelike.Asaresult,communitiesbecomeisolatedamongstthemselvesshapingtheirlifestyleanddevelopingastrongbondwiththeirplace(people-place).Thisinsightisevidencedinthefollowingquotes:

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“Themajorpopulationisuphere.ThisisTobermoryandthatisaverymixedcommunitybutit’salsopushedtothetopoftheisland.Yourealise,itisabigisland,andittakesquitealongtimetogetrounditthroughthoseroads.[…]Therearemanyothersmallcommunitiesspreadontherestoftheisland.[…]ThisistheRossofMull.Theytendtobealmostaseparatecommunitybecauseitisalongwaythroughherebyroad”(participant5).

“Thisisaveryisolatedplace,youneedspaceinahousebecauseifitisrainingoutsideandyouhaveaone-hourdrivetothenearestshop,youneedtobecomfortableandhappyinyourhome”(participant3).

Figure8.Reflectivedrawing:IsleofMullmap:naturalandbuiltenvironment(visit2).Author:MirianCalvo.

Fromaterritorialstandpoint,shortageofpublicspacestypifiesruralareas,asinthiscase.Oneofthebiggestissueswehaveinthesecommunitiesisthatthereisnotenoughpubliclifeandthereforeitfailstohaveenoughimpactuponthecommunity(Alexander,Ishikawa&Silverstein,1977).Nevertheless,therearepeopleconductingcommunityinitiativestocounteractthisphenomenon,suchasParticipant8whowasworkinginacommunityprojectwhichconsistedofrefurbishingapieceoflandindisuseandshesaid:

“Itisaboutprovidingthemaplacewheretheycangowiththeirfriendsandfamiliesandusethepark,sotheygofortheirlovelywalksandchildrenlearntorideabikethere,thingslikethat…thingsthatnowwedon’thave.Soit’saverymuchsocialplaceanyway”.

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4.DiscussionsFromahumanscalestandpoint,basedonourreflectionswedrawattentiontotheroleofthephysicalrealmasakey(andlargelystilluntapped)dimensiontotakeintoaccountinthedesignprocessofcommunityco-designactivities.Ourearlyfindingssuggestthatthephysicalspacehasthemeanstoenableorhindercreativeandcollaborativeinteractionsamongstparticipantsinco-designactivitiesinbothcasestudiesanalysed:enclosedsemi-publicspacesandopenpublicspaces.Conversely,thedesignofcommunityspacesandcollaborativeactionsthroughthedirectinvolvementofcitizenscontributestotheprocessofstrengtheninglong-termrelationshipsbetweenpeopleandplaces.Thismutualinfluenceplaysakeyroleintheprocessofapplicationofsuchmethodologies.Inthisregard,thereisagreatdiversityofco-designactivities,fromcommunityplanningeventstoinformal/formalinterestgroupmeetings.Thenatureofthetypeofaco-designactivityhingesontheaimofthedesigncontext,aswellastheaudience.Forinstance,Fuad-Luke(2013,p.178)classifiesco-designactivitiesbasedontwovariables:public-private,anddesigner-ledversusnon-designer-led.Infact,withinthevariableofpublic-private,therearemyriadphysicalspacessupportingsuchco-designactivities,ascanbeappreciatedwithinourcasesstudies.Indeed,aco-designprocessmightentailsaseriesofco-designactivitieswhichrespondtothedifferentphasesoftheprocess,wheresomeofthemmightbehostedinenclosedprivatespaceswithsmallnumbersofparticipantsandothersinopenpublicspaceswithalargenumberofparticipants.Therefore,wearguethatdesignstrategiesorientedtoembedthematerialecologieswhichsustainco-designactivitiesshouldnotbeaddressedfollowingaprescriptiveapproach;rather,lookingforqualitiesofthephysicalrealm.Additionally,ourreflectionsalsounfoldhowtheuseofco-designbecomesavehicletoengagecitizenshiptowardsthetransformationofourenvironment.AccordingtoMeusburger(2009),thisinteractionaldimensionplaysakeyroleinthedevelopmentofcreativity,wherethesocialandmaterialecologiescanfosterorhindersuchadevelopment.SternbergandLubart(1991)addthatbeforeacreativeprocessstarts,anindividualneedstointeractwithastimulatingenvironment.Here,welookforspatialqualitiessuchasflexibility,adaptabilityandsensitivity-spacesthatenabletheflourishingofcreativeandcollaborativeprocesses.Indeed,theuseofco-designinenvironmentaltransformation,whereprocesses“refertothecreativityofdesignersandpeoplenottrainedindesignworkingtogetherinthedesigndevelopmentprocess”(Sanders&Stappers,2008,p.6)andwheretheseprocesses“actasdesigningnetworks[…]inwhicheverybody,non-expertandexpertalike,designs”(Manzini,2015,p.49),doesnotprovidespecificrecipesforthespatialdefinition.Yettheuseofco-designinthiscontexthelpsunfoldareflectionabouttowhatextentproject-basedexperimentationmightguideinfrastructuringinthedevelopmentofdemocraticprocesses.Co-designis,infact,avalue-creationandnotavalue-deliveryprocess,whichaimstocontributetoacontexttransformationthroughaninformallearningprocess(Calvo,Sclater&Smith,2016)–alsocalled‘mutuallearning’(Fuad-Luke,2013,p.147)-thatenablesknowledge-exchange,theacquisitionofself-awarenessandself-responsibility,aswellascapacitybuilding.Centraltoco-designistheprocessitself-notthefinaloutcomes-sinceitprovidesinspirationtothedesignteamforthedevelopmentofconceptsandinnovations,whichincludesthedesigningoftoolsforensuringthecontinuationofsuchco-designactivitiesoncethedesignerisnolongerpresent.Especially,co-designbecomesavehicletorevealbothopportunitiesanddilemmas,throughaniterativeprocessthathasthemeanstoreduceconflictsandtoforeground‘agonisticspaces’(seeMouffe,2007).‘Agonism’isatermthatdenotesademocraticmodelthatdefines‘thepolitical’asthedimensionofconfrontation,whichisinherenttohumanrelationships(seeMouffe,2000).Hence,agonisticspacerefers,withinthismodel,toapermanent(abstract)spacewheresuchinterpersonalconfrontationscanbeexpressedandre-channelledinacollectivepositivewaythroughthecompromiseofdiversestandpoints-observingtheconflictasanopportunitytocreatepositive

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change.Democratisationhelpsturn“antagonismintoagonism”(Björgvinssonetal.,2010,p.48)andisfundamentalinenhancingasenseofsharedownership,engagementandlegitimisationoftheprocessoftransformationofagivenspace.Onthismatter,wesuggesttolookatthequalitiesofagonisticspacesinordertofindinspirationtoframethespatialdimensionofco-designactivities,whereco-designcreatesaboundaryspace(Edwards,2011)-alsoreferredtoasa‘thirdspace’(Gutiérrez2008)-fortransformingenvironmentsorsocietalproblems.

Correspondingtothetemporarinessofplacesandsettings,itisthetemporarinessofusers,theso-called‘interimuser’(Belloni,2008)wholiveshereandnowintheurbanplaceandgeneratesthetransformation.Inthissense,weliveandundertakeactivitieswithinaframeworkdefinedbytimeandspace,inanenvironmentalsystemthatwehavecreated(Park,1967),whichisdifferentfromthenaturaloneandwhichwecallculture(González-Rey,2008).Thissystemoperatesonsymbolicandemotionallevels;hencetheenvironmentacquiressymbolicandemotionalmeaningsbasedonthepeopleusingit.“Peoplemakeplaces,morethanplacesmakepeople”(Worpole&Knox,2007,p.2).Simultaneously,onamicrolevel,individualsadoptdifferentbehavioursdependingontheenvironmentalconditionsandonthepeoplesurroundingthem.Aboutthis,Harvey(2016)states:

"'Environment'iswhateversurroundsor,tobemoreprecise,whateverexistsinthesurroundingsofsomebeingthatisrelevanttothestateofthatbeingataparticularmoment.Plainly,the'situatedness'ofabeinganditsinternalconditionsandneedshaveasmuchtosayaboutthedefinitionofenvironmentasthesurroundingconditionsthemselves"(p.160).

Here,thenotionofenvironmentacquiresmovementandevolvesinrelationtothesocio-historicalcontext.Peopleliveexperiences,establishrelationshipsandshapetheirpersonalstoriesinpathsratherthaninplacesbecauselifebindstimeandplaceatthesametime(Ingold,2016).Theideaoftransformingtheenvironmentthatsurroundsuscouldbeseenasoneofthebasicmotiveswhichtriggerus,humanbeings,tomakethings(action-oriented)throughaprocessofinteractingwiththematerialecologies–observingandexperiencinguntilwefeelcomfortableenoughinthemodifiedenvironment.However,asHoskyns(2005)states,thedesignoftheenvironmentalconditionsthatsupporthumanactivitiescanonlycreatepossibilitiesforsocialinteractions.Thesamephysicalspacechangesitsfunctionsconcerningtheusethatpeoplemakeofit.

“Explorehowco-designingourservicescouldbethenextcriticalevolutionofSDtoensurethesustainableintegrationofhumanandnaturalecologiesofourcities.Indeed,thepropositionhereisthatco-designingservicesinanopeninnovationenvironmentisapre-requisiteforco-futuring”atermtheauthorcoinedin2009tosignifymoreparticipatorydemocraticformsofdecision-makinginformedbydesignandleadingtoanticipatorydemocracy(Fuad-Luke2012,p.103).

Fromaterritorialscaleperspective,publiclifehappensinpublicspacesandtherelationshipbetweenpeopleandplaceisdescribedasaself-organisedcyclethatcomestofruitiononceaplaceseemsattractivebecausepeoplestartgatheringthere(Mikoleit&Pürkhauer,2011).Thus,publicspaceplaysacrucialroleinthesociallifeofourcommunitiesandreflectsawidersocial,economicandpoliticalcondition.Withoutit,wewouldhaveneitherthephysicalsupportforexpressingourselves,northesymbolicmeaninganditsrelationshipwithouridentity.Furthermore,itencouragesusto

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thinkasacollectiveandtobepartofthecommunity.Itentailstherelationshiptopeople,tonatureandthetechnologywedecidetouse.Onthismatter,wehaveidentifieddifferencesbetweentheurbanexperimentsinMilanandthepilotstudyintheruralcommunitiesontheIsleofMull.Aswementionedbefore,thelackofpublicspacesinruralareasinhibitstheblossomingofpubliclife,somethingfundamentalindevelopingcommunitylife.Wecouldarguethat,ontheIsleofMull,onlythemainstreetofTobermorycouldbeconsideredasapublicspace,definedasaplacethatisopenandaccessibletoallkindsofcitizens,regardlessofgender,race,ethnicity,ageandsocio-economicclass,whichbecomesavesseltocarrypositivecommunalmeaningsshapedbythecommunity.Instead,publiclifemainlyoccursinchurches,non-profitorganisationvenues,and/orpubs-privatespaces-somehowincreasingthefeelingofisolation.Conversely,intheurbanenvironmentofMilaninperipheralareas,isolatedpublicareasaretheresultofspecificconditionsduetoahiddenposition,unfavourableuseinthepast,orarearoundleftoverplacesandbuildings.Theseconditionsinhibitandhindernewformsoflivingandanynewsenseofbelonging.Thecityanditsclosesurroundingsprovidespacesthatareunusedsincetheyfailtoreachtheactualneedsandimpliedwillofcitizens,entailingawasteofresourcesandpotentialitiesintermsofsocial,economicalandhumancapital.Infact,aswementionedattheoutset,sustainabilityinevitablyrequiressimultaneouslyworkingonthethreesystems-environmental,economicandsocial-inordertoaddressthemajorproblemsthatsocietyfacesinthe21stcentury.However,weemphasisetheroleofthesocioculturalsystembecausesocialbehaviouris,tosomeextent,governedbythepowerofculture.Therefore,fromourunderstanding,asocialreflectionaboutsustainabilityisneededinordertochangeindividuals'behaviourandbringaccountabilitytotheireverydaylivesthroughaprocessofsociallearning.Inthissense,communityco-designprocesseshavethemeanstoignitethissociallearningbyprovidingspacesforreflection,andpotentiallycollectiveaction.

Inaconnectedworld,thelocaljoinswiththeglobal:microenvironments,activatedbymultipleinterventionsandinterrelatedactions,composeapermeable,denationalisedplatform.Theyactinaholisticwayinwhichevenmarginallocationscanbecomepartofglobalnetworks,spreadingtheirinfluenceandinfluencingtheglobalsystem(Sassen,2004).Simultaneously,atthecommunitylevel,themicro-individualpsychologicalandbehaviouralconceptions–andthemacrolevels-institutionalandcommunityconceptions–aremutuallyinfluenced(Perkinsetal.,2002).Thislastrelationshipinfluenceshighorlow“socialcapital”7levels,extremelyrelevantindevelopinginterpersonal,communityandinstitutionalsenseoftrust,socialcommitmentandsenseofsecurity,andwithaclearimpactontheuseofpublicspaces.

Therefore,effectiveexperimentation,strategicco-designapproachesandqualitativeenquiryarefundamentaltoenablingorinhibitingactionsandinteractionsinplacesinaparticipativeandinclusiveway:anyexclusivelytop-downactioninpublicspaceswouldleadtonewspaceswithoutmeaningaswellastheabsenceoftrustedmilieuwouldleadtoanincreaseofaprivatisedconsumptionofthepublicrealm,asitoccursinmarginalisedorunderservedpopulationscontexts.Instead,dialecticalandreflectiveapproachesstrengthentheimplementationofitspotentialitiesinamoreenduringway,withinanecosystemfavourabletotheinclusionandthecollaborationamonginstitutions,citizens,publicadministrationsandventures.

7“Socialcapitalisgenerallydefinedandmeasuredattheinterpersonal,community,institutional,orsocietallevelsintermsofnetworks(bridging)andnormsofreciprocityandtrust(bonding)withinthosenetworks.Socialcapitalshouldbeanalyzedinamulti-levelecologicalframeworkintermsofbothindividualpsychologicalandbehavioralconceptions(senseofcommunity,collectiveefficacy—orempowerment,neighboring,andcitizenparticipation)andinstitutionalandcommunitynetwork-levelconceptions.”(Perkinsetal.,2002,p.33).

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AbouttheAuthors:

MirianCalvoPhDcandidateandteachingassistantattheGlasgowSchoolofArt,withinInDI.Sheisalsoaco-researcherat‘Leapfrog’,three-year-fundedprojectbytheArts&HumanitiesResearchCouncil(AHRC).HerPhDresearchassociatedwithLeapfrogaimstoanalysesomeoftheprocesses,suchasinformallearning,thatco-designignites.

AnnalindaDeRosaPhDcandidateandteachingassistantatPolitecnicodiMilano,DesignDepartment.Sheisresearchcollaboratorfor‘HumanCities,ChallengingtheCityScale’project,co-fundedbytheCreativeEuropeProgrammeoftheEUandherresearchisfocusedonthemutualinfluencesin-betweenSpatialDesignandDesignforServicesineducationalmethodologiesandprocesses.

Acknowledgements:Leapfrog,theArtsandHumanitiesResearchCouncil(AHRC)andCreativeFuturePartnerships(CFP)supportpartiallythisPhDresearch.IthankthecommunitiesfromtheIsleofMullinvolvedinthepilotstudy,mypeersfromtheInstituteofDesignInnovation(InDI),TheGlasgowSchoolofArt(GSA)andImaginationLancaster(LU)whoprovideinsightandexpertisethatgreatlyassisttheresearch,althoughtheymaynotagreewithalloftheinterpretationsofthispaper.TheDepartmentofDesign-PolitecnicodiMilanoresearchunitwithinthe“HumanCities/ChallengingtheCityScale”researchprojectandwithinthePolimiDesisLabinvolvedinthedesignresearchesmentionedinthepaper.