Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 1
Literature Review: Cultural & Technological Barriers
Abe Arispe, Makeda Billingsley, Brittany Coursey, Aaron Hurd, & Marcus Jordan
Liberty University
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 2
Abstract
There are many trends and issues in educational technology today. One of the
most significant issues in educational technology is cultural barriers. Cultural barriers are
important factors to consider when planning and implementing effective education,
because they affect instructional methods, learning goals, and student success. Culture
relates to how a person identifies themselves as a member of society, and educational
planners must acknowledge that culture goes beyond race, gender and ethnicity. Today,
people consider socioeconomic status, religion, virtual identity, age, personal and
professional goals, and educational background as a part of their culture. As classroom
communities become more diverse, educators have to start considering culture as a factor
during educational planning so that courses and programs are both culturally relevant and
effective. This literature review investigates cultural barriers in educational technology
by investigating significant cultural barriers such as: differentiated instruction,
multifaceted learning environments, and classroom demographics.
Keywords: culture, technology, barriers, education
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 3
What is Culture?
In order to overcome cultural barriers in education, it is important to first
understand culture. Culture is a complex concept and can be defined many different
ways. One definition of culture revolves around personal morals. Basically, this idea of
culture depends on how a person sees themself as a member of society. Traditionally,
race, ethnicity, gender, and family background are what people used to define their
personal culture, but as our world changes, we find that these factors are not the only
components that make up our culture. Culture cannot be summed up with one statement
like, “I am African American.” Instead culture includes a combination of many different
things such as language, age, social habits, music preferences, and so much more.
Palmaru (2012) suggests that culture is defined by individuals, and therefore the
definition of culture itself is constantly changing.
Some sociologists present the idea that culture can only be defined when
different factors come into play. For example, Marghescu (2012) suggests that culture is
something that is produced, distributed, and consumed by individuals. This means that
people consider images and ideas that their families, peers, and even the media present to
them in order to build and define their culture. They also consider their beliefs, morals,
knowledge, and experience when they think of culture. Some things that people use to
help them define their culture are reality television, social networking, peer and family
relationships, religion, and education. From these factors, people create and/or join
cultures that fit their interests and meet their needs. Culture is different based on the
population. The definition of culture is whatever we decide our culture is at the time.
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 4
Culture not just an individual’s identity. Culture can also describe our society and
surroundings. Markus (2013) believes that culture is simply described as our way of life.
For example, some people may describe Americans as a “Fast Food Culture”, meaning
that a large percentage of Americans rely on fast food chains for meals, and in some
cases employment and social settings. The idea of culture in this case is a snapshot or a
hashtag of a behavior or a preference. Dev (2013) also believes that culture is shaped and
defined by our routines, rules, norms. Culture is a complicated concept to define, but all
definitions revolve around individuals’ behavior, knowledge, interactions, and beliefs.
Culture plays a role in how we identify ourselves, and in how others describe and react to
us.
Culture’s Role in Educational Planning
Once an educator understands culture, they can successfully use it to plan
teaching and learning activities that will prepare students for life in the 21st century. One
of the biggest obstacles in education today is planning and implementing culturally
relevant teaching and learning in heterogeneous classrooms made up of student
populations that include a variety of learning styles, abilities, and interests. Considering
culture in educational planning helps customize curriculum so that the learning is more
meaningful and so that students are more engaged. If culture is taken into consideration
during educational planning, teachers and school administrators will see positive results,
because students’ needs, interests, and abilities will be considered and satisfied in the
educational setting.
Since culture encompasses our behavior, knowledge, interactions, and beliefs
educators must consider common factors that play a key role in all four of these areas
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 5
when planning culturally relevant curriculum. One of these common factors is
technology. Today, technology effects how we behave, learn, and interact. We are so
knowledgeable of and reliant on technology, that many people suggest that we live in a
“Tech Savvy” or “Technological” culture. So how do culture, technology, and education
come together?
Some educational philosophies suggest that technology is the key to overcome
cultural barriers in education. In other words, we can prepare students to be responsible
citizens in multicultural communities by teaching with technology, teaching students how
to use technology responsibly, and by using technology to close cultural gaps. “Outside
of school, students and teachers confront the double challenges of the digital divide--
relating to access to technology--and the participation gap--relating to access to core
skills, competencies, and experiences needed to become a meaningful participant in the
emerging culture” (Losh & Jenkins, 2012). Culture, technology, and education and
permanent structures in our society, so it is important that we bring them together in order
to improve how we learn, communicate, and function as a society. Feitosa et al. (2012)
suggests that globalization requires different cultures to work together, and what better
place to learn about cooperative learning than in an educational setting?
Educational planners encourage teachers and students to use technology to create
educational experiences that will help break down cultural barriers. Levin & Schrum
(2013) suggest that technology planning and support plays a critical role in educational
planning and when implemented correctly has positive impacts on a school culture.
Teachers should not just start using technology, for the sake of using technology.
Kinchin (2012) recommends that educational technology is only successful when
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 6
thoughtfully planned and implemented properly. There is no magic formula or easy
solution for overcoming cultural barriers in education, but trends in education and
cultural research certainly suggest, that technology and educational planning are two
strategies that will help solve many of the cultural issues that we face in the classroom
daily. While it is not an easy task to consider every different aspect of a student’s culture
in educational planning, it is certainly not impossible, especially when we use technology
to help us.
Culture’s Impact on Instruction
Pedagogies of Technology Integration
By looking at instructional technology with a wide view we are able to understand
the pedagogical issues that need to be considered when technology is incorporated into a
teacher’s lesson plans. As schools, and teachers on their own, incorporate technology into
their classrooms it is important that they have the proper understanding of how to use that
technology to its fullest. If instructors are not educated on the multiple uses of devices in
a classroom setting the likelihood of integrated learning on part of the students decreases
at a dramatic rate. At the same time infusing technology into the curriculum makes less of
an impact of the learning of the students if it is not considered a vital component from the
standpoint of the teacher (Anderson & McGreal, 2012).
Many instructors do not realize that technology should be considered as a separate
object from their regular instructional procedures during the planning process. But this
does not mean that it should be looked at as any less of integral part of the instructional
delivery in any lesson. It is up to the instructor to make assessments of the
appropriateness of any technology that will be used in the classroom based upon the
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 7
specific needs and understanding of the students that the lesson is being crafted for.
Should students be from poorer families or more diverse backgrounds where technology
has not been readily available to them in their private lives the instructor may be faced
with teaching the use of a device? This training, although it may be a valuable skill for
students to learn, takes away from instructional time concerning the original lessons
planned (Anderson & McGreal, 2012).
In today’s world of instant answers and always being connected to others in ways
that people of the past have never experienced, it is important to understand the threats
present in using technology, as well as the possibility of students not understanding the
multiple uses of devices in the classroom and at home. In the case of online learning,
instructors are afraid to move in this direction many times due the lack of pedagogical
training that they have received (Peerani, 2013). The culture that assumes that the use of
educational technology can be used and removed at anytime in any lesson is a wrong
assumption on the observer’s part. Technology integration should be applied to sound
teaching and learning principals by an instructor who is aware of the proper uses and
applications of the lessons being conveyed as well as the appropriate use of technologies
in the learning model.
Differentiated Instruction
The diversity of today’s classroom breeds cultural norms that are different than
those that students and teachers have ever faced before. Not only are students of different
races and religions learning together at a higher rate, but also students with different
learning styles and learning disabilities are present like never before. Teachers face
students from different culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds on a daily bases.
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 8
Many institutions, such as those in rural and lower-income areas, are unable to finance
the cost associated with staffing or tools for differentiated instruction. These needs can be
meet offsite by distance and online education, but in many cases these options are also
limited by funding (Irvin, Hannum, De La Varre, & Farner, 2010).
Through the practice of differentiating instruction educators are able to add rigor
while enhancing cultural reverent information in the lessons. Differentiation helps
educators to provide students with multiple ways of learning and technology helps to
make this differentiation possible. Problems evolve when the students or instructor do not
fully understand the technology that they are attempting to intergrade in the lesson.
Peerani (2013) states that “change (in education) is something that people can adjust to, if
there is a willingness to do so”. In many cases technology can make a classroom
specialized to the students that are in that class. But at the same time if a program is not
available in a student's spoken and written language it can cause more confusion than act
as an agent of help. In many cases educators do not feel prepared to address students that
have different needs from those that are being met by the general lessons.
Technology provides many ways that obstacles in instruction can be overcome,
but educators themselves must be knowledgeable in the many uses a device can provide
in the classroom. Proper training for instructors in the use of technology must be made a
priority by their employers and available to them during professional development as
well as ongoing session all throughout the year as understanding increases. The barriers
of technology being placed in the classroom do not simply start with the course instructor
but with the administration of the institution. If proper training, funding, and guidance are
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 9
not in place then the odd of successful technological integration are very low (Irvin,
Hannum, De La Varre, & Farner, 2010).
Cultural Barriers between General Education and Special Education Teachers
General education and special education classes function in differently in many,
especially as special education classes seek to specialize the lessons to each particular
student’s needs and development. Inclusion classes have sought to bring special needs
students into the general classroom in order to provide them with interaction that general
education students receive. These environments must be accessible to all learners and
thus make the use of technology a great bridge should the programs and hardware be
easily understood and easy to use (Smith & Cap, 2008).
Even though each special needs student has different needs they are grouped into
one category. This process does not allow for the personalization of assistive technology
in a group setting. Each students Section 504 report lays out the individual needs of that
particular student. Funding for large purchases of technology at the district, regional, or
local level do not often account for the personalized needs of those students that have a
Section 504. The usual technology purchases are done for the general use of schools or
classrooms, the difference in these accommodations sets a barrier between the general
classrooms use of technological devices and those used by the special education
department and the students that it serves (Collins & Halverson, 2009).
Years ago special needs students were placed in classroom solely on their own,
and while this made planning and integration easier for general education teachers, it did
not suit equality. As schools prepare students for the real world challenges that they will
face, contained classrooms do not serve as a realistic model for the world to come. So in
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 10
order for inclusion to work students with special needs can possibly benefit the most from
technology integration into the classrooms. This requires that input and output features
need to be made available to the students, educators need the proper training on the use as
well as the understanding of such devices, and general education students need to
understand the use of these technologies when interacting with inclusion students. As
technology becomes more and more integrated we move from as Collins & Halverson
(2009) called “an apprenticeship model of education to the universal schooling era”.
Cultural and Technological Barriers in 21st Century Education Models
The implications of technology have greatly affected the way education is
approached. The far-reaching impact of technology has affected the culture of, and in
some instances created barriers within, online and distance education, blended learning
environments, and the established traditional classroom. Technologies now have
embedded infrastructures in the institutions that have forced dialog to become part of the
process. This is due in part to independent access to knowledge. Devolution of resources
as well as the sharing of knowledge has increased student autonomy and increased the
dialogue between students and instructors as well as students and their classmates (Poley
et al., 2013). As a result, there are three contexts within the educational models that have
been created and need to be dealt with.
Firstly, there has been an unbundling of the faculty role. The instructor has moved
from the master of the classroom to part of a course team. The focus has been moved
from research to teaching. This is in part due to the emergence of formal instructional
design and its pedagogy as well as the abundance of open resources.
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 11
Secondly, there has been an unbundling of the degree. Transfer policies requiring
that courses be accepted from other institutions leave the universities with no control over
the students’ courses and degrees. This has increased the issuance of interdisciplinary
studies and decreased consistency between content.
Thirdly, there has been an unbundling of the institution itself. This is a result of
the rise in distance degrees and movement toward satellite centers. Students are no longer
bound to the confines of a traditional classroom and are able to find multiple institutions
to meet their needs. This is also caused by internal changes such as the creation of the
offices of distance education and the erosion of traditional departmental structure (Poley
et al., 2013).
Impacts on Online and Distance Education Models
As the demand for online and distance education has increased, the tculture
revolving around it has been modified as well. In fact, digital culture has changed the
way humans communicate, as well as the way humans perceive reality, relate, learn, and
think. When thinking changes, individuals interact differently with others within
relationships. When relationships change, so do the very institutions upon which society
is found (Flynn, 2013).
The impact on such institutions can be seen with the Massive Open Online
Courses (MOOCs) offered by companies such as Khan Academy, Udacity, EdX, and
Coursera. There are variations of how each is executed, but the common theme is that
information is made readily available for students to digest at no cost. Some include
adapted release of material while others have no restriction to what the student can view
when. Additionally, many offer opportunities for the student to interact with peers and
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 12
glean information from an expert in the subject matter. No matter the execution, one
thing is clear—there is potential for MOOCs to become an educational game changer.
There is a chance that employers will look to MOOCs as alternative credentials to
the traditional college degree. They may consider a certificate of completion from a
world-class institution affiliated with the MOOCs as a better assessment tool for the skills
needed for a particular job instead of a degree from a second- or third-tier educational
facility. International students may think staying at home and enrolling in a MOOC is a
better alternative than obtaining debt to attend an international school. Though the future
utilization on MOOCs is unknown, they bring with them a decided shift toward non-
institutional higher education (Dennis, 2012).
In addition, some of the technological advances associated with MOOCs could
impact the facilitation of online and distance education settings. For example, courses
within the libraries of such companies can utilize programming that can monitor thought
processes to grade essays and mathematical equations in the same nature that a traditional
instructor would. Not only that, some MOOCs utilize technologies that are able to
register typing patterns to secure login and minimize academic dishonesty.
These examples exhibit another culture altering phenomenon, artificial
intelligence. In his article, Schmidt goes as far as to say “that man’s simulating himself
has become a culture” (2011). With so many advances in technology and our reliance on
it, it could be argued that it is only a matter of time before man and machine are
intertwined. The concept of “man” may need redefining as humans look to technology to
create, modify, and perfect the working version of it.
Impacts in Traditional Classroom Settings
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 13
The traditional classroom has undertaken a redefining as a result of technology as
well. While the defining factor is still the face-to-face delivery, many other aspects have
changed. No more are the days of lecture-based lessons in which the professor shares
material and the students listens stagnantly. Technology allows for individual
personalization and interaction. The culture of the traditional classroom is still one well
adept to the use of technology (Bahhouth, J. & Bahhouth).
Teachers often utilize web resources to enhance learning. There is a shift toward
set ups in which student bring their own digital devices to interact with learning materials
as well. This opens the door to gamification and a learning-centered environment that
appears more like the student’s everyday life—one that is enhanced with computers,
mobile devices, tablets, and more.
While this shift from lecture-based learning can be seen greatly at the higher
institutional level, it is certainly beyond those limitations. In fact, due to technology the
classroom is not bound by the four walls made available by brick and mortar. The options
for schooling have greatly expanded. There are far more programs available for
homeschoolers and co-ops have become more popular as well (Hoover-Dempsey & Ice,
2011).
Impacts on Blended Learning Models
Blended learning has provided several benefits compared to using a single system
of delivery. Many institutions are looking to blended learning environments to obtain the
benefits of both e-learning and face-to-face environments. According to Gedik, Kiraz, &
Yaşar Özden, the affordances of blended learning environments include: “the usage of
different environments to present all of the course, content, motivation, opportunity to
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 14
voice opinions and see others’ opinions more, time efficiency, reinforcement of learning,
instructor monitoring, instructor support, access to resources, continuity within the
course, and areas for discussion” (2012, 106).
As with most forums, blended learning settings are not without fault. There are
associated barriers as well. The data analysis from the Gedik, Kiraz, & Yaşar Özden
study revealed that the obstacles in the learning environment included: “workload, course
design, cultural aspects, technical support, and the inter-dependence of the two
environments” (2012, 110).
This emphasizes that both organizational and cultural factors must be addressed
within blended learning environments. Instructors must support and guide the students to
ensure that there is balance between the students’ workload and time. There must be great
attention to the course design to ensure that the course direction is clear and the student
expectations are defined.
Culture and Learning Environment Demographics
General Education Learners
General education learners are the students that do not need any help to be able to
communicate. They are able to let people know their feelings on any subject they are
presented. Students with disabilities should not be placed in classrooms that are strictly
for general education students.
Through the years educators have practiced including all students in a classroom that
provides educational intervention to students with and without disabilities providing the
proper instruction and support to each group.
Special Education Learners
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 15
For purposes of education special education learners or exceptional learners are
those who require special education and related services if they are to realize their full
human potential (Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005). They require special education because
they differ markedly from most students in one or more of the following ways: they may
have intellectual disabilities, learning or attention disabilities, emotional or behavioral
disorders, physical disabilities, disorders of communication, autism, traumatic brain
injury, impaired hearing, impaired sight, or special gifts or talents.
Special Education learners sometimes require reassurance from their parents and teachers
to encourage them to communicate their wants and needs. To accomplish this, the
parents and teachers have work together to devise a plan to get the child to communicate
better in class by finding out what the child’s likes and dislikes are thereby opening the
channels to communication.
It is extremely crucial that children with an intellectual disability are able to
correctly communicate their wants and needs. This type of communication gives students
greater independence in their environments and reduces challenging behavior, such as
anger, self-injury, and temper outbursts, which might occur for lack of more effective or
conventional means of communication (Sigafoos, Arthur-Kelly, & Butterfield, 2006).
Student perceptions of Educational Technology
Technology is being used in the classroom to be able to enhance the training
given to our students. The question that comes up is, “what are the student’s perceptions
of how the education is being presented?”
Education is constantly changing in the world of distance learning. One thing that is
certain is students are now able to use technology to attend school without having to
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 16
show up in a classroom. Through the years education has been changing making it easier
to attend school without having to attend a brick and mortar structure. How are the
teachers gathering information on the technology being used to teach? Is this technology
leaving some students behind?
When checking student perceptions on education three areas that have to be
observed to get an understanding of how the different educational technology tools affect
student learning.
These are overall learning; ability to get the job, and expected job performance
and the only way to tell if the correct information is being taught is by having the student
take a survey after they have completed the course.
Another method of gauging what the students are learning through technology is
by surveying their employers on the students’ knowledge.
The new technology being used in mobile learning or m-learning has taken root in
education and continues to improve allowing the new students to have access to more
information instantly. We have to keep track of how technology is helping our students
meet their goals and be part of the improvement team to improve technology for future
classes.
In the past there had been fears and fantasies about how the technology would
become part of the regular learning in schools in the near future. Technology continues
to change the way students receive their training in school. Students are going to be able
to complete their research a lot quicker because of this technology. Technology is now
and will continue to make learning easier. By being able to communicate with your
teacher in a distance learning course face to face by using one of the new devices that are
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 17
available. Schools have received an infusion of technology. By this, I mean that learning
has become easier by using the technology available in the classroom and at home.
Going on virtual trip, is now used instead of having to leave the schools for a day and
having to get permission slips signed.
All the advances in technology that have taken place in the last five years show
that technology changing on a daily basis. One thing about using these devices is if you
purchase one of these devices today by tomorrow it will be obsolete.
Solutions for Overcoming Cultural Barrier in Educational Technology Solutions
With cultural barriers being such important factors to consider when planning and
implementing effective education, and because of the effect on instructional methods,
learning goals, and student success, ways to overcome these barriers has to be created.
We stated that culture relates to how a person identifies themselves as members of
society, and educational planners must acknowledge that culture goes beyond race,
gender and ethnicity so steps have to be taken to have positive solutions.
School officials should be concerned with cultural barriers to avoid creating
barriers in educational technology. Professional development is a great way to help
overcome these barriers. Taking the time to train teachers and professionals’ proper use
of technology being used in classrooms is extremely important. In using professional
development, it should raise the percent of knowledge base in the teacher to student
relationship in distant learning. Teachers can be better at sharing information and
curriculum to their students with the advantages of the amount of technology available
today.
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 18
I think collaborating with other institutions and educators can be professional
development that will help to overcome these barriers of distance learning. Institutions
should do research and follow up with other institutions that use certain methods to make
their organization successful. Of course, not all methods are good for everyone, but you
can sort through ways that are beneficial to you and modify them. Model their teaching
styles and modify them to the type of students you serve online and see if it best fits your
curriculum.
Also there are other factors that will affect overcoming cultural barriers in
distance education. There are some provisions of the listed points will improve E-
learning effectively such as the availability of hardware for students (particularly
computers). If a student can afford good equipment with faster Internet
connectivity/improved bandwidth, improved software, appropriate policies favoring e-
learning from an institution it will help them be successful. In addition to these things,
provisions of good technical support for e-learning to the student so that they can learn
online comfortably will help.
Cost is definitely a major factor to add into the equation of overcoming cultural
barriers. It may even be the number one factor in causing barriers, because with the
financial burdens people face today, school cost is not the first priority that people want
to pay for. Return on investment of education is at the thought of every individual
student, whether or not they will receive a job to compensate their years of studying. The
way things are going in today’s world of careers; many people complete a degree field
and cannot find work, so it’s in question of how important completing a degree is.
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 19
Opinions from learners in distance education classes suggests that learners
attribute a much broader scope of barriers to the instructor compared to what they would
in a traditional setting. For instance, the organization's infrastructure is generally not
under the direct control of the instructor. Yet, such operability issues as access,
infrastructure, and technical support are an inseparable part of e-learning.
More important, in overcoming barriers, no matter what culture or background
you have, you can achieve the same goal as any other in distance learning. With
everything being online, it opens up the world to the student versus having a classroom
where resources may only be confined to the room. It allows the student to envision
things worldwide by reaching out and communicating to others from all over. It broadens
the decisions to be made when faced with a dilemma, because you can get a wide view of
solutions from different cultures and locations.
Everything has its benefits and drawbacks, and I think this does also. As the
instructor, you may not be able to adjust to students without knowing them hands on and
vice versa for the student. And students may or may not understand and relate to all of
their classmates and the different perspectives given. Overall, I think as long as the
instructor and the students know that the goal is to meet and achieve what they are
seeking, to learn and educate to the best of our ability. There are many different walks of
life in this world, but we are all seeking and serving the same God, we share the common
goal. Education can be the same way.
Don’t forget people learn in different ways, different learning styles. Always try
to be creative in the design and structure for the student. Keep it interesting, and give the
student a feeling of involvement. In my opinion, I think you shouldn’t make assignments
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 20
so difficult. Not saying make the course an easy walk-thru, but realize that this is a
distance learning class and some students may not understand the material well as others
and you can’t physically fix that.
You should also communicate regularly to let the students know you are there,
and not just throwing out assignments. And give lots of feedback because you’re not
physically meeting with the students. Be considerate in that we want the student to
succeed and not struggle. Make them work for it, but not make them feel they shouldn’t
belong in the class. Always look at “best practice” for each that makes up the all. Take
special care to be clear and concise as possible. Always use secure and confidential
methods to stay within rules, regulations, and guidelines of the education department.
This will help break all barriers to be successful!
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 21
References
Anderson, T., & McGreal, R. (2012). Disruptive pedagogies and technologies in
universities. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 15(4), 380. Retrieved
from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1287025038?accountid=12085
Bahhouth, J. & Bahhouth V. (2011). Significance of e-learning in traditional classes.
International Journal of Education Research, 6(2), 1.
Bakken, J. P. (2009). The general education classroom. 129-139.
Becker, K., Newton, C., & Sawang, S. (2013). A learner perspective on barriers to e-
learning. Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 53(2), 211-233. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/1444015979?accountid=12085
Berge, Z. and Kim Cho, S. Overcoming Barriers to Distance Training and Education.
USDLA Journal. Vol. 16 No. 1. Retrieved from:
http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/JAN02_Issue/article01.html
Bonk, C. (2009). The world is Open : How Web Technology is Revolutionizing
Education. (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Center for Mental Health in Schools at UCLA. (2008). An Introductory Packet on
Cultural Concerns in Addressing Barriers to Learning. Los Angeles, CA.
Christie, M., & Jurado, R. G. (2009). Barriers to innovation in online pedagogy.
European Journal of Engineering Education, 34(3), 273-279.
Clarke, I. I. (2001). Student perception of educational technology tools, 9.
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 22
Collins, A. & Halverston, R. (2009). Rethinking education in the age of technology: The
digital revolution and schooling in America. New York: Teachers College Press.
ISBN: 0807750026 (K-12).
Daniel P. Hallahan, J. M. (2012). Exceptional Learners An Introduction to Special
Education. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA: Pearson.
Dennis, M. (2012). The impact of MOOCs on higher education. College and University,
88(2), 24-30. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1372330643?
accountid=12085
Dev, S. (2013). Assessing and understanding organizational culture: Various views and
theories. Indian Streams Research Journal, 3(5), 1-11.
Feitosa, J., Salas, E., & Salazar, M.R. (2012). Social identity: Clarifying its dimensions
across cultures. Psihologijske Teme/ Psychological Topics, 21(3), 527- 548.
Flynn, J. T. (2013). MOOCs: disruptive innovation and the future of higher education.
Christian Education Journal. 10(1), 149.
Gedik, N., Kiraz, E., & Yaşar Özden, M. M. (2012). The Optimum Blend: Affordances
and Challenges of Blended Learning For Students. Turkish Online Journal Of
Qualitative Inquiry, 3(3), 102-117.
Hoover-Dempsey, K. V. & Ice, C. L. (2011). Linking Parental Motivations for
Involvement and Student Proximal Achievement Outcomes in Homeschooling
and Public Schooling Settings. Education and Urban Society, 43(3), 339-369. doi:
10.1177/0013124510380418.
Irvin, M., Hannum, W., & Varre, C. (2010). Barriers to distance education in rural
schools. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 11(2), 73-90.
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 23
Kinchin, I. (2012). Avoiding technology- enhances non- learning. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 43(2), E43- E48.
Kramer, N. C., & Kappas, A. (2011). Face-to-face Communication Over the Internet:
Emotions in a Web of Culture, Language, and Technology.
Levin, B.B., & Schrum, L. (2013). Using systems thinking to leverage technology for
school improvement: Lessons learned from award- winning secondary schools/
districts. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 46(1), 29- 51.
Losh, E., & Jenkins, H. (2012). Can public education coexist with participatory culture?
Knowledge Quest, 41(1), 16-21.
Margescu, G. (2010). The media culture of education. Petroleum- Gas University of
Ploieti Bulletin, Educational Sciences Series, 62(1B), 123- 129.
Markus, G. (2013). The path of culture. Critical Horizons, 14(2), 127-155.
Martin, S.J. (2012). Final comparison study of teaching blended in- class course vs.
teaching distance education courses. Journal of Systemics, Cybernetics &
Informatics, 10(6), 40-46.
Morgan, J. Teaching aid aims to help lift cultural barriers. The Times Higher Education:
At The Heart of The Higher Education Debate. Retrieved from:
http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/412395.article
Palmaru, R. (2012). Making sense and meaning on the role of communication and culture
in the reproduction of social systems. Constructivist Foundations, 8(1), 63-75.
Peerani, N. (2013). Barriers to distance learning: The educator's viewpoint. Distance
Learning, 10(2), 29-33. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/1372340627?accountid=12085
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 24
Poley, J., Miller, G., Pappas, J., Londoner, C., Benke, M., & Moore, M. (2013, November
20). Sloan-C and IACEHOF collaborative symposium: The more things change,
the more they stay the same - or do they? Symposium conducted at the meeting of
the Sloan Consortium, Orlando, FL.
Schmidt, C. T., & A. (2011). Technology and culture and possibly vigilance too. AI &
Society, 26(4), 371-375. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00146-011-0320-z
Schwartz, S. H., and Rubel, T. (2005), Sex differences in value priorities: Cross-cultural
and multi-method studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89,
pp. 1010–1028.
Simpson, C. G., Rose, C. A., & Bakken, J. P. (2013). Placement of Students with
Learning Disabilities. Advances in Special Education, 24, 75-91.
Smith, K. E., & Cap, O. O. (2008). Impact on Social Change: Benefits and Barriers to
School Culture and the Integration of M-Technology. International Journal Of
Interactive Mobile Technologies, 2(1), 31-35.
The general education classroom This is not where students ... (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/books.htm?chapterid=1834296&show=pdf
Zi- Gang, G. (2012). Cyber asynchronous versus blended cyber approach in distance
English learning. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 12(2), 286- 297.