BBAHM-604
Cultural Heritage of India
Unit-1
Indian History
Introduction
Culture generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic
structures that give such activity significance. In general, the term culture
denotes the whole product of an individual, group or society of intelligent
beings. It includes technology, art, science, as well as moral systems and the
characteristic behaviors and habits of the selected intelligent entities.
History of India
The history of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which
flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent from 3300 b.c.
to 1700 b.c. This Bronze Age civilization was followed by the Iron Age &
Vedic period, which witnessed the rise of major kingdoms known as the
Mahajanapadas. In two of these, in the 6th century b.c., Mahavira and
Gautama Buddha were born. The subcontinent was united under the Maurya
Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries b.c. It subsequently became
fragmented, with various parts ruled by numerous Middle kingdoms for the
next ten centuries. Its northern regions were united once again in the 4th
century, and remained so for two centuries thereafter, under the Gupta
Empire. This period was known as the "Golden Age of India."
During the same time, and for several centuries afterwards, Southern India,
under the rule of the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas, experienced
its own golden age, during which Hinduism and Buddhism spread to much
of south-east Asia. Islam arrived on the subcontinent early in the 8th century
with the conquest of Baluchistan and Sindh by Muhammad bin Qasim.
Islamic invasions from Central Asia between the 10th and 15th centuries
brought most of northern India under the rule at first of the Delhi Sultanate
and later of the Mughals. Mughal rule, which ushered in a remarkable
flowering of art and architecture, came to cover most of the northern parts of
the subcontinent.
Nevertheless, several independent kingdoms, such as the Maratha Empire
and the Vijayanagara Empire, flourished contemporaneously, in Western and
Southern India respectively. Beginning in the mid-18th century and over the
next century, India was gradually annexed by the British East India
Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the First War of Indian
Independence, after which India was under the direct administration of the
British Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development of
infrastructure and economic decline. During the first half of the 20th century,
a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National
Congress, and later joined by the Muslim League. The subcontinent gained
independence from Great Britain in 1947, after being partitioned into the
dominions of India and Pakistan. Pakistan's eastern wing became the nation
of Bangladesh in 1971.
Pre-Historic Era Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the
Narmada Valley in Central India indicate that India might have been
inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between
200,000 to 500,000 years ago. The Mesolithic period in the Indian
subcontinent covered a time span of around 25,000 years, starting around
30,000 years ago. Modern humans seem to have settled in the subcontinent
towards the end of the last Ice Age, or approximately 12,000 years ago. The
first confirmed permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Rock
Shelters of Bhimbetka in modern Madhya Pradesh. Early Neolithic culture
in South Asia is represented by the Mehrgarh findings (7000 b.c. On wards)
in present day Baluchistan, Pakistan. Traces of a Neolithic culture have been
found submerged in the Gulf of Khambat. (radiocarbon dated to 7500 b.c.)
Late Neolithic cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region between 6000
and 2000 b.c. and in southern India between 2800 and 1200 b.c.
The Bronze Age
The Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 b.c. with the
beginning of the Indus Valley Civilization. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus
river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and
produced copper, bronze, lead and tin.
Indus Valley Civilization The Indus Valley Civilization which flourished
from about 2600 b.c. to 1900 b.c., and included urban centers such as
Harappa and Mohenjodaro (in Pakistan) and Dholavira, marked the
beginning of the urban civilization on the subcontinent. It was cantered on
the Indus river and its tributaries, and extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra
River valley, the Ganges,Yamuna , Doab, Gujarat, and northern
Afghanistan.
The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, road-side drainage
system and multi-storied houses. Among the settlements were the major
urban centers of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as Dholavira,
Ganweriwala, Lothal, Kalibanga and Rakhigarhi. It is thought by some that
geological disturbances and climate change, leading to a gradual
deforestation may ultimately have contributed to the civilization's downfall.
The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization also included a break down of
urban society in India and of the use of distinctively urban traits such as the
use of writing and seals.
Vedic Age
The Vedic culture is the Indo-Aryan culture associated with the Vedas, which
are some of the oldest extant texts, orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The
first 500 years (1500 – 1000 b.c.) of the Vedic Age correspondto Bronze Age
India and the next 500 years (1000 – 500 b.c.) to Iron Age India. Many
scholars postulate that in the early 2nd millennium b.c., IndoAryan tribes as
originating in Iran, Kurdistan or Anatolia migrated east into India, and west
into Europe, overunning the native northern Europeans and finally
assimilating with them while spreading their language and culture. Early
Vedic society consisted of largely pastoral groups with late Harappan
urbanization being abandoned for unknown reasons. After the Rigveda,
Aryan society became increasingly agricultural, and was socially organized
around the four Varnas. In addition to the principal texts of Hinduism (the
Vedas), the epics (the Ramayana and Mahabharata) are said to have their
ultimate origins during this period. Early Indo-Aryan presence probably
corresponds, in part, to the presence of Ochre Coloured Pottery in
archaeological findings. The kingdom of the Kurus corresponds to the Black
and Red Ware culture and the beginning of the Iron Age in Northwestern
India, around 1000 b.c. (roughly contemporaneous with the composition of
the Atharvaveda, the first Indian text to mention Iron, as śyāma ayas,
literally "black metal"). Painted Grey Ware cultures spanning much of
Northern India were prevalent from about 1100 to 600 b.c. This later period
also corresponds to a change in outlook towards the prevalent tribal system
of living leading to establishment of kingdoms called Mahajanapadas.
Establishment of Mahajanapadas The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most
powerful kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly across the fertile
Indo-Gangetic plains. They were, Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or
Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Machcha (or
Matsya), Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja – stretched across
the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to south pole. This
was the second major urbanisation in India after the Indus Valley
Civilization.
The speech of the educated mass at that time was Sanskrit, while the dialects
of the general population of northern India were referred to as Prakrits. By
the time of Siddhartha Gautama these sixteen kingdoms had reduced to four
- Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and, Magadha 500 b.c. probably due to infighting.
Hindu rituals at that time were complicated and conducted by the priestly
class. It is thought that the Upanishads, late Vedic texts were composed in
the later Vedic Age and early in this period of the Mahajanapadas.
Upanishads had a huge effect on Indian philosophy, indicating a golden age
of thought in this period. It was in 537 b.c., that Siddhartha Gautama
attained the state of awakenedness – "enlightenment", and became known as
the 'Buddha' – the awakened one. Around the same time period, in 510 b.c.,
Mahavira founded Jainism. The Buddha's teachings and Jainism had simple
doctrines, and were preached in Prakrit, which helped them gain acceptance
amongst the masses. While the geographic impact of Jainism was limited,
Buddhist nuns and monks eventually spread the teachings of Buddha to
Central Asia, East Asia, Tibet, Sri Lanka and South East Asia.
Persian & Greek Invasion Alexander's conquests reached the northernmost
edge of India, around the Indus river in modern day Pakistan. Much of the
northwestern Indian Subcontinent (present day Eastern Afghanistan and
Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in 520 b.c.
during the reign of Darius the Great, and remained so for two centuries
thereafter. In 334 b.c., Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and the
Achaemenid
Empire, reaching the north-west frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There,
he defeated King Puru in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day
Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab. However, due to
exhaustion, Alexander's troops refused to go beyond the Hyphases (Beas)
river near modern day Jalandhar, Punjab. Alexander left many Macedonian
veterans in the conquered regions; he himself turned back and marched his
army southwest
The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian
civilization. The political systems of the Persians were to influence future
forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the
Mauryan dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern
Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian,
Persian, Central Asian and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture,
Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century AD and influenced the
artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism.
The Magadha Empire Amongst the sixteen Mahajanapadas, the kingdom of
Magadha rose to prominence under a number of dynasties. According to the
tradition, the Haryanka dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in 684 b.c.
whose capital was Rajagriha, later Pataliputra, near the present day Patna.
This dynasty was succeeded by the Shishunaga dynasty which, in turn, was
overthrown by the Nanda dynasty in 424 b.c. The Nandas were followed by
the Maurya dynasty
Maurya Dynasty
In 321 b.c., exiled general Chandragupta Maurya, under direct patronage of
the genius of Chanakya, founded the Maurya dynasty after overthrowing the
reigning king Dhana Nanda. Most of the subcontinent was united under a
single government for the first time under the Maurya rule. Mauryan empire
under Chandragupta spread its boundaries into Persia and Central Asia,
conquering the Gandhara region. Chandragupta Maurya is credited for the
spread of Jainism in South Indian region.
Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, who expanded the
kingdom over most of present day India, barring Kalinga, and the extreme
south and east, which may have held tributary status. Bindusara's kingdom
was inherited by his son Ashoka the Great. In the aftermath of the carnage
caused in the invasion of Kalinga, he renounced bloodshed and pursued a
policy of non-violence or ahimsa after converting to Buddhism. The Edicts
of Ashoka are the oldest preserved historical documents of India, and from
Ashoka's time. The Mauryan dynasty under Ashoka was responsible for the
proliferation of Buddhist ideals across the whole of East Asia and South-East
Asia. Ashoka's grandson Samprati adopted Jainism and helped spread
Jainism.
Post Mauryan Magadha Dynasties
The Sunga Dynasty was established in 185 b.c., about fifty years after
Ashoka's death, when the king Brihadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers,
was murdered by the then commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces,
Pusyamitra Sunga. The Kanva dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty, and
ruled in the eastern part of India from 71 b.c. to 26 b.c.. In 30 b.c., the
southern power swept away both the Kanvas and Sungas. Following the
collapse of the Kanva dynasty, the Satavahana dynasty of the Andhra
kingdom replaced the Magadha kingdom as the most powerful Indian state.
Early middle kingdoms – the golden age
Badami Chalukya territories
The middle period was a time of cultural development. The Satavahanas,
also known as the Andhras, were a dynasty which ruled in Southern and
Central India starting from around 230 b.c.. Satakarni, the sixth ruler of the
Satvahana dynasty, defeated the Sunga dynasty of North India. Gautamiputra
Satakarni was another notable ruler of the dynasty. The Kushanas invaded
north-western India about the middle of the 1st century from Central Asia,
and founded an empire that eventually stretched from Peshawar to the
middle Ganges and, perhaps, as far as the Bay of Bengal. It also included
ancient Bactria (in the north of modern Afghanistan) and southern Tajikistan.
The Western Satraps (35-405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and
central part of India. They were the successors of the Indo- Scythians and
contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian
subcontinent, and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in Central India.
Different empires such as the Pandyan Kingdom, Early Cholas, Chera
Dynasty, Kadamba Dynasty, Western Ganga Dynasty, Pallavas and Chalukya
dynasty dominated the southern part of the Indian peninsula, at different
periods of time. Several southern kingdoms formed overseas empires that
stretched across South East Asia. The kingdoms warred with each other and
Deccan states, for domination of the south. alabhras, a Buddhist kingdom,
briefly interrupted the usual domination of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas
in the South.
Roman trade with India
Roman trade with India started following the reign of Augustus and his
conquest of Egypt, theretofore India's biggest trade partner in the West. The
trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 b.c. kept increasing by the time
of Augustus when upto 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos
Hormos to India.
Gupta Dynasty
In the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Dynasty unified northern India.
During this period, known as India's Golden Age of Hindu renaissance,
Hindu culture, science and political administration reached new heights.
Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II were the most notable
rulers of the Gupta dynasty. The Vedic Puranas are also thought to have been
written around this period. The empire came to an end with the attack of the
Huns from central Asia. After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th
century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line
of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the
empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana king Harsha,
who established an empire in the first half of the seventh century. The White
Huns, established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the fifth
century, with their capital at Bamiyan. They were responsible for the
downfall of the Gupta dynasty. Nevertheless, much of the Deccan and
southern India were largely unaffected by this state of flux in the north.
Late Middle Kingdoms – the Classical Age
The classical age in India began with the resurgence of the north during
Harsha's conquests around the 7th century, and ended with the fall of the
Vijayanagar Empire in the South, due to pressure from the invaders to the
north in the 13th century. This period produced some of India's finest art,
considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the
main spiritual and philosophical systems, which continued to be in Hinduism,
Buddhism and Jainism. King Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting
northern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the
Gupta dynasty. His kingdom collapsed after his death. From the 7th to the
9th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the
Pratiharas of Malwa and later Kannauj; the Palas of Bengal, and the
Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of
the Pala kingdom, and the Pratiharas fragmented into various states. These
were the first of the Rajputs, a series of kingdoms, which managed to
survive in some form for almost a millennium until Indian independence
from the British. The first recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan
in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later ruled much of northern
India. One Rajput of the Chauhan dynasty, Prithviraj Chauhan, was known
for bloody conflicts against the encroaching Islamic Sultanates. The
Chalukya Empire ruled parts of southern and central India from 550 to 750
from Badami, Karnataka and again from 970 to 1190 from Kalyani,
Karnataka. The Pallavas of Kanchi were their contemporaries further to the
south. With the decline of the Chalukya empire, their feudatories, Hoysalas
of Halebidu, Kakatiya of Warangal, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and a
southern branch of the Kalachuri divided the vast Chalukya empire amongst
themselves around the middle of 12th century. Later during the middle
period, the Chola kingdom emerged in northern Tamil Nadu, and the Chera
kingdom in Kerala. By 1343 a.d., all these kingdoms had ceased to exist
giving rise to the Vijayanagar empire. Southern Indian kingdoms of the time
expanded their influence as far as Indonesia, controlling vast overseas
empires in Southeast Asia. The ports of southern India were involved in the
Indian Ocean trade, chiefly involving spices, with the Roman Empire to the
west and Southeast Asia to the east. Literature in local vernaculars and
spectacular architecture flourished till about the beginning of the 14th century
when southern expeditions of the sultan of Delhi took their toll onthese
kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar dynasty [Karnata Rajya] came into
conflict with Islamic rule (the Bahmani Kingdom) and the clashing of the
two systems, caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign culture that
left lasting cultural influences on each other. The Vijaynagar Empire
eventually declined due to pressure from the first Delhi Sultanates, who had
managed to establish themselves in the north, centered around the city of
Delhi by that time.
Medieval Indian History
The Muslim Invasion
After the Arab-Turkic invasion of India's ancient western neighbour Persia,
expanding forces in that area were keen to invade India, which was the
richest classical civilization, with a flourishing international trade and had
the only known diamond mines in the world. After resistance for a few
centuries by various north Indian kingdoms, the Islamic empires (Sultanates)
got
established and spread across the northern subcontinent over a period of a
few centuries.
Delhi Sultanate
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Arabs, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of
northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the
13th century, from former Rajput holdings. The subsequent Slave dynasty of
Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximate to the
ancient extent of the Guptas, while the Khilji Empire was also able to
conquer most of central India, but were ultimately unsuccessful in
conquering most of the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of
Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures
left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, and
religion. It is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde"
or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate
period as a result of the inter-mingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic
prakrits with the Persian, Turkish and Arabic speaking immigrants under the
Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to stake
a claim to enthroning one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultan
(1236-1240).
Informed about civil war in India, a Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur began a
trek starting in 1398 to invade the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of
the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. The Sultan's army was
defeated on December 17, 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was
sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins.
The Mughal Empire
Approximate extent of the Mughal dynasty in the 17th century
In 1526, Babur, a Timurid (Turco-Persian) descendant of Timur and Genghis
Khan, swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire,
which lasted for over 200 years. The Mughal Dynasty ruled most of the
Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after 1707 and was
finally defeated during the 1857 war of independence also called the Indian
rebellion of 1857. This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent
as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the Mughal emperors, some of
whom showed religious tolerance, liberally patronising Hindu culture, and
some of whom destroyed historical temples and imposed taxes on
non-Muslims. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, which at its peak
occupied an area slightly larger than the ancient Maurya Empire, several
smaller empires rose to fill the power vacuum or themselves were
contributing factors to the decline. The Mughals were perhaps the richest
single dynasty to have ever existed. In 1739, Nader Shah defeated the
Mughal army at the huge Battle of Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured
and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock
Throne. The Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their
empire, had a policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made
them successful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed. Akbar
the Great was particularly famed for this. Akbar declared "Amari" or
non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the Jazia
Tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal Emperors married local royalty, allied
themselves with local Maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian
culture with ancient Indian styles, creating unique Indo-Saracenic
architecture. It was the erosion of this tradition coupled with increased
brutality and centralisation that played a large part in their downfall after
Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively
non-pluralistic policies on the general population, that often inflamed the
majority Hindu population.
The post-Mughal era was dominated by the rise of the Marathas and also by
the increasing activities of European powers. The Maratha Kingdom was
founded and consolidated by Shivaji. By the 18th century, it had transformed
itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule, of the Peshwas. By 1760, the
Empire had stretched across practically the entire subcontinent. This
expansion saw its end when the Marathas were defeated by an Afghan army
led by Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). The last
Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-
Maratha War. Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, which was founded
around 1400 AD by the Wodeyar dynasty. The rule of the Wodeyars was
interrupted by Hyder Ali and his son Tippu Sultan. Under their rule Mysore
fought a series of wars sometimes against the combined forces of the British
and Marathas, but mostly against the British with some aid or promise of aid
from the French. Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of
Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal
official, seized control of Hyderabad declaring himself Nizam-al-Mulk of
Hyderabad in 1724. It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948.
Both Mysore and Hyderabad became princely states in British India. The
Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political
entity that governed the region of modern day Punjab. This was among the
last areas of the subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The Anglo-
Sikh wars marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire. Around the 18th century,
modern Nepal was formed by Gorkha rulers, and the Shahs and the Ranas
very strictly maintained their national identity and integrity.
Modern Indian History
Invasion European
Vasco da Gama's discovery of a new sea route to India in 1498 paved the
way for European commerce with India. The Portuguese soon set up
trading-posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. The next to arrive were the
Dutch, the British (who set up a trading-post in the west-coast port of Surat
in 1619) and the French. Although the continental European powers were to
control various regions of southern and western India during the ensuing
century, they would eventually lose all their Indian dominions to the British,
with the exception of the French outposts of Pondicherry and Chandernagore,
the Dutch port of Travancore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman,
and Diu.
The East India Company
The British East India Company had been given permission by the Mughal
emperor Jahangir in 1617 to trade in India. Gradually their increasing
influence led the de-jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them
dastaks or permits for duty free trade in Bengal in 1717. The Nawab of
Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the de facto ruler of the Bengal province, opposed
British attempts to use these permits. This led to the Battle of Plassey in
1757, in which the East India Company army, led by Robert Clive, defeated
the Nawab. This was the first political foothold that the British acquired in
India. Clive became the first Governor of Bengal in 1757. After the Battle of
Buxar in 1764, the Company acquired the civil rights of administration in
Bengal from the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, beginning its formal rule in
India. The East India Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. They
introduced a land taxation system called the Permanent Settlement, which
introduced a feudal like structure in Bengal. By the 1850s, the East India
Company controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included
present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. Their policy was sometimes summed
up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering between
various princely states and social and religious groups. The first major
movement against British rule resulted in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also
known as the "Indian Mutiny" or "Sepoy Mutiny" or the "First War of
Independence". After a year of turmoil, and reinforcement of the East India
Company's troops with British soldiers, the British emerged victorious. In
the aftermath, all power was transferred from the East India Company to the
British Crown, which began to administer most of India directly. It
controlled the rest through local rulers. The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur
Shah Zafar, was exiled to Burma and his line abolished.
Indian Independence Movement
The term "Indian independence movement" is diffused, incorporating
various national and regional campaigns, agitations and efforts of both
Nonviolent and Militant philosophy and involved a wide spectrum of Indian
political organizations, philosophies, and movements, which had the
common aim of ending the British colonial authority as well as other
colonial administrations in the Indian subcontinent. The initial resistance to
the movement can be traced back to the very beginnings of colonial
expansion
by the British East India Company, as early as the middle and late 1700s.
The mainstream movement from the latter part of the 1800s was increasingly
led by the Indian National Congress with prominent moderatist leaders
seeking Dominion status within the commonwealth. Beginning of early
1900s saw a more radical approach towards political independence proposed
by leaders like the Lal Bal Pal and Sri Aurobindo. Militant nationalism also
emerged in the first decades, culminating in the failed Indo- German Pact
and Ghadar Conspiracy during the World War I. The end of the war saw the
Congress adopt the policies of nonviolent agitation and civil disobedience
led by Mahatma Gandhi. Other leaders, such as Netaji Subhash Chandra
Bose, later came to adopt a military approach to the movement. The World
War II period saw the peak of the movements like INA movement led by
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose from East Asia and Quit India movement. India
remained a dominion of the Crown till 26 January 1950, when it adopted its
Constitution to proclaim itself a Republic. The Pakistani Civil War
culminating in the 1971 War saw the splintering-off of East Pakistan into the
nation of Bangladesh.
European Rule
European traders came to Indian shores with the arrival of the Portuguese
explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498 at the port of Calicut in search of the
lucrative spice trade. After the 1757 Battle of Plassey, the British East India
Company established itself. This is widely seen as the beginning of the
British Raj in India. The Company gained administrative rights over Bengal,
Bihar, and Orissa in 1765 after the Battle of Buxar. They then annexed
Punjab in 1849 after the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839 and the
First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846) and then the Second Anglo-Sikh War
(1848–49). The British parliament enacted a series of laws to handle the
administration of the newly-conquered provinces, including the Regulating
Act of 1773, the India Act of 1784, and the Charter Act of 1813; all
enhanced the British government's rule. In 1835 English was made the
medium of instruction. Western-educated Hindu elites sought to rid
Hinduism of controversial social practices, including the Varna (caste)
system, child marriage, and sati. Literary and debating societies initiated in
Bombay and Madras became fora for open political discourse. The
educational attainment and skilful use of the press by these early reformers
created the growing possibility for effecting broad reforms, all without
compromising larger Indian social values and religious practices.
As the British increasingly dominated the continent, they grew increasingly
abusive of local customs by, for example, by staging parties in mosques,
dancing to the music of regimental bands on the terrace of the Taj Mahal,
using whips to force their way through crowded bazaars and mistreating
sepoys. In the years after the annexation of Punjab in 1849, several mutinies
among sepoys broke out; these were put down by force.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a period of uprising in the northern and
central India against British rule in 1857–58. The rebellion was the result of
decades of ethnic and cultural differences between Indian soldiers and their
British officers. The indifference of the British towards Indian rulers like the
Mughals and ex-Peshwas and the annexation of Oudh were political factors
triggering dissent amongst Indians. Dalhousie’s policy of annexation, the
doctrine of lapse or escheat, and the projected removal of the descendants of
the Great Mughal from their ancestral palace to the Qutb, near Delhi also
angered some people. The specific reason that triggered the rebellion was the
rumoured use of cow and pig fat in rifle cartridges. Soldiers had to break
the cartridges with their teeth before loading them into their rifles. So if there
was cow and pig fat, it would be offensive to Hindu and Muslim soldiers,
respectively. In February 1857, sepoys (Indian soldiers in the British army)
refused to use their new cartridges. The British claimed to have replaced the
cartridges with new ones and tried to make sepoys make their own grease
from beeswax and vegetable oils, but the rumour persisted. In March 1857,
Mangal Pandey, a soldier of the 34th Native Infantry in Barrackpore,
attacked his British sergeant and wounded an adjutant. General Hearsay,
who said Pandey was in some kind of "religious frenzy," ordered a jemadar
to arrest him but the jemadar refused. Mangal Pandey was hanged on 7 April
along with the jemadar. The whole regiment was dismissed as a collective
punishment. On May 10, when the 11th and 20th Cavalry assembled, they
broke rank and turned on their commanding officers. They then liberated the
3rd Regiment, and on 11 May the sepoys reached Delhi and were joined by
other Indians. The Red Fort, the residence of the last Mughal emperor
Bahadur, was attacked and captured by the sepoys. They demanded that he
reclaim his throne. He was reluctant at first, but eventually agreed to the
demands and became the leader of the rebellion. Soon, the revolt spread
throughout northern India. Revolts broke out in
places like Meerut, Jhansi, Kanpur, Lucknow etc. The British were slow to
respond, but eventually responded with brute force. British moved regiments
from the Crimean War and diverted European regiments headed for China to
India. The British fought the main army of the rebels near Delhi in Badlke-
Serai and drove them back to Delhi before laying siege on the city. The
siege of Delhi lasted roughly from 1 July to 31 August. After a week of street
fighting, the British retook the city. The last significant battle was fought in
Gwalior on 20 June 1858. It was during this battle that Rani Lakshmi Bai
was killed. Sporadic fighting continued until 1859 but most of the rebels
were subdued. Some notable leaders were Ahmed Ullah, an advisor of the
ex-King of Oudh; Nana Sahib; his nephew Rao Sahib and his retainers,
Tantia Tope and Azimullah Khan; the Rani of Jhansi; Kunwar Singh; the
Rajput chief of Jagadishpur in Bihar; Firuz Saha, a relative of the Mughal
Emperor, Bahadur Shah and Pran Sukh Yadav who along with Rao Tula Ram
of Rewari fought with Britishers at Nasibpur, Haryana.
Aftermath
The war of 1857 was a major turning point in the history of modern India.
The British abolished the British East India Company and replaced it with
direct rule under the British crown. A Viceroy was appointed to represent the
Crown. In proclaiming the new direct-rule policy to "the Princes, Chiefs, and
Peoples of India," Queen Victoria promised equal treatment under British
law, but Indian mistrust of British rule had become a legacy of the 1857
rebellion. The British embarked on a program in India of reform and
political restructuring, trying to integrate Indian higher castes and rulers into
the government. They stopped land grabs, decreed religious tolerance and
admitted Indians into the civil service, albeit mainly as subordinates. They
also increased the number of British soldiers in relation to native ones and
allowed only British soldiers to handle artillery. Bahadur Shah was exiled to
Rangoon, Burma where he died in 1862, finally bringing the Mughal
dynasty to an end. In 1877, Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India.
Rise of Organized Movements
The decades following the Sepoy Rebellion were a period of growing
political awareness, manifestation of Indian public opinion and emergence of
Indian leadership at national and provincial levels. Dadabhai Naoroji formed
East India Association in 1867, and Surendranath Banerjee founded Indian
National Association in 1876. Inspired by a suggestion made by A.O. Hume,
a retired British civil servant, seventy-three Indian delegates met in Bombay
in 1885 and founded the Indian National Congress. They were mostly
members of the upwardly mobile and successful western-educated provincial
elites, engaged in professions such as law, teaching, and journalism.
The influences of socio-religious groups such as Arya Samaj (started by
Swami Dayanand Saraswati) and Brahmo Samaj (founded, among others, by
Raja Ram Mohan Roy) became evident in pioneering reform of Indian
society. The inculcation of religious reform and social pride was
fundamental to the rise of a public movement for complete nationhood. The
work of men
like Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Sri Aurobindo,
Subramanya Bharathy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sir Syed Ahmed
Khan,Rabindranath Tagore and Dadabhai Naoroji spread the passion for
rejuvenation and freedom. By 1900, although the Congress had emerged as
an all-India political organization, its achievement was undermined by its
singular failure to attract Muslims, who felt that their representation in
government service was inadequate. Attacks by Hindu reformers against
religious conversion, cow slaughter, and the preservation of Urdu in Arabic
script deepened their concerns of minority status and denial of rights if the
Congress alone were to represent the people of India. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
launched a movement for Muslim regeneration that culminated in the
founding in 1875 of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh,
Uttar Pradesh (renamed Aligarh Muslim University in 1921). Its objective
was to educate wealthy students by emphasizing the compatibility of Islam
with modern western knowledge. The diversity among India's Muslims,
however, made it impossible to bring about uniform cultural and intellectual
regeneration.
Rise of Indian Nationalism
Congressmen saw themselves as loyalists, but wanted an active role in
governing their own country, albeit as part of the Empire. This trend was
personified by Dadabhai Naoroji, who went as far as contesting, successfully,
an election to the British House of Commons, becoming its first Indian
member. Bal Gangadhar Tilak was the first Indian nationalist to embrace
Swaraj as the destiny of the nation. Tilak deeply opposed the British
education system that ignored and defamed India's culture, history and
values. He resented the denial of freedom of expression for nationalists, and
the lack of any voice or role for ordinary Indians in the affairs of their nation.
For these reasons, he considered Swaraj as the natural and only solution. His
popular sentence Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it" became the
source of inspiration for Indians. In 1907, the Congress was split into two.
Tilak advocated what was deemed as extremism. He wanted a direct assault
by the people upon the British Raj, and the abandonment of all things British.
He was backed by rising public leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala
Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of view. Under them, India's three great
states - Maharashtra, Bengal and Punjab shaped the demand of the people
and India's nationalism. The moderates, led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale,
Pherozeshah Mehta and Dadabhai Naoroji held firm to calls for negotiations
and political dialogue. Gokhale criticized Tilak for encouraging acts of
violence and disorder. But the Congress of 1906 did not have public
membership, and thus Tilak and his supporters were forced to leave the party.
The Congress lost credit with the people, while Muslims were alarmed with
the rise of Tilak's Hindu nationalism, and formed the All India Muslim
League in 1906, considered the Congress as completely unsuitable for Indian
Muslims. A Muslim deputation met with the Viceroy, Minto (1905–10),
seeking concessions from the impending constitutional reforms, including
special considerations in government service and electorates. The British
recognised some of Muslim League's petitions by increasing the number of
elective offices reserved for Muslims in the Government of India Act 1909.
The Muslim League insisted on its separateness from the Hindu-dominated
Congress, as the voice of a "nation within a nation."
Partition of Bengal
In 1905, Curzon, the Viceroy and Governor-General (1899–1905), ordered
the partition of the province of Bengal for improvements in
administrativeefficiency in that huge and populous region, where the Bengali
Hindu intelligentsia exerted considerable influence on local and national
politics. The partition outraged Bengalis. Not only had the government failed
to consult Indian public opinion, but the action appeared to reflect the British
resolve to divide and rule. Widespread agitation ensued in the streets and in
the press, and the Congress advocated boycotting British products under the
banner of swadeshi. People showed unity by tying Rakhi on each other's
wrists and observing Arandhan (not cooking any food). During the partition
of Bengal new methods of struggle were adopted. These led to swadeshi and
boycott movements. The Congress-led boycott of British goods was so
successful that it unleashed anti-British forces to an extent unknown since
the Sepoy Rebellion. The British tried to mitigate the situation by
announcing a series of constitutional reforms in 1909 and by appointing a
few moderates to the imperial and provincial councils. In what the British
saw as an additional goodwill gesture, in 1911 King-Emperor George V
visited India for a durbar (a traditional court held for subjects to express
fidelity to their ruler), during which he announced the reversal of the
partition of Bengal and the transfer of the capital from Calcutta to a newly
planned city to be built immediately south of Delhi, which later became New
Delhi. However, ceremony of transfer on 23 December 1912 was marked by
the attempt to assassinate the then Viceroy, Lord Hardinge, in what came to
be known as the Delhi-Lahore conspiracy.
World War I
World War I began with an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and
goodwill towards the United Kingdom from within the mainstream political
leadership, contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt. India
contributed massively to the British war effort by providing men and
resources. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe,
Africa, and the Middle East, while both the Indian government and the
princes sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. However,
Bengal and Punjab remained hotbeds of anti colonial activities. Terrorism in
Bengal, closely linked with the unrests in Punjab, was significant enough to
nearly paralyse the regional administration. Also from the beginning of the
war, expatriate Indian population, notably from United States, Canada, and
Germany, headed by the Berlin Committee and the Ghadar Party, ttempted
to trigger insurrections in India on the lines of the 1857 uprising with Irish
Republican, German and Turkish help in a massive conspiracy that has since
come to be called the Hindu-German conspiracy. This conspiracy also
attempted to rally Afghanistan against British India. A number of failed
attempts were made at mutiny, of which the February mutiny plan and the
Singapore mutiny remains most notable. This movement was suppressed by
means of a massive international counter-intelligence operation that lasted
nearly ten years.
In the aftermath of the WW I, high casualty rates, soaring inflation
compounded by heavy taxation, a widespread influenza epidemic, and the
disruption of trade during the war escalated human suffering in India. The
Indian soldiers smuggled arms into India to overthrow the British rule. The
pre-war nationalist movement revived as moderate and extremist groups
within the Congress submerged their differences in order to stand as a
unified front. In 1916, the Congress succeeded in forging the Lucknow Pact,
a temporary alliance with the Muslim League over the issues of devolution
of political power and the future of Islam in the region. The British
themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in recognition of India's
support during the war and in response to renewed nationalist demands. In
August 1917, Edwin Montagu, the secretary of state for India, made the
historic announcement in Parliament that the British policy for India was
"increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and
the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the
progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part
of the British Empire." The means of achieving the proposed measure were
later enshrined in the Government of India Act 1919, which introduced the
principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which both elected
Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power. The act also
expanded the central and provincial legislatures and widened the franchise
considerably. Diarchy set in motion certain real changes at the provincial
level: a number of non-controversial or "transferred" portfolios, such as
agriculture, local government, health, education, and public works, were
handed over to Indians, while more sensitive matters such as finance,
taxation, and maintaining law and order were retained by the provincial
British administrators.
Arrival of Gandhi in India
Mahatma Gandhi had been a prominent leader of the anti-Apartheid
movement in South Africa, and had been a vocal opponent of basic
discrimination and abusive labour treatment as well as suppressive police
control such as the Rowlatt Acts. During these protests, Gandhi had
perfected the concept of Satyagraha, which had been inspired by the
philosophy of Baba Ram Singh (famous for leading the Kuka Movement in
the Punjab in 1872). The end of the protests in South Africa saw oppressive
legislation repealed and the release of political prisoners by General Jan
Smuts, head of the South African Government of the time. Gandhi, a
stranger to India and its politics after twenty years, had initially entered the
fray not with calls for a nation-state, but in support of the unified
commerce-oriented territory that the Congress Party had been asking for.
Gandhi believed that the industrial development and educational
development that the Europeans had brought with them were required to
alleviate many of India's problems. Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a veteran
Congressman and Indian leader, became Gandhi's mentor. Gandhi's ideas
and strategies of non-violent civil disobedience initially appeared impractical
to some Indians and Congressmen. In Gandhi's own words, "civil
disobedience is civil breach of unmoral statutory enactments." It had to be
carried out non-violently by withdrawing cooperation with the corrupt state.
Gandhi's ability to inspire millions of common people became clear when he
used satyagraha during the anti-Rowlatt Act protests in Punjab.
The Rowlatt Act and its Aftermath
The Rowlatt Act, also known as the Black Act, vested the Viceroy's
government with extraordinary powers to quell sedition by silencing the
press, detaining the political activists without trial, and arresting any
individuals suspected of sedition or treason without a warrant. In protest, a
nationwide cessation of work (hartal) was called, marking the beginning of
widespread, although not nationwide, popular discontent. The agitation
unleashed by the acts culminated on 13 April 1919, in the Jallianwala Bagh
massacre (also known as the Amritsar Massacre) in Amritsar, Punjab. The
British military commander, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer, blocked the
main entrance, and ordered his soldiers to fire into an unarmed and
unsuspecting crowd of some 5,000 men, women and children. They had
assembled at Jallianwala Bagh, a walled in courtyard in defiance of the ban.
A total of 1,651 rounds were fired, killing 379 people (as according to an
official British commission; Indian estimates ranged as high as 1,499) and
wounding 1,137 in the episode, which dispelled wartime hopes of home rule
and goodwill in a frenzy of post-war reaction.
The first Non-Cooperation Movement
The first Satyagraha movement urged the use of Khadi and Indian material
as alternatives to those shipped from Britain. It also urged people to boycott
British educational institutions and law courts; resign from government
employment; refuse to pay axes; and forsake British titles and honours.
Although this came too late to influence the framing of the new Government
of India Act of 1919, the movement enjoyed widespread popular support,
and the resulting unparalleled magnitude of disorder presented a serious
challenge to foreign rule. However, Gandhi called off the movement
following the Chauri Chaura incident, which saw the death of twenty-two
policemen at the hands of an angry mob. In 1920, the Congress was
reorganized and given a new constitution, whose goal was Swaraj
(independence). Membership in the party was opened to anyone prepared to
pay a oken fee, and a hierarchy of committees was established and made
responsible for discipline and control over a hitherto amorphous and diffuse
movement. The party was transformed from an elite organization to one of
mass national appeal and participation. Gandhi was imprisoned in 1922 for
six years, but was released after serving two. On his release from prison, he
set up the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad, on the banks of river Sabarmati,
established the newspaper Young India, and inaugurated a series of reforms
aimed at the socially disadvantaged within Hindu society – the rural poor,
and the untouchables.
This era saw the emergence of new generation of Indians from within the
Congress Party, including C. Rajagopalachari, Jawaharlal Nehru,
Vallabhbhai Patel, Subhash Chandra Bose and others- who would later on
come to form the prominent voices of the Indian independence movement,
whether keeping with Gandhian Values, or diverging from it. The Indian
political spectrum was further broadened in the mid-1920s by the emergence
of both moderate and militant parties, such as the Swaraj Party, Hindu
Mahasabha, Communist Party of India and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak
Sangh. Regional political organizations also continued to represent the
interests of non-Brahmins in Madras, Mahars in Maharashtra, and Sikhs in
Punjab. However, brahmin like Mahakavi Subramanya Bharathi,
Vanchinathan and Neelakanda Brahmachari played a major role from Tamil
Nadu in both freedom struggle and fighting for equality among all castes and
communities.
Purna Swaraj
Following the rejection of the recommendations of the Simon Commission
by Indians, an all-party conference was held at ombay in May 1928. This
was meant to instil a sense of resistance among people. The conference
appointed a drafting ommittee under Motilal Nehru to draw up a
constitution for India. The Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress
asked the British government to accord dominion status to India by
December 1929, or a countrywide civil disobedience movement would be
launched. By 1929, however, in the midst of rising political discontent and
increasingly violent regional movements, the call for complete independence
from Britain began to find increasing grounds within the Congress
leadership. Under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru at its historic Lahore
session in December 1929, The Indian National Congress adopted a
resolution calling for complete independence from the British. It authorised
the Working Committee to launch a civil isobedience movement
throughout the country. It was decided that 26 January 1930 should be
observed all over India as the Purna Swaraj (complete independence) Day.
Many Indian political parties and Indian revolutionaries of a wide spectrum
united to observe the day with honour and pride.
Salt March and Civil Disobedience
Gandhi emerged from his long seclusion by undertaking his most famous
campaign, a march of about 400 kilometres from his commune in
Ahmedabad to Dandi, on the coast of Gujarat between 12 March and 6 April
1930. The march is usually known as the Dandi March or the Salt
Satyagraha. At Dandi, in protest against British taxes on salt, he and
thousands of followers broke the law by making their own salt from
seawater.
In April 1930 there were violent police-crowd clashes in Calcutta.
Approximately over 100,000 people were imprisoned in the course of the
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-31), while in Peshawar unarmed
demonstrators were fired upon in the Qissa Khwani Bazaar massacre. The
latter event catapulted the then newly formed Khudai Khidmatgar movement
(founder Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, the Frontier Gandhi) onto the National
scene. While Gandhi was in jail, the first Round Table Conference was held
in London in November 1930, without representation from the Indian
National Congress. The ban upon the Congress was removed because of
economic hardships caused by the satyagraha. Gandhi, along with other
members of the Congress Working Committee, was released from prison in
January 1931.
In March 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed, and the government
agreed to set all political prisoners free (Although, some of the key
revolutionaries were not set free and the death sentence for Bhagat Singh
and his two comrades was not taken back, which further intensified the
agitation against Congress not only outside it but within the Congress it self).
In return, Gandhi agreed to discontinue the civil disobedience movement and
participate as the sole representative of the Congress in the second Round
Table Conference, which was held in London in September 1931. However,
the conference ended in failure in December 1931. Gandhi returned to India
and decided to resume the civil disobedience movement in January 1932.
For the next few years, the Congress and the government were locked in
conflict and negotiations until what became the Government of India Act of
1935 could be hammered out. By then, the rift between the Congress and the
Muslim League had become unbridgeable as each pointed the finger at the
other acrimoniously. The Muslim League disputed the claim of the
Congress to represent all people of India, while the Congress disputed the
Muslim League's claim to voice the aspirations of all Muslims.
Elections and the Lahore Resolution
The Government of India Act 1935, the voluminous and final constitutional
effort at governing British India, articulated three major goals: establishing a
loose federal structure, achieving provincial autonomy, and safeguarding
minority interests through separate electorates. The federal provisions,
intended to unite princely states and British India at the centre, were not
implemented because of ambiguities in safeguarding the existing privileges
of princes. In February 1937, however, provincial autonomy became a
reality when elections were held; the Congress emerged as the dominant
party with a clear majority in five provinces and held an upper hand in two,
while the Muslim League performed poorly. In 1939, the Viceroy Linlithgow
declared India's entrance into World War II without consulting provincial
governments. In protest, the Congress asked all of its elected representatives
to resign from the government. Jinnah, the president of the Muslim League,
persuaded participants at the annual
Muslim League session at Lahore in 1940 to adopt what later came to be
known as the Lahore Resolution, demanding the division of India into two
separate sovereign states, one Muslim, the other Hindu; sometimes referred
to as Two Nation Theory. Although the idea of Pakistan had been introduced
as early as 1930, very few had responded to it. However, the volatile
political climate and hostilities between the Hindus and Muslims
transformed the idea of Pakistan into a stronger demand.
Revolutionary Activities
Apart from a few stray incidents, the armed rebellion against the British
rulers was not organized before the beginning of the 20th century.
Particularly notable movements arose in Bengal, especially around the
Partition of Bengal in 1905, and in Punjab. In the former case, it was the
educated, intelligent and dedicated youth of the urban Middle Class
Bhadralok community that came to form the "Classic" Indian revolutionary,
while the latter had an immense support base in the rural and Military
society of the Punjab. Organisations like Jugantar and Anushilan Samiti had
emerged in the 1900s. The revolutionary philosophies and movement made
their presence felt during the 1905 Partition of Bengal. Arguably, the initial
steps to organize the revolutionaries were taken by Aurobindo Ghosh, his
brother Barin Ghosh, Bhupendranath Datta etc. when they formed the
Jugantar party in April 1906. Jugantar was created as an inner circle of the
Anushilan Samiti, which was already present in Bengal mainly as a
revolutionary society in the guise of a fitness club. The Anushilan Samiti,
and Jugantar opened several branches throughout Bengal and other parts of
India and recruited young men and women to participate in the revolutionary
activities. Several murders and looting were done, with many revolutionaries
being captured and imprisoned. The Jugantar party leaders like Barin Ghosh
and Bagha Jatin initiated making of explosives. Amongst a number of
notable events of political terrorism were the Alipore bomb case, the
Muzaffarpur killing tried several activists and many were sentenced to
deportation for life, while Khudiram Bose was hanged. The founding of the
India House and the The Indian Sociologist under Shyamji Krishna Varma in
London in 1909 took the radical movement to Britain itself. On 1 July 1909,
Madan Lal Dhingra, an Indian student closely identified with India House in
London shot dead William Hutt Curzon Wylie, a British M.P. in London.
1912 saw the Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy planned under Rash Behari Bose, an
erstwhile Jugantar member, to assassinate the then Viceroy of India Charles
Hardinge. The conspiracy culminated in an attempt to Bomb the Viceregal
procession on 23 December
1912, on the occasion of transferring the Imperial Capital from Calcutta to
Delhi.
During the First World War, the revolutionaries planned to import arms and
ammunitions from Germany and stage an armed revolution against the
British. The Ghadar Party operated from abroad and cooperated with the
revolutionaries in India. This party was instrumental in helping
revolutionaries inside India to catch hold of foreign arms. After the First
World War, the revolutionary activities began to slowly wane as it suffered
major setbacks due to the arrest of prominent leaders. In the 1920s, some
revolutionary activists began to reorganize. Hindustan Socialist Republican
Association was formed under the leadership of Chandrasekhar Azad.
Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb inside the Central
Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929 protesting against the passage of them
Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill. Following the trial (Central
Assembly Bomb Case), Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in
1931. Allama Mashriqi founded Khaksar Tehreek in order to direct,
particularly the Muslims towards the independence movement. Surya Sen,
along with other activists, raided the Chittagong armoury on 18 April 1930
to capture arms and ammunition and to destroy government communication
system to establish a local governance. Pritilata Waddedar led an attack on a
European club in Chittagong in 1932, while Bina Das attempted to
assassinate Stanley Jackson, the Governor of Bengal inside the convocation
hall of Calcutta University. Following the Chittagong armoury raid case,
Surya Sen was hanged and several others were deported for life to the
Cellular Jail in Andaman. The Bengal Volunteers started operating in 1928.
On 8 December 1930, the Benoy-Badal-Dinesh trio of the party entered the
secretariat Writers' Building in Kolkata and murdered Col. N. S. Simpson,
the Inspector General of Prisons.
On 13 March 1940, Udham Singh shot Michael O'Dwyer, generally held
responsible for the Amritsar Massacre, in London. However, as the political
scenario changed in the late 1930s – with the mainstream leaders
considering several options offered by the British and with religious politics
coming into play – revolutionary activities gradually declined. Many past
revolutionaries joined mainstream politics by joining Congress and other
parties, especially communist ones, while many of the activists were kept
under hold in different jails across the country.
The Climax: War, Quit India, INA and Post-war Revolts
Indians throughout the country were divided over World War II, as
Linlithgow, without consulting the Indian representatives had unilaterally
declared India a belligerent on the side of the allies. In opposition to
Linlithgow's action, the entire Congress leadership resigned from the local
government councils. However, many wanted to support the British war
effort, and indeed the British Indian Army was one of the largest volunteer
forces during the war. Especially during the Battle of Britain, Gandhi
resisted calls for massive civil disobedience movements that came from
within as well as outside his party, stating he did not seek India's freedom
out of the ashes of a destroyed Britain. However, like the changing fortunes
of the war itself, the movement for freedom saw the rise of two movements
that formed the climax of the 100-year struggle for independence.
The first of these, the Azad Hind movement led by Netaji Subhash Chandra
Bose, saw its inception early in the war and sought help from the Axis
Powers. The second saw its inception in August 1942 led by Gandhi and
began following failure of the Cripps' mission to reach a consensus with the
Indian political leadership over the transfer of power after the war.
The Indian National Army
The arbitrary entry of India into the war was strongly opposed by Subhash
Chandra Bose, who had been elected President of the Congress twice, in
1937 and 1939. After lobbying against participation in the war, he resigned
from Congress in 1939 and started a new party, the All India Forward Bloc.
When war broke out, the Raj had put him under house arrest in Calcutta in
1940. However, at the time the war was at its bloodiest in Europe and Asia,
he escaped and made his way through Afghanistan to ermany to seek Axis
help to raise an army to fight the shackles of the Raj. Here, he raised with
Rommel's Indian POWs what came to be known as the Free India Legion.
This came to be the conceptualisation in embryonic form of Bose's dream of
raising a liberation Army to fight the Raj. However, the turn of tides in the
Battlefields of Europe saw Bose make his way ultimately to Japanese South
Asia where he formed what came to be known as the Azad Hind
Government as the Provisional Free Indian Government in exile, and
organized the Indian National Army with Indian POWs and Indian
expatriates at South-East Asia, with the help of the Japanese. Its aim was to
reach India as a fighting force that would build on public resentment to
inspire revolts among Indian soldiers to defeat the Raj. The INA was to see
action against the allies, including the British Indian Army, in the forests of
Arakan, Burma and Assam, laying siege on Imphal and Kohima with the
Japanese 15th Army. During the war, the Andaman and Nicobar islands were
captured by the Japanese and handed over by them to the INA; Bose
renamed them Shahid (Martyr) and Swaraj (Independence).
The INA would ultimately fail, owing to disrupted logistics, poor arms and
supplies from the Japanese, and lack of support and training. The supposed
death of Bose is seen as culmination of the entire Azad Hind Movement.
Following the surrender of Japan, the troops of the INA were brought to
India and a number of them charged with treason. However, Bose's
audacious actions and radical initiative had by this time captured the public
imagination and also turned the inclination of the native soldiers of the
British Indian Forces from one of loyalty to the Crown to support for the
soldiers that the Raj deemed as collaborators.
After the war, the stories of the Azad Hind Movement and its army that came
into public limelight during the trials of soldiers of the INA in 1945 were
seen as so inflammatory that, fearing mass revolts and uprisings – not just in
India, but across its empire – the British Government forbade the BBC from
broadcasting their story. Newspapers reported the summary
execution of INA soldiers held at Red Fort. During and after the trial,
mutinies broke out in the British Indian Armed forces, most notably in the
Royal Indian Navy, which found public support throughout India, from
Karachi to Bombay and from Vizag to Calcutta. Many historians have
argued that it was the INA and the mutinies it inspired among the British
Indian Armed forces that were the true driving force for India's
Independence.
Quit India
The Quit India Movement (Bharat Chhodo Andolan) or the August
Movement was a civil disobedience movement in India launched in August
1942 in response to Gandhi's call for immediate independence of India and
against sending Indians to the World War II. At the outbreak of war, the
Congress Party during the Wardha meeting of the working-committee in
September 1939, passed a resolution conditionally supporting the fight
against fascism, but were rebuffed when they asked for independence in
return. In March 1942, faced with an increasingly dissatisfied sub-continent,
only reluctantly participating in the war, and deteriorations in the war
situation in Europe and South East Asia, and with growing dissatisfactions
among Indian troops especially in Europe- and among the civilian
population in the sub-continent, the British government sent a delegation to
India under Stafford Cripps, in what came to be known as the Cripps'
Mission. The purpose of the mission was to negotiate with the Indian
National Congress a deal to obtain total co-operation during the war, in
return to get progressive devolution and distribution of power from the
crown and the Viceroy to elected Indian legislature. However, the talks failed,
having failed to address the key demand of a timeframe towards
selfgovernment, and of definition of the powers to be relinquished,
essentially
portraying an offer of limited dominion-status that was wholly unacceptable
to the Indian movement. To force the Raj to meet its demands and to obtain
definitive word on total independence, the Congress took the decision to
launch the Quit India Movement.
The aim of the movement was to bring the British Government to the
negotiating table by holding the Allied War Effort hostage. The call for
determined but passive resistance that signified the certitude that Gandhi
foresaw for the movement is best described by his call to Do or Die, issued
on 8 August at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay, since re-named August
Kranti Maidan (August Revolution Ground). However, almost the entire
Congress leadership, and not merely at the national level, was put into
confinement less than twenty-four hours after Gandhi's speech, and the
greater number of the Congress leaders were to spend the rest of the war in
jail. On August 8, 1942, the Quit India resolution was passed at the Bombay
session of the All India Congress Committee (AICC). The draft proposed
that if the British did not accede to the demands, a massive Civil
Disobedience would be launched. However, it was an extremely
controversial decision. At Gowalia Tank, Mumbai, Gandhi urged Indians to
follow a non-violent civil disobedience. Gandhi told the masses to act as an
independent nation and not to follow the orders of the British. The British,
already alarmed by the advance of the Japanese army to the India–Burma
border, responded the next day by imprisoning Gandhi at the Aga Khan
Palace in Pune. The Congress Party's Working Committee, or national
leadership was arrested all together and imprisoned at the Ahmednagar Fort.
They also banned the party altogether. Large-scale protests and
demonstrations were held all over the country. Workers remained absent en
masse and strikes were called. The movement also saw widespread acts of
sabotage, Indian under-ground organisation carried out bomb attacks on
allied supply convoys, government buildings were set on fire, electricity
lines were disconnected and transport and communication lines were severed.
The Congress had lesser success in rallying other political forces, including
the Muslim League under a single mast and movement. It did however,
obtain passive support from a substantial Muslim population at the peak of
the movement.The British swiftly responded by mass detentions. A total over
100,000 arrests were made nationwide, mass fines were levied, bombs were
airdropped and demonstrators were subjected to public flogging. The
movement soon became a leaderless act of defiance, with a number of acts
that deviated from Gandhi's principle of non-violence. In large parts of the
country, the local underground organisations took over the
movement.However, by 1943, Quit India had petered out.
RIN Mutiny
The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (the RIN Mutiny or the Bombay Mutiny)
encompasses a total strike and subsequent mutiny by the Indian sailors of the
Royal Indian Navy on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay
(Mumbai) harbour on 18 February 1946. From the initial flashpoint in
Bombay, the mutiny spread and found support through India, from Karachi
to Calcutta and ultimately came to involve 78 ships, 20 shore establishments
and 20,000 sailors. The RIN Mutiny started as a strike by ratings of the
Royal Indian Navy on the 18th February in protest against general
conditions. The immediate issues of the mutiny were conditions and food,
but there were more fundamental matters such as racist behaviour by British
officers of the Royal Navy personnel towards Indian sailors, and disciplinary
measures being taken against anyone demonstrating pro-nationalist
sympathies. The strike found immense support among the Indian population
already in grips with the stories of the Indian National Army. The actions of
the mutineers were supported by demonstrations, which included a one-day
general strike in Bombay. The strike spread to other cities, and was joined by
the Air Force and local police forces. Naval officers and men began calling
themselves the Indian National Navy and offered left handed salutes to
British officers. At some places, NCOs in the British Indian Army ignored
and defied orders from British superiors. In Madras and Pune, the British
garrisons had to face revolts within the ranks of the British Indian Army.
Widespread riotings took place from Karachi to Calcutta. Famously the ships
hoisted three flags tied together – those of the Congress, Muslim League,
and the Red Flag of the
Communist Party of India (CPI), signifying the unity and demarginalisation
of communal issues among the mutineers.
Independence and Partition
Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and
Muslims had also been developing over the years. The Muslims had always
been a minority, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made
them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as
they were to resist the Raj. In 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi came
onto the scene, calling for unity between the two groups in an astonishing
display of leadership that would eventually lead the country to independence.
The profound impact Gandhi had on India and his ability to gain
independence through a totally non-violent mass movement made him one
of the most remarkable leaders the world has ever known. He led by
example, wearing homespun clothes to weaken the British textile industry
and orchestrating a march to the sea, where demonstrators proceeded to
make their own salt in protest against the British monopoly. Indians gave
him the name Mahatma, or Great Soul. The British promised that they would
leave India by 1947. India gained independence in 1947, after being
partitioned into the Republic of India and Pakistan. Following the division,
rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in several parts of
India, including Punjab, Bengal and Delhi, leaving some 500,000 dead. Also,
this period saw one of the largest mass migrations ever recorded in modern
history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving
between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan.
Unit-2
Religions
India is a melting pot of cultures and religions. Of all the religions of the
world, four of them have their origins in India, namely, Hinduism, Sikhism,
Jainism and Buddhism. India has also been influenced by other world
religions. Islam was brought in by the Arab traders and Mughal rulers,
Christianity, by the European powers and St. Thomas and Zoroastrianism by
the Persians
Hinduism Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent.
Hinduism is often referred to as Sanātana Dharma a Sanskrit phrase meaning
"the eternal path" or "the eternal law" by its practitioners. Hinduism is the
world's oldest major religion that is still practised. Its earliest origins can be
traced to the ancient civilization. A conglomerate of diverse beliefs and
traditions, Hinduism has no single founder. It is the world's third largest
religion following Christianity and Islam, with approximately a billion
adherents, of whom about 905 million live in India and Nepal. Other
countries with large Hindu populations, include Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,
Pakistan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius, Fiji, Suriname, Guyana,
Trinidad and Tobago, United Kingdom and Canada. Hinduism contains a
vast body of scriptures. Divided as Śruti (revealed) and Smriti (remembered)
and developed over millennia, these scriptures expound on theology,
philosophy and mythology, and provide spiritual insights and guidance on
the practice of dharma (religious living). In the orthodox view, among such
texts, the Vedas and the Upanishads are the foremost in authority, importance
and antiquity. Other major scriptures include the Tantras, the sectarian
Agamas, the Purāṇas and the epics Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa. The
Bhagavad Gītā, a treatise excerpted from the Mahābhārata, is sometimes
called a summary of the spiritual teachingsof the Vedas.
Etymology
The Persian term Hindū is derived from Sindhu, Sanskrit for the Indus
River. The Rig Veda mentions the land of the Indo-Aryans as Sapta Sindhu
(the land of the seven rivers in northwestern South Asia, one of them being
the Indus). Beliefs Hinduism is an extremely diverse religion. Prominent
themes in Hindu beliefs include Dharma (ethics/duties), Samsāra (The
continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and
subsequent reaction), Moksha (liberation from samsara), and the various
Yogas (paths or practices). Concept of God Most Hindus believe that the
spirit or soul – the true "self" of every person, called the ātman – is eternal.
According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism it is ultimately
indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Brahman is described as "The
One Without a Second;" hence these schools are called "non-dualist." The
goal of life according to the Advaita school is to realize that one's ātman is
identical to Brahman, the supreme soul. The Upanishads state that whoever
becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self,
realizes their identity with Brahman and thereby reaches Moksha (liberation
or freedom).
Devas and Avatars
The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities, called Devas (or dev墨 in
feminine form; devat膩 used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), "the shining
ones", which may be translated into English as "gods" or "heavenly beings".
The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art,
architecture and through icons, and mythological stories about them are
related in the scriptures, particularly in the Indian epic poetry and Puranas.
Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of God to
Earth in corporeal form, in order to restore dharma in society and guide
humans to moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirth). Such an incarnation
is called an avatar. The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu, and include
Rama (protagonist in Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic
Mahabharata).
Karma and Samsara
Karma translates literally as action, work or deed and can be described as
the "moral law of cause and effect". According to the Upanishads, an
individual, known as the jiva-atma, develops samskaras (impressions) from
actions, whether physical or mental. This cycle of action, reaction, birth,
death, and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. Samsara provides
ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth to enjoy the
pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara
through moksha (liberation) is believed to ensure lasting happiness and
peace. It is thought that after several reincarnations, an atman eventually
seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).
Yoga
In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods
(yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. A practitioner of yoga
is called a yogi. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita, the
Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika and, as their philosophical and
historical basis, the Upanishads. Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual
Rāja Yoga
History
The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism date back to the late
Neolithic to the early Harappan period (5500–2600 BC). The beliefs and
practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500BC) are called the "historical
Vedic religion". Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas, the oldest of
which is the Rigveda, dated to 1700–1100BC. The Vedas center on worship
of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They
performed fire-sacrifices, called yajña and chanted Vedic mantras but did not
build temples or icons. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities
to Zoroastrianism and with other Indo-European religions. During the Epic
and Puranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems Ramayana and
Mahabharata were written roughly from 500–100BC, although these were
orally transmitted for centuries prior to this period. The epics contain
mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are
interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas
recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their
battles against demons. Hinduism underwent profound changes in large part
due to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja, Madhva, and
Chaitanya. Followers of the Bhakti movement moved away from the abstract
concept of Brahman, which the philosopher Adi Shankara consolidated a
few centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more
accessible avatars, especially Krishna and Rama. Hinduism has no central
doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any
particular denomination. However, academics categorize contemporary
Hinduism into four major denominations: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism
and Samarthism. The denominations differ primarily in the God worshipped
as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of that
God.
Vaishnavas worship Vishnu as the supreme God; Shaivites worship Shiva as
the supreme; Shaktas worship Shakti (power) personified through a female
divinity or Mother Goddess, Devi; while Samarthists believe in the essential
oneness of five deities There are movements that are not easily placed in any
of the above categories, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Arya Samaj,
which rejects image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It focuses on
the Vedas and the Vedic fire sacrifices (yajña). As in every religion, some
view their own denomination as superior to others. However, many Hindus
consider other denominations to be legitimate alternatives to their own.
Ashramas
Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āshramas (phases or
stages. The first part of one's life, Brahmacharya, the stage as a student, is
spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the
guidance of a Guru, building up the mind for spiritual knowledge. Grihastha
is the householder's stage, in which one marries and satisfies kāma and artha
in one's married and professional life respectively. The moral obligations of
a Hindu householder include supporting one's parents, children, guests and
holy figures. Vānaprastha, the retirement stage, is gradual detachment from
the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children,
spending more time in religious practices and embarking on holy
pilgrimages. Finally, in Sannyāsa, the stage of asceticism, one renounces all
worldly attachments to secludedly find the Divine through detachment from
worldly life and peacefully shed the body for Moksha. Hindu society has
the Brahmins: teachers and priests;
the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, and business
the Shudras: servants and labourers.
Buddhism
Buddhism is also known as Buddha Dharma or Dhamma, which means
roughly the "teachings of the Awakened One" in Sanskrit and Pali, languages
of ancient Buddhist texts. Buddhism began around the 5th century BC with
the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, commonly referred to as "the Buddha".
Some Teachings All traditional Buddhists agree that Shakyamuni or
Gautama Buddha was not the only Buddha: it is generally taught that there
have been many past Buddhas and that there will be future Buddhas too. If a
person achieves this awakening, he or she is called an arahant. Siddhartha
Gautama, the Buddha, is thus only one among other buddhas before or after
him. His teachings are oriented toward the attainment of this kind of
awakening, also called liberation, or Nirvana
Middle Way
An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way,
which was said to have been discovered by the Buddha prior to his
enlightenment (bodhi). The Middle Way or Middle Path has several
definitions:
1. It is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of
moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing
self-mortification.
2. It also refers to taking a middle ground between certain metaphysical
views, e.g. that things ultimately either exist or do not exist.
3. An explanation of the state of nirvana and perfect enlightenment where
all dualities fuse and cease to exist as separate entities.
Refuge in the Three Jewels
Traditionally, the first step in most forms of Buddhism requires taking
refuge, as the foundation of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's Three
The Buddha (i.e.,Awakened One). This is a title for those who attained
Awakening similar to the Buddha and helped others to attain it. The Buddha
could also be represented as the wisdom that understands Dharma, and in
this regard the Buddha represents the perfect wisdom that sees reality in its
The Dharma: The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma
also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its
consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). It can also (especially
in Mahayana Buddhism) connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality, which
is inseverable from the Buddh
The Sangha: This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when
it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific
kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and
bhikkhunis), or the community of people who have
attained at least the first stage of Awakening. According to some modern
Buddhists, it also consists of laymen and laywomen, the caretakers of the
monks, those who have accepted parts of the monastic code but who have
not been ordained as monks or nuns.
The Four Noble Truths According to the Macmillan Encyclopedia of
Buddhism (2004), these are
1. "the noble truth that is suffering"
2. "the noble truth that is the arising of suffering"
3. "the noble truth that is the end of suffering"
4. 4. "the noble truth that is the way leading to the end of suffering"
According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were among the topics of
the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment which was
given to the five ascetics with whom he had practised austerities. The Four
Noble Truths were not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in
the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that
was common at that time.
The Noble Eightfold Path
The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth
part of the Four Noble Truths.
Śīla is morality – abstaining from unwholesome deeds of body and speech.
Within the division of sila are three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
1. Right Speech – One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way
2. Right Actions – Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm
3. Right Livelihood – One's way of livelihood does not harm in any way to
oneself or others; directly or indirectly
Samadhi is developing mastery over one’s own mind. Within this division
are other three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
4. Right Effort/Exercise – One makes an effort to improve
5. Right Mindfulness/Awareness – Mental ability to see things for what they
are with clear consciousness
6. Right Concentration/Meditation – Being aware of the present reality
within oneself, without any craving or aversion.
Prajñā is the wisdom, which purifies the mind. Within this division fall two
more parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
7. Right Understanding – Understanding reality as it is, not just as it appears
to be.
8. Right Thoughts – Change in the pattern of thinking.
On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of
stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading
to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as
requiring simultaneous development.
History and Origins
Gautama, whose name according to later sources was Siddhartha, was born
in the city of Lumbini and was raised in Kapilavastu. The traditional story of
his life is as follows. Born a prince, his father, King Suddhodana, was said to
have been visited by a wise man shortly after Siddhartha was born. The wise
man said that Siddhartha would either become a great king (chakravartin) or
a holy man (Sadhu). Determined to make Siddhartha a king, the father tried
to shield his son from the unpleasant realities of daily life. Despite his
father's efforts, at the age of 29, he discovered the suffering of his people,
first through an encounter with an elderly man. On subsequent trips outside
the palace, he encountered various sufferings such as a diseased man, a
decaying corpse, and a monk or an ascetic. These are often termed 'The Four
Sights.'
Gautama was deeply depressed by these four sights and sought to overcome
old age, illness, and death by living the life of an ascetic. Gautama escaped
his palace, leaving behind this royal life to become a mendicant.
After abandoning asceticism and concentrating instead upon meditation and,
according to some sources, Anapanasati (awareness of breathing in and out),
Gautama is said to have discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way – a
path of moderation that lies mid-way between the extremes of
self-indulgence and self-mortification. He accepted a little milk and rice
pudding from a village girl and then, sitting under a pipal tree or Sacred fig,
also known as the Bodhi tree, in Bodh Gaya, he vowed never to arise until
he had found the Truth. His five companions, believing that he had
abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After 49 days
meditating, at the age of 35, he attained bodhi, also known as "Awakening"
or "Enlightenment". After his attainment of bodhi, he was known as Buddha
or Gautama Buddha and spent the rest of his life teaching his insights. He
died at the age of 80 in Kushinagara (Pali Kusinara) (India).
Buddhist Symbols
the Golden F
the Dharma wheel
Jainism
Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is a spiritual, religious and
philosophical tradition of Indian origin dating back at least as far as the 9th
century BC but believed by Jains to stretch back many centuries into the
very distant past. A Jain is a follower of Jinas, spiritual 'victors' (Jina is
Sanskrit for 'victor'), human beings who have rediscovered the dharma,
become fully liberated and taught the spiritual path for the benefit of beings.
Jains follow the teachings of 24 special Jinas who are known as Tirthankars
('ford-builders'). The 24th and most recent Tirthankar, Lord Mahavira, lived
in 6th century BC, contemporaneously with Gautama Buddha.
One of the main characteristics of Jain belief is the emphasis on the
immediate consequences of one's physical and mental behavior. Because
Jains believe that everything is in some sense alive with many living beings
possessing a soul, great care and awareness is required in going about one's
business in the world. Jainism is a religious tradition in which all life is
considered to be worthy of respect and Jain teaching emphasises this
equality of all life advocating the non-harming of even the smallest creatures.
Jainism encourages spiritual independence (in the sense of relying on and
cultivating one's own personal wisdom) and self-control, which is considered
vital for one's spiritual development. The goal, as with other Indian religions,
is moksha which in Jainism is realization of the soul's true nature, a
condition of omniscience (Kevala Jnana).
Jains have significantly influenced the religious, ethical, political and
economic spheres in India for over two millennia. By ancient and
contemporary usage, as well as dictionary definitions, a follower of Jain
Dharma, or Jainism, is called a Jain.
Jains have an ancient tradition of scholarship. The Jain community has the
highest degree of literacy among all the religious communities in India, and
the Jain libraries are India's oldest.
Main points in Jainism
Every living being has a soul
Every soul is potentially divine and has the innate qualities of infinite
knowledge, infinite perception, infinite power, and infinite
Therefore, regard every living being as yourself and harm no one. In
other words, have benevolence for all living beings
Every soul is born as a celestial, human, sub-human or hellish being
Every soul is the archit
When a soul becomes freed from karmas, it gets God-consciousness
(infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite power, and infinite bliss)
Right View, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct (triple gems of
Non-violence (Ahimsa) is the basis of right View, the condition of right
Limit your possessions and lead a pure life of usefulness to yourself and
others. Ownership of an object by itself is not possessiveness; however
attachment to an object is possessiveness.
Enjoy the company of the holy and better qualified, be merciful to those
who are afflicted and be tolerant towards those who are perversely
Four things are difficult to attain by a soul: human birth, knowledge of
the law, faith in it and the pursuit of the right path.
It is important not to waste human life in evil ways. Instead, we should
strive to rise up on the ladder of spiritual evolution.
History
Parshvanatha was the twenty-third Tirthankara in Jainism and is the earliest
Jain leader that can be reliably dated. According to scholars he probably
flourished in 9th Century b.c.
Kalinga (Modern Orissa) was home to many Jains in the past. Rishabh, the
first Tirthankar, was revered and worshipped in the ancient city Pithunda,
which was destroyed by Mahapadma Nanda when he conquered Kalinga and
brought the statue of Rishabhanatha to his capital in Magadh. Rishabhanatha
is revered as the 'Kalinga Jina'. Ashoka's invasion and his Buddhist policy
also subjugated Jains greatly in Kalinga. However, in the 1st century b.c.,
Emperor Kharvela conquered Magadha and brought Rishabhanatha's statue
back and installed it in Udaygiri, near his capital, Shishupalgarh. The
Khandagiri and Udaygiri caves near Bhubaneswar are the only stone
monuments dedicated to Jainism surviving in Orissa. Many of the earlier
buildings were made of wood, and were destroyed.
Geographical Spread and Influence Jainism has been a major cultural, philosophical, social and political force
since the dawn of civilization in Asia, and its ancient influence has been
noted in other religions, including Buddhism and Hinduism.
The Hindu influence on Jain rituals may be observed in certain Jain sects, for
instance, the very concept of Puja is Jain. The Vedic Religion prescribed
yajnas and havanas for pleasing god. Puja is a specifically Jain concept,
arising from the Tamil words, "pu" (flower) and "ja" (offering).
Jains live throughout India; Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat have the
largest Jain population among Indian states. Karnataka, Bundelkhand and
Madhya Pradesh have relatively large Jain populations. There is a large
following in Punjab, especially in Ludhiana and Patiala, and there were
many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the
Partition of 1947, after which many fled to India.
Digambara and Svetambara Traditions
It is generally believed that the Jain sangha divided into two major sects,
Digambar and Svetambar, about 200 years after Mahāvīra's nirvana. Some
historians believe there was no clear division until the 5th century. The best
available information indicates that the chief Jain monk, Acharya
Bhadrabahu, foresaw famine and led about 12,000 Digambar followers to
southern India. Twelve years later, they returned to find the Shvetambar sect
and in 453, the Valabhi council edited and compiled traditional Shvetambar
scriptures. Differences between the two sects are minor and relatively
obscure.
In Sanskrit, ambar refers to a covering like a garment. 'Dig', an older form of
'disha', refers to the cardinal directions. Digambar therefore means those
whose garment is only the four directions, or "sky-clad". 'Svet' means white
Digambar Jain monks do not wear clothes because they believe clothes
are like other possessions, increasing dependency and desire for material
things, and desire for anything ultimately leads to sorrow.
Svetambar Jain monks wear white seamless clothes for practical reasons
and believe there is nothing in Jain scripture that condemns wearing
clothes. Sadhvis (nuns) of both sects wear white. These differing views
arise from differen
Digambars believe that women cannot attain moksha in the same birth,
while Svetambars believe that women may attain liberation and that
Mallinath, a Tirthankar, was female. The difference centers on the fact
that Digambar ascetism requires nudity. As nudity is not "feasible" for
Digambars believe that Mahavir was not married, whereas Shvetambars
believe the princely Mahavir was married and had a daug
In the first Jain prayer, the Namokara Mantra, Sthanakavasis and
Digambars believe that only the first five lines are formally part of the
Namokara Mantra, whereas Svetambaras believe all nine form the
mantra. Other differences are minor and not based on major points of
doctrine.
Excavations at Mathura revealed many Jain statues from the Kushana
period. Tirthankaras, represented without clothes and monks, with cloth
wrapped around the left arm, are identified as 'ardhaphalaka' and mentioned
in some texts. The Yapaniya sect, believed to have originated from the
Ardhaphalaka, follows Digambara nudity, along with several Shvetambara
beliefs.
Svetambaras are further divided into sub-sects, such as Sthanakavasi,
Terapanthi and Deravasi. Some are murtipujak ( revering statues) while
non-murtipujak Jains refuse statues or images. Most simply call themselves
Jains and follow general traditions rather than specific sectarian practices. In
1974, a committee with representatives from every sect compiled a new text
called the Samana Suttam
Those who have rediscovered the dharma are called in Jainism as
Tirthankara. The literal meaning of Tirthankar is 'ford-builder'. Jains, like
Buddhists, compare the process of becoming a pure human being to crossing
a swift river - an endeavour requiring patience and care. A fordbuilder is
someone who has himself already crossed the river and is therefore able to
guide others. Such a person is called a 'victor' because he has achieved
liberation by his own efforts. A Jain is a follower of a Jina. It is worthy of
note that the Buddha Gautama was also sometimes referred to as Jina. The
purpose of Jain dharma is mental and physical purification by which the
negative effects of karma are undone. The end of this process is the
experience of liberation, which is accompanied by a great natural inner
peace.
A tirthankar is considered omniscient, a role model but not a God. There
have been 24 tirthankars. However, history records about only the last two
Tirthankars remain: Parshvanath and Mahavir (the 23rd and 24th).
Beliefs
Jains believe that every human is responsible for his/her actions and all
living beings have an eternal soul, jīva. Jains believe all souls are equal
because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining
Moksha. Tirthankaras are role models only because they have attained
Moksha. Jains insist that we live, think and act respectfully and honor the
spiritual nature of all life. Jains view God as the unchanging traits of the
pure soul of each living being, chiefly described as Infinite Knowledge,
Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness (Ananta Jnāna, Ananta Darshana,
Ananta Chāritra, and Ananta Sukha). Jains do not believe in an omnipotent
supreme being, creator or manager (kartā), but rather in an eternal universe
governed by natural laws.
Jains hold that this temporal world is full of miseries and sorrow and hence
in order to attain lasting bliss, one must transcend the cycle of transmigration.
Otherwise, one will remain eternally caught up in the neverending cycle of
transmigration. The only way to break out of this cycle is to practice
detachment through rational perception, rational knowledge and rational
conduct.
Compassion for all life, human and non-human, is central to Jainism. History
suggests that various strains of Hinduism became vegetarian due to strong
Jain influences. Jains run animal shelters all over India.
Jainism's stance on nonviolence goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse
food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Devout Jains do not eat, drink, or
travel after sunset and prefer to drink water that is first boiled and then
cooled to room temperature. Many Jains abstain from eating green
vegetables and root vegetables one day each week.
Customs and Practices
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa,
meaning non-violence. The word in the middle is "Ahimsa." The wheel
represents the dharmachakra, to halt the cycle of reincarnation through
relentless pursuit of truth.
Jain monks and nuns practise strict asceticism and strive to make their
current birth their last, thus ending their cycle of transmigration.
The strict Jain ethical code for both laity and monks/nuns is:
1. Ahimsa (Non-violence)
2. Satya (truth)
3. 'Achaurya Or Asteya' (non-stealing)
4. Brahmacharya (Non-Sexuality)
5. Aparigraha (Non-attachment to temporal possessions)
For laypersons, 'brahmacharya' means confining sexual experiences to
marriage. For monks/nuns, it means complete celibacy.
Jain Fasting
Fasting is common among Jains and a part of Jain festivals. Most Jains fast
at special times, during festivals, and on holy days. Paryushana is the most
prominent festival, lasting eight days in Svetambara Jain tradition and ten
days in Digambar Jain tradition during the monsoon.
Some Jains revere a special practice, where a person who is aware that they
may die soon, and feels that they have completed all of their duties, ceases to
eat or drink until death. This form of dying is called santhara. It is
considered to be extremely spiritual and creditable.
Jain Symbolism
The fylfot (swastika) is among the holiest of Jain symbols. Worshippers use
rice grains to create a fylfot around the temple altar
The holiest symbol is a simple swastika. Another important symbol
incorporates a wheel on the palm of a hand, symbolizing ahimsa. Other
Triratna and Shrivatsa symbols
Dharmacakra and Siddha-cha
Eight auspicious symbols (The Asta Mangalas)
1. Svastika – Signifies peace and well-being
2. Shrivatsa – A mark manifested on the centre of the Jina's chest, signifying
the Jina's pure soul.
3. Nandyavartya – Large svastika with nine corners
4. Vardhamanaka – A shallow earthen dish used for lamps. This symbol is
suggestive of increase of wealth, fame and merit due to the grace of the Jina.
5. Bhadrasana – Throne. It is considered auspicious because it is sanctified
by the feet of the blessed Jina
6. Kalasha – Pot filled with pure water signifying wisdom and completeness
7. Minayugala – A fish couple. It signifies Cupid's banners coming to
worship the Jina after defeating of the God of Love
8. Darpana – The mirror reflects one's true self because of its clarity.
Jain Contributions to Indian culture
While Jains represent less than 1% of the Indian population, their
contributions to culture and society in India are considerable. Jainism had a
major influence in developing a system of philosophy and ethics that had a
major impact on all aspects of Indian culture in all ages. The scholarly
research and evidences have shown that philosophical concepts that are
considered typically Indian – Karma, Ahimsa, Moksa, reincarnation and like
– either have their origins in the sramana school of thought or were
propagated and developed by the Jaina teachers. These concepts were later
assimilated in Hinduism and other religions, often in a different form and
sometimes having a different meaning.
Jains are both among the wealthiest of Indians and the most philanthropic.
They run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals and are some of the most
important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in
Gujarat. Jains have greatly influenced Gujarati cuisine. Gujarat is
predominantly vegetarian (as is Jainism; see Jain vegetarianism), and its
food has a mild aroma as onions and garlic are omitted.
Jains encourage their monks to do research and obtain higher education. Jain
monks and nuns, particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous
research monographs. This is unique among Indian religious groups and
parallels Christian clergy. The 2001 census states that Jains are India's most
literate community and that India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer are
preserved by Jain institutions.
Jain Literature
Jains have contributed to India's classical and popular literature. For example,
almost all early Kannada literature and Tamil literature was authored by
Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by
Jain scholars. The first autobiography in Hindi, [Ardha-Kathanaka] was
written by a Jain, Banarasidasa, an ardent follower of Acharya
Kundakunda who lived in Agra.
Several Tamil classics are written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values
Practically all the known texts in the Apabhramsha language are Jain
works.
Jain Monks and Nuns (Sadhu or Muni Maharaj) In India there are thousands
of Jain Monks, of which categories have been defined like Acharya,
Upadhyaya and Muni. Trainee ascetics are known as Ailaka and Ksullaka in
the Digambar tradition.
Sikhism
Sikhism, founded on the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus in
fifteenth century Northern India, is the fifth-largest religion in the world.
This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally
known as the Gurmat (literally the counsel of the gurus) or the Sikh Dharma.
Sikhism originated from the word Sikh, which in turn comes from the
Sanskrit root śiya meaning "disciple" or "learner", or śika meaning
"instruction."
The principal belief of Sikhism is faith in Vāhigurūe. The followers of
Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh gurus, or
enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the Gurū Granth
Sāhib, which includes selected works of many devotees from diverse
socio-economic and religious backgrounds. The text was decreed by Gobind
Singh, the tenth guru, as the final guru of the Khalsa Panth.
Philosophy and Teachings
The origins of Sikhism lie in the teachings of Nanak and his successors. His
life and teachings challenged many of the religious beliefs and practices of
his time. The essence of Sikh teaching is summed up by Nanak in these
words: "Realisation of Truth is higher than all else. Higher still is truthful
living". Sikhism believes in equality of all humans and rejects caste system.
The living of life while carrying on the responsibilities of worldly life, and
not withdrawing from it, is encouraged. For Sikhs, initiation into the Khalsa
strengthens their identity and also signifies the Sikh teaching of equality. The
Sikhs are required to follow the teachings of their Guru and serve him, with
weapons if necessary.
Nanak's teachings are founded not on a final destination of heaven or hell,
but on a spiritual union with God, which results in salvation. The chief
obstacles to the attainment of salvation are social conflicts and an attachment
to worldly pursuits, which commit men and women to an endless cycle of
birth – a concept known as reincarnation.
The Ten Gurus and Religious Authority The term guru comes from the
Sanskrit ‘gurū’, meaning teacher, guide or mentor. The traditions and
philosophy of Sikhism were established by ten specific gurus from 1507 to
1708. Each guru added to and reinforced the message taught by the previous,
resulting in the creation of the Sikh religion. Nanak was the first guru and
appointed a disciple as successor. Gobind Singh was the final guru in human
form.
Name Date of birth Guruship on Date of ascension
Age
1 Nanak Dev 15 April 1469 20 August 1507 22
September 1539 69
2 Angad Dev 31 March 1504 7 September 1539 29 March 1552
48
3 Amar Das 5 May 1479 26 March 1552 1 September
1574 95
4 Ram Das 24 Sept 1534 1 September 1574 1 September
1581 46
5 Arjan Dev 15 April 1563 1 September 1581 30 May 1606
43
6 Har Gobind 19 June 1595 25 May 1606 28 February
1644 48
7 Har Rai 16 January 1630 3 March 1644 6 October
1661 31
8 Har Krishan 7 July 1656 6 October 1661 30 March
1664 7
9 Tegh Bahadur 1 April 1621 20 March 1665 11 November
1675 54
10 Gobind Singh 22 Dec 1666 11 November 1675 7 October 1708
41
11 Guru Granth Sahib n/a 7 October 1708 Eternity n/a
After Nanak's passing, the most important phase in the development of
Sikhism came with the third successor, Amar Das. Nanak's teachings
emphasised the pursuit of salvation; Amar Das began building a cohesive
community of followers with initiatives such as sanctioning distinctive
ceremonies for birth, marriage and death. Amar Das also established the
manji (comparable to a diocese) system of clerical supervision.
History
Nanak (1469–1538), the founder of Sikhism, was born in the village called
Nankana Sahib, near Lahore (in what is present-day Pakistan). His father,
Mehta Kalu was a Patwari (an accountant of land revenue in the
government). Nanak's mother was Tripta Devi and he had one older sister,
Nanaki. His parents were Khatri Hindus of the Bedi clan. As a boy, Nanak
was fascinated by religion, and his desire to explore the mysteries of life
eventually led him to leave home.
Sikh tradition states that at the age of thirty, Nanak went missing and was
presumed to have drowned after going for one of his morning baths to a
local stream called the Kali Bein. Three days later he reappeared and would
give the same answer to any question posed to him: "There is no Hindu,
there is no Muslim" (in Punjabi, "nā kōi hindū nā kōi musalmān"). It was
from this moment that Nanak would begin to spread the teachings of what
was then the beginning of Sikhism. Nanak was married to Sulakhni. They
had two sons. The elder son, Sri Chand, was an ascetic, and he came to have
a considerable following of his own, known as the Udasis. The younger son,
Lakshmi Das, on the other hand, was totally immersed in worldly life.
Growth of the Sikh Community
In 1538, Nanak chose his disciple Lahinā, a Khatri of the Trehan clan, as a
successor to the guruship rather than either of his sons. Lahinā was named
Angad Dev and became the second guru of the Sikhs. Nanak conferred his
choice at the town of Kartarpur on the banks of the river Ravi, where Nanak
had finally settled down after his travels. Angad continued the work started
by Nanak and is widely credited for standardising the Gurmukhī script as
used in the sacred scripture of the Sikhs.
Amar Das, a Khatri of the Bhalla clan, became the third Sikh guru in 1552 at
the age of 73. Goindval became an important centre for Sikhism during the
guruship of Amar Das. He preached the principle of equality for women by
prohibiting purdah and sati. Amar Das also encouraged the practice of langar
and made all those who visited him attend langar before they could speak to
him. In 1567, Emperor Akbar sat with the ordinary and poor people of
Punjab to have langar. Amar Das also trained 146 apostles of which 52 were
women, to manage the rapid expansion of the religion. Before he died in
1574 aged 95, he appointed his son-in-law Jēhā, a Khatri of the Sodhi clan,
as the fourth Sikh guru.
Jēhā became Ram Das and vigorously undertook his duties as the new guru.
He is responsible for the establishment of the city of Ramdaspur later to be
named Amritsar, in 1581.
Arjan Dev – youngest son of the fourth guru – became the fifth guru of the
Sikhs. In addition to being responsible for building the Harimandir Sahib
(often called the Golden Temple), he prepared the Sikh sacred text known as
the Ādi Granth (literally the first book) and included the writings of the first
five gurus. In 1606, for refusing to make changes to the Granth and for
supporting an unsuccessful contender to the throne, he was tortured and
killed by the Mughal ruler, Jahangir.
Har Gobind, became the sixth guru of the Sikhs. He carried two swords –
one for spiritual and the other for temporal reasons (known as mīrī and pīrī
in Sikhism). Sikhs grew as an organised community and always had a
trained fighting force to defend their independence. In 1644, Har Rai became
guru followed by Har Krishan, the boy guru, in 1661. No hymns composed
by these three gurus are included in the Sikh holy book.
Tegh Bahadur became guru in 1665 and led the Sikhs until 1675. Tegh
Bahadur was executed by Aurangzeb for helping to protect Hindus, after a
delegation of Kashmiri Pandits came to him for help when the Emperor
condemned them to death for failing to convert to Islam. He was succeeded
by his son, Gobind Rai who was just nine years old at the time of his father's
death. Gobind Rai further militarised his followers, and was baptised by the
Pañj Piārē when he formed the Khalsa in 1699. From here on he was known
as Gobind Singh.
Shortly before his death, Gobind Singh ordered that the Gurū Granth Sāhib
(the Sikh Holy Scripture), would be the ultimate spiritual authority for the
Sikhs and temporal authority would be vested in the Khalsa Panth – The
Sikh Nation/Community.
The Sikh community's embrace of military and political organisation made it
a considerable regional force in medieval India and it continued to evolve
after the demise of the gurus. After the death of Banda Bahadur, a loose
confederation of Sikh warrior bands known as misls formed. With the
decline of the Mughal empire, a Sikh empire arose in the Punjab under
Maharaja Ranjit Singh, with its capital in Lahore and limits reaching the
Khyber Pass and the borders of China. The order, traditions and discipline
developed over centuries culminated at the time of Ranjit Singh to give rise
to the common religious and social identity that the term "Sikhism"
describes.
After the death of Ranjit Singh, the Sikh kingdom fell into disorder and was
eventually annexed by Britain after the hard fought Anglo-Sikh Wars. This
brought the Punjab under British rule. Sikhs formed the Shiromani
Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee and the Shiromani Akali Dal to preserve
the religious and political organisation of Sikhs. With the partition of India in
1947, thousands of Sikhs were killed in violence and millions were forced to
leave their ancestral homes in West Punjab. Sikhs faced initial opposition
from the Government in forming a linguistic state that other states in India
were afforded. The Akali Dal started a non-violence movement for Sikh and
Punjabi rights. Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale emerged as a leader of a faction
which did not agree with the Akali Dal's approach on the matter. In June
1984, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi ordered the Indian army to launch
Operation Blue Star to remove Bhindranwale and his armed followers from
the Golden Temple. Hundreds of militants, including Bhindranwale, and a
number of innocent civilians were killed during the army's successful
operation. In October, Indira Gandhi was assassinated by two of her Sikh
bodyguards. The assassination was followed by the 1984 Anti-Sikh riots
massacre and Hindu-Sikh conflicts in Punjab, as a reaction to the
assassination and Operation Blue Star.
Religions of Non-Indian Origin
Islam
Islam is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion originating with the teachings of
Muhammad, a 7th century Arab religious and political figure. The word
Islam means "submission", or the total surrender of oneself to God. An
adherent of Islam is known as a Muslim, meaning "one who submits (to
God)". There are between 1 billion to 1.8 billion Muslims, making Islam the
second-largest religion in the world after Christianity.
Almost all Muslims belong to one of the two major denominations, the
Sunni (85%) and Shi'a (15%). As a historical phenomenon, Islam originated
in Arabia in the early 7th century. Islamic texts depict Judaism and
Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham.
The Quran calls Jews and Christians "People of the Book" (ahl al-kitāb), and
distinguishes them from polytheists. Muslims believe that parts of the
previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels),
had become distorted – either in interpretation, in text, or both.
Muhammad
Muhammad (c. 570 – July 6, 632) was an Arab religious, political, and
military leader who founded the religion of Islam as a historical
phenomenon. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as
the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam,
Abraham and others. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last
and the greatest in a series of prophets – as the man closest to perfection, the
possessor of all virtues. For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40,
Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these
revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his
companions.
Mosques
A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its
Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of
buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in
Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger,
"collective" mosque (masjid jāmi`). Although the primary purpose of the
mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim
community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved
greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of
architectural elements such as minarets.
Family Life
The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the
obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as
financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their
wellbeing. The division of inheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states
that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside
for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of
inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of
succession. Marriage in Islam is a civil contract, which consists of an offer
and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two
witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as
stipulated in the contract. A man may marry up to four wives if he believes
he can treat them equally, while a woman may marry one man only. In most
Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which
the husband initiates by pronouncing the word "divorce". Scholars disagree
whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as
veiling and seclusion (purdah).
Denominations
Islam consists of a number of religious denominations that are essentially
similar in belief but which have significant theological and legal differences.
The primary division is between the Sunni and the Shi'a, with Sufism
generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a
distinct school. According to most sources, approximately 85% of the
world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a, with a small
minority who are members of other Islamic sects.
Others
The Kharijites are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only
surviving branch of the Kharijites is Ibadism.
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered on the life and teachings of
Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. As of the early 21st
century, it has between 1.5 billion and 2.1 billion adherents, representing
about a quarter of the world's population. It is the state religion of at least
sixteen countries.
Its followers, known as Christians, believe that Jesus is the Son of God and
the Messiah (or Christ) prophesied in the Old Testament, the part of their
scriptures they have in common with Judaism. The "good news" of Jesus'
ministry is called the Gospel.
The Trinity is often regarded as an essential doctrine of mainstream
Christianity. The most common understanding of the Holy Trinity, as
espoused in the Nicene Creed, is one God who exists in three Persons
–Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit – who are coequal, co-eternal, of the
same substance.
The disciples were first called Christians, meaning "followers of Christ".
Like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is classified as an Abrahamic religion.
Through missionary work and colonisation, Christianity spread firstly in the
Middle East, North Africa, Europe and parts of India and subsequently
throughout the entire world.
Beliefs Inspite of important differences of interpretation and opinion, Christians
share a set of beliefs that they hold as essential to their faith. Christians
categorise many forms of human behaviour as "sin"; this term is used to
describe any action that violates a rule set out in the Bible, and is also used
to refer to the state of having committed such a violation. In some Christian
sects, sin can refer to a state of mind rather than a specific action - any
thought, word, or act considered immoral, shameful, harmful, or alienating
might be termed "sinful".
Jesus Christ
The focus of a Christian's life is a firm belief in Jesus as the Son of God
and the "Messiah" or "Christ". The title "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew
word (m膩拧i谩魔) meaning anointed one. The Greek translation (Christos)
is the source of the English word "Christ".
Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed by God as ruler
and savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of
messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the
Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept. The
core Christian belief is that, through the death and resurrection of Jesus,
sinful humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation
and the promise of eternal life
Scriptures
Christianity regards the Bible, a collection of canonical books in two parts
(the Old Testament and the New Testament), as authoritative. It is believed
by Christians to have been written by human authors under the inspiration of
the Holy Spirit, and therefore for many it is held to be the inherrant Word of
God. Protestant Christians believe that the Bible contains all revealed truth
necessary for salvation.
Symbols
The cross, which is today one of the most widely recognised symbols in the
world, was used as a Christian symbol from the earliest times. Although the
cross was known to the early Christians, the crucifix, did not appear in use
until the fifth century.
Among the symbols employed by the primitive Christians, that of the fish
seems to have ranked first in importance. Other major Christian symbols
include the chi-rho monogram, the dove (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the
sacrificial lamb (symbolic of Christ's sacrifice), the vine (symbolising the
necessary connectedness of the Christian with Christ) and many others..
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings
ascribed to the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra, Zartosht). Mazdaism is the
religion that acknowledges the divine authority of Ahura Mazda, proclaimed
by Zoroaster.
While Zoroastrianism was once the dominant religion of much of Greater
Iran, the number of adherents has dwindled to not more than 200,000
Zoroastrians worldwide, with concentrations in India and Iran.
Terminology
The term Mazdaism is a typical 19th century construct, taking Mazda- from
the name Ahura Mazda and adding the suffix -ism to suggest a belief system.
In the English language, an adherent of the faith commonly refers to him- or
herself as a Zoroastrian or, less commonly, a Zarathustrian. An older, but still
widespread expression is Behdin, meaning "follower of Daena", for which
"Good Religion" is one translation. In the Zoroastrian liturgy, the term
Behdin is also used as a title for an individual who has been formally
inducted into the religion
Distinguishing Characteristics
The symbol of fire: The energy of the creator is represented in
Zoroastrianism by fire and the Sun, which are both enduring, radiant, pure
and life sustaining.
Religious Texts
The Avesta is the collection of the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. Although
the texts are very old, the compendium as we know it today is essentially the
result of a reaction that is thought to have occurred during the reign of
Shapur II (309–379 CE). However, some portions of the collection have
been lost since then, especially after the fall of the Sassanid empire in 651
CE, after which Zoroastrianism was supplanted by Islam. The oldest existing
copy of an Avestan language text dates to 1288 CE.
In the Indian Subcontinent
Following the fall of the Sassanid Empire in 651 many Zoroastrians
migrated. Among them were several groups who ventured to Gujarat on the
western shores of the Indian subcontinent, where they finally settled. The
descendants of those refugees are today known as the Parsis. The year of
arrival on the subcontinent cannot be precisely established and Parsi legend
and tradition assigns various dates to the event.
On the Indian subcontinent these Zoroastrians enjoyed tolerance and even
admiration from other religious communities. From the 19th century onward
the Parsis gained a reputation for their education and widespread influence
in all aspects of society, partly due to the divisive strategy of British
colonialism, which favored certain minorities. Parsis are generally more
affluent than other Indians and are stereotypically viewed as among the most
‘Anglicised’ and "Westernised" of the various minority groups. They have
also played an instrumental role in the economic development of the region
over many decades; several of the best-known business conglomerates of
India are run by Parsi-Zoroastrians, including the Tata, Godrej, and Wadia
families.
Unit 3
Fairs and Festivals of India and Indian Cuisine
India being a land of diversity, is an amalgamation of many states and each
state acts as a country of its own. Many religions, languages, cultures blend
seamlessly into each other. Each region, state and district has an identity
within an identity. Even though there are celebrations and festivals that are
celebrated nationally, there are a multitude of them which are restricted to
states, cultures and communities.
Fairs and Festivals of India and Indian Cuisine
No land celebrates life like India. With festivals like Holi, and fairs like
Pushkar, people drench themselves in the days and moments that glorify
harvests, seasons, triumphs, joys, sorrows, battles, Gods, and kings. This is
the land with 365 days of sound and 360 degrees of colour.
Amarnath Yatra
In the month of Shravan , thousands of pilgrims make an arduous trek up to
the Amarnath cave in the Kashmir Himalayas. They come to worship the
sacred ice lingam – a symbol of Lord Shiva, which is a natural phenomenon.
Buddha Purnima
Buddha Purnima, which falls on the full moon night in the month of
Vaisakha (either in April or May), commemorates the birth anniversary of
Lord Buddha, founder of Buddhism, one of the oldest religions in the world.
Notwithstanding the summer heat (temperatures routinely touch 45 degrees
C), pilgrims come from all over the world to Bodh Gaya, the place where the
Buddha attained enlightenment. The day is marked with prayer meets,
sermons on the life of Buddha, religious discourses, recitation of Buddhist
scriptures, group meditation, processions, worship of Buddha's statue and
symposia. The Mahabodhi Temple wears a festive look and is decorated with
colourful flags and flowers. Celebration of this festival has been recorded by
the Chinese scholar, Fa-Hien.
Chetichand
This is the main festival of the Sindhi community, and celebrates the birth
of their household deity. It is celebrated for forty days every year, generally
from the 16th of July to the 24th of August. During these days, Sindhis
perform the ritual of jyot jagana (lighting the lamp) on a big plate of bronze.
There is a procession on the 40th day. Fairs are held and lots of people are
invited for the celebrations.
Christmas
Christmas, the birth anniversary of Jesus Christ, is celebrated by Indian
Christians on December 25th, in much the same way as it is celebrated by
Christians worldwide. The day is ushered in with midnight mass, sounds of
carols fill the air, Christmas trees are brought home and decorated, gifts are
exchanged with friends and family. All the major Indian cities wear a festive
look. Shops and bazaars are decorated for the occasion and offer attractive
bargains. Christmas sets off a week of festivities, culminating with New Year
celebrations on Jan 1st .
Diwali
Diwali also known as Deepavali, perhaps the best-known Hindu festival,
marks the end of the festival season that opens with Ganesh Chaturthi.
Diwali is celebrated throughout India, as well as in the Indian diaspora
worldwide. It usually takes place eighteen days after Dussehra in
October/November. Diwali is called the "festival of lights", and the name
itself means an array of lamps. Illumination is characteristic of Diwali –
even the humblest of households lights small oil lamps or diyas, and places
them around the house. The diyas are symbolic of the welcome given to
Lord Rama, Prince of Ayodhya, on his return after 14 years of exile. Homes
are given a thorough cleaning and rangoli designs (intricate patterns made of
coloured powders or flowers on the floor) adorn the entrance. Everyone
feasts on mithai (traditional Indian sweets) and as night falls, children
celebrate with fireworks. South Indians start their day with an oil bath. In
South India and in the business community, Diwali is associated mainly with
the Lakshmi, Goddess of Wealth. In rural areas, it is celebrated mainly as a
harvest festival. Diwali has the same importance for Hindus as Christmas
does for Christians.
Dussehra
Dussehra, or Vijay Dashmi, is celebrated in September/October, to
commemorate the victory of Lord Rama, virtuous Prince of Ayodhya, over
ten-headed Ravana, the evil king of Sri Lanka who abducted Rama's wife,
Sita, and was subsequently vanquished in the battle. Dussehra thus
celebrates the victory of Good over Evil. The nine days preceding Dussehra
are known as Navaratri. During this period, the Mother Goddess (“Devi Ma”)
is worshipped in all her forms - as Saraswati (consort of Brahma, the creator,
and goddess of knowledge), Lakshmi (consort of Vishnu, the preserver, and
granter of wealth), and Parvati (consort of Shiva, the destroyer, and the most
powerful and complex of all the goddesses). People also worship the tools of
their trade. During the ten days of celebrations, Ramlilas (dance dramas
enacting the story of Lord Rama) take place all over North India . On the last
(tenth) day, effigies of Ravana, his brother Kumbhkaran, and his son,
Meghnath, are packed with firecrackers and burnt at sunset. In Mysore,
Dussehra is a grand occasion. The Mysore palace is illuminated for a month.
Caparisoned elephants lead a colourful procession through the streets of the
city. A torch light parade and many musical / dance events round off the
celebrations.
In Gujarat, Navaratri is a community affair. Young girls, resplendent in
traditional finery, dance away the night doing the traditional Garbha dance or
Dandiya Raas. In Bengal, Dussehra is celebrated as Pujo . Each locality
erects a pandal with beautifully decorated idols of Goddess Durga. In
Himachal Pradesh, Dussehra is celebrated with a week-long fair in the hill
town of Kullu. Deities are brought, in procession, from the little temples in
the hills to Kullu, to pay homage to the reigning deity, Raghunathji.
Easter
The Sunday marking the resurrection of Christ is celebrated by Christians
all across India. It is preceded by Lent, a 40-day period of fasting and prayer
from February to March that begins with Ash Wednesday and culminates in
Good Friday, the day of mourning when Jesus Christ was crucified. Easter
eggs and hot cross buns are some of the goodies distributed on Easter.
Eid-Milad-ul-Nabi
The birth anniversary of Prophet Mohammad is celebrated all over India
with the reading of the Quran and religious discourses in the mosques.
Cultural Festivals
Baisakhi
A rural festival celebrated in Punjab on 13th April, Baisakhi signifies the
beginning of a New Year for the Punjabi community. It was on this day in
1699 that the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, founded the Khalsa
Panth. Prayer meetings and kirtans (singing of devotional songs) are
organized in gurdwaras (Sikh temples) across the country. After the prayer,
karah prasad is served to the congregation. The function ends with langar,
the community lunch made and served by volunteers. In the rural areas,
Baisakhi signifies the harvest of the (main) wheat crop. Farmers give thanks
for Mother Nature's bounty and pray for a better crop next year.
Bihu
Actually a collection of 3 festivals, Bihu marks distinctive stages in the
cultivation of paddy, the principal crop of the state of Assam. Bohag Bihu is
also called Rongaali Bihu, the Festival of Merriment. True to its name, it
ushers in a period of enjoyment. The festival lasts for several days. The first
day, Goru Bihu, is reserved for cattle – cows' feet are washed, their horns
and hooves are rubbed with oil, and they are garlanded. The next day,
Manuh Bihu, sees homage paid to elders, relatives and friends, with a special
meal of chira, curds and sweets. The third day, Gosain Bihu, is dedicated to
religious services. Games, sports, special Bihu songs, dances, “Bihu
Kunwori” contests (dancing competitions) and fairs are all part of Bihu
celebrations
Bikaner
Festival This festival, held in January, in Bikaner, Rajasthan, is dedicated to
the ship of the desert – the camel. The festival starts with a magnificent
procession of beautifully decorated camels.
Chapchar Kut
"Kut" means festival in Mizo parlance, and the state of Mizoram celebrates
three of them: Chapchar Kut, Mim Kut and Pawl Kut. All are connected with
agricultural activities, and all are celebrated with feasts and dances.
Chennai Dance & Music Festival
Started back in 1927 to commemorate the anniversary of the Madras Music
Academy, this month-long festival is held from mid December to mid
January in the city of Chennai to celebrate (classical) Carnatic music and the
dance traditions of South India.
Desert Festival
This three-day extravaganza of colour, music and festivity is held on the
stretches of sand around the desert citadel of Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, in
February each year. The fun and frolic includes fire dancers swaying to
traditional tunes, a turban-tying competition and a Mr. Desert contest. The
grand finale is a trip to the sand dunes to watch folk dancers and musicians
perform under the stars. A camel ride is a must!
Dover Lane Music Conference
Kolkata's largest Indian classical musical event, the Dover Lane Music
Conference is held in January every year at Nazrul Mancha. It has been
taking place for the last 25 years.
Elephant Festival
Elephants are the centre of attraction at this festival held every Holi, in
Jaipur, Rajasthan. They stride majestically, parading their decorated trunks
and tusks. The festival begins with a procession of elephants, camels and
horses, painted and gaily decorated with glittering ornaments and
embroidered velvets. The elephants greet visitors, offer garlands to guests
and walk past a jury of experts and tourists, vying for the "Best Decorated
Elephant" shield. The animals are followed by lively folk dancers. Elephant
races and elephant polo matches are special attractions. The highlight of the
festivals is a hilarious tug of war between elephants and men. The Gaj
Shringar exhibition displays everything connected with the elephant –
ornaments, textiles (jhoo), howdahs and carriages, paintings, medicines and
food. Tourists are encouraged to join in the dances, mount the elephants and
play Holi.
Elephanta Festival
Nine nautical miles from the megapolis of Mumbai, just across the harbour,
is the Elephanta Island, home to the Elephanta Caves, that date back to the 2
nd and 6th century and is a UNESCO World Heritage site. This turns into a
huge open-air auditorium during the Elephanta Festival held every year. The
feast of dance and music, celebrated under the stars is surely not to be
missed.
Ellora Festival
This festival of dance and music is organised in the splendid surroundings
of the magnificent Ellora caves in Maharashtra, a UNESCO World Heritage
site.
Garden Festival
If you love flowers, you should be at this spectacular flower show, held in
the capital city, Delhi, each year. A humongus variety of flowers and exotic
plants are on display.
Goa Carnival
February heralds the carnival at Goa. For three days and nights, the
legendary king Momo takes over the state and the streets come alive with
colour. The Carnival is a truly Goan celebration. That means it has a
Portuguese flavour with continuous singing, dancing, lively music, lots to
eat, floats and processions. The week long festivity marks the period
February-March before the beginning of the austerities of Lent.
Guru Purnima
India pays homage to all teachers (gurus) on the full moon (purnima) day of
the month of Ashadh (July). Students visit their elders, teachers and guides,
and show their appreciation and respect with gifts of coconuts, clothes and
sweets.
Hampi Festival
The ruins of the magnificent city of Hampi, Karnataka, once the capital of
the Vijayanagar Empire (and now a UNESCO World Heritage site), come
alive during this extravaganza, held in the first week of November. Dance,
drama, music, fireworks, puppet shows and spectacular processions, all
combine to recreate the grandeur of a bygone era. The ruins of stone temples,
elephant stables, barracks and palaces offer a fascinating glimpse into the
lives of the people who once resided there.
Holi
The most lively of all Hindu festivals is observed on the day after full moon
in the month of Phagun (sometime in March) according to the Hindu Lunar
calendar. It heralds the end of the winter and the beginning of the spring.
North India, in particular, with people smearing brightly hued powders on
each other and squirting each other with coloured water from ‘pichkaris’.
Hoysala Mahotsava
The splendidly sculpted Hoysala temples of Belur and Halebid in
Karnataka, a UNESCO World Heritage site, are the venue for this dance
festival.
Independence Day
India's battle for freedom from British Rule was long and arduous, and every
year the country celebrates Independence Day (15th August) with an
outpouring of patriotism. The Prime Minister gives a speech from the
ramparts of the historic Red Fort in Delhi, flag hoisting ceremonies and
cultural programmes are held in all the state capitals, restaurants serve
special menus done in the colours of the flag (saffron, white, green and blue)
and little children sell flags to raise funds for charity.
Island Tourism Festival
This ten-day long festival of dance, drama and music showcases the arts and
crafts, flora and fauna and marine life of Port Blair, capital of the Andaman
& Nicobar Islands. Aqua sports, tele-games and parasailing are added
attractions.
Jahan-Khusrau
Only Sufi music is played at this music festival associated with Hazrat Amir
Khusrau, one of the great followers of Hazrat Nizamuddin. Performers from
all over the world perform. The festival takes place in Delhi in the last week
of February.
Kala Ghoda Arts Festival
The spotlight of this festival, held in the megapolis of Mumbai in January,
is on fine, folk and performing arts and ethnic cuisines. Events include
movies, concerts, competitions, exhibitions, food courts, street performances,
workshops.
Khajuraho Dance Festival
This is a week-long festival of classical dances, held in February/March
each year. All the classical dance traditions – Kathak, Bharathanatyam,
Odissi, Kuchipudi, Manipuri and Kathakali are on show, against the
spectacular backdrop of the magnificently lit temples, a UNESCO World
Heritage site. Modern Indian dance has also been added recently. The dances
are performed by some of the best exponents in the field, in an open-air
auditorium, usually in front of the Chitragupta Temple dedicated to Surya
(the Sun God) and the Vishwanatha Temple dedicated to Lord Shiva. They
bring alive the former religious capital of Chandela dynasty, one of the
powerful Rajput dynasties of Central India.
Konark Dance Festival
The floodlit Sun Temple of Konark in Orissa, a UNESCO World Heritage
site and one of India's greatest architectural sights often described as a poem
in stone, is the backdrop for this festival of classical dance held every
December. Eminent dancers present their interpretations of various classical
dance forms - Odissi, Bharat Natyam, Manipuri, Kathak and Chhau as the
sound of ghungroo bells, flute and pakhawaj fill the air. A marvellous crafts
mela and delectable cuisine add to the festive mood.
Lohri
Celebrated in Punjab on 13th January, Lohri celebrates the successful harvest
of the Rabi crops - an extremely important event in a predominantly
agricultural community. It is a community festival, and celebrated as one.
Children go from door to door to collect funds for community bonfires that
are lit up in the evening. The villagers gather around the bonfires and offer
sweets, puffed rice, til (sesame) and popcorn to the flames. The evening is
spent singing, dancing, and exchanging greetings with family and friends.
Lucknow Festival
Held in November-December, in Lucknow, the capital of the state of Uttar
Pradesh, this festival perfectly captures the undying elegance and splendours
of the ancient city formerly known as Awadh. The arts, crafts, and above all,
heavenly cuisine, are yours to savour for 10 memorable days, bringing alive
Lucknow's Nawabi past. Colourful processions, traditional dramas, Kathak
dances in the Lucknow gharana style, music concerts (sarangi / sitar recitals,
ghazals, qawalis, thumri), traditional village games (ekka races, kite flying
competitions, cock fights) all add to the festivities.
Makar Sankranti
This is celebrated in the month of Magh, on 14th January, when the sun
enters Makar Rashi (the zodiac sign of Capricorn, the goat), starting its
northward journey. Makar Sankranti is the day of the equinox, when day and
night are equally long. Hindus believe that those who die on this day attain
moksha, escaping from the cycle of birth and re-birth. In Maharashtra,
people eat til-gul, sweets made of til (sesame) and jaggery. In Gujarat,
thousands of colourful kites dot the skies as people vie with each
other to win community as well as National Kite Festival, the kite-flying
competitions. In Punjab, Makar Sankranti is celebrated as Lohri, and in
South India as Pongal. In West Bengal, the devout converge at the Ganga
Sagar Island in the Ganges delta, to take a holy dip at the confluence of the
sea and the river Ganga. A large fair is held for three days during this period.
Mamallapuram Dance Festival
Dancers and musicians from across the country participate in this festival
held at the UNESCO World Heritage site of Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, in
December-January, with Arjuna's Penance as its backdrop.
Natyanjali Festival
This 5 day festival, which takes place in the premises of the ancient Nataraja
temple of Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, pays special tribute to Lord Nataraja,
the dancing Shiva. It is held in Feb / March and begins on the auspicious
occasion of Mahashivratri. Leading dancers from all parts of India
congregate and dance in the temple as an offering to Nataraja, while
the carved pillars depicting Lord Nataraja in 108 poses of Bharatanatyam
look silently on. The festival promotes the message of "Unity in Diversity",
conveyed in the universal language of music and dance.
Nehru Cup Boat Races
Kerala's backwaters at Aranmula and Kottayam, are the picturesque setting
for the annual snake-boat races held on the second Saturday of August every
year. Tranquil Lake fronts are transformed into a sea of humanity, as over
100 oarsmen in each huge (over 100 feet long) snake boat vie for the
prestigious Nehru Trophy, named after independent India's first Prime
Minister. An estimated 2 lakh people watch, while the beating of drums and
cymbals, and songs add to the festive mood. Preparations for the event begin
several weeks in advance, and celebrations continue long after, for the
winning teams.
Pattadakkal Dance Festival
The delicately carved temples at the UNESCO World Heritage site of
Pattadakkal (the ancient capital of the Chalukyan kings) in the state of
Karnataka form the backdrop for this festival of dance, held to celebrate this
marvellous heritage.
Thrissur Pooram
"Pooram", the two-century-old festival held at the Vadakkunnathan temple in
Thrissur, Kerala, in Apr / May, is the most colourful of all the temple
festivals held in the state. All the temples in the state send their best
elephants to participate. Bedecked with golden headpieces coming down
over the trunk, the elephants go round the temple in a splendid procession to
the accompaniment of drums, pipes and trumpets. Carrying ceremonial
umbrellas and fanned by white whisks, 30 of these gentle giants amble out
majestically through the temple gate, to line up in 2 rows, facing each other,
in the open ground. An elephant in the center carries the image of Lord
Shiva. Each "team of elephants" has its own Panchavadyam (literally "five
instruments", i.e., conch, cymbals, trumpet and two kinds of drums)
orchestra. The umbrellas are unfurled to the beating of the drums and
cheering of the assembled crowds. Specially appointed judges award a prize
for the most spectacular display. The festival ends with a magnificient
display of fireworks that continues till dawn. Truly, you can call it a
mammoth spectacle!
Qutub Festival
Veterans of Indian classical music and folk dance hold audiences enthralled
at this festival held in Nov / Dec each year, in Delhi, against the historic
ruins of the Qutb Minar, a UNESCO World Heritage site. Kuchipudi, Odissi,
Manipuri, Ghazals, Qawalis, Sarangi, Sitar.
Raksha Bandhan
"Rakhi", as it is popularly called, is celebrated in the month of Shravan
(August) on the day of the full moon. Literally meaning "ties of protection",
it commemorates the bond between brothers and sisters. On the morning of
the festival, women of all ages put a tikka of vermilion on their brother's
foreheads, tie a ceremonial rakhi (this may be a colorful thread, a simple
bracelet, a decorative string or something really fancy, made of silver and
crystals) on their brothers' wrist(s), and offer them mithai (sweets) after an
aarti (prayer). The brothers, in return, promise to love and protect their
sisters, and gift them some money as a token of their affection. The practice
often extends more generally to people of the opposite sex who are not
biologically related. It has also been interpreted as a pledge by the strong to
protect the weak.
Republic Day
All of India celebrates 26th of January, the day the constitution of India
came into force. The evening before, the President addresses the nation.
Medals are conferred to recognise feats of exceptional bravery, on the part of
members of the armed forces in the field, as well as civilians, in everyday
life. Then comes the grand parade, from Rajghat to Vijaypath, at Delhi, with
regiments from the armed services marching in all their finery, followed by
folk dancers, school children who have won awards for bravery and floats
with tableux from different states. A foreign Head of State is invited to be the
Chief Guest at this impressive display of India's finest. The parade ends with
a fabulous flypast. The "Beating the Retreat" ceremony held at sunset the
next day, at Vijay Chowk, marks the end of celebrations.
Sharad Purnima
Is a harvest festival when Laxmi, the Goddess of prosperity, visits all homes
to bring fortune and good luck to all. Kojagiri, the special night, is celebrated
with ice-cold, saffron-flavoured sweet milk, shared in the cool moonlight.
The newly harvested rice is offered to the gods and lamps are lit before the
full moon in November.
Taj Mahotsav
This ten day event, held at Agra, Uttar Pradesh, the city of the Taj, in
February, is a celebration of the arts, crafts, culture and traditions of Uttar
Pradesh. Folk music, shayari (poetry), classical dance performances,
elephant and camel rides, games and a food festival are the highlights of the
festivites.
Vasant Panchami
The ceremonial welcome of spring, this festival is celebrated in North India
and West Bengal (especially in the University town of Shanti Niketan), in
the month of Magh (February). The mustard flowers are in bloom, and
people dress in yellows, sing, dance, make merry and worship Saraswati, the
Goddess of learning.
Cuisine of India
Cuisine of India is characterized by its sophisticated and subtle use of many
spices and herbs. Considered by some to be the world's most diverse cuisine,
each family of this cuisine is characterized by a wide assortment of dishes
and cooking techniques. Though a significant portion of Indian food is
vegetarian, many traditional Indian dishes also include chicken, goat, lamb,
fish, and other meats. Beef is not eaten by most Hindus. Food is an
important part of Indian culture, playing a role in everyday life as well as in
festivals. In many families, everyday meals are usually sit-down affairs
consisting of two to three main course dishes, varied accompaniments such
as chutneys and pickles, carbohydrate staples such as rice and roti (bread), as
well as desserts.
Diversity is a defining feature of India's geography, culture, and food. Indian
cuisine varies from region to region, reflecting the varied demographics of
the ethnically diverse subcontinent. Generally, Indian cuisine can be split
into four categories: North Indian, South Indian, East Indian, and West
Indian. Despite this diversity, some unifying threads emerge in the art of
Indian cuisine. Varied uses of spices are an integral part of food preparation,
and are used to enhance the flavor of a dish and create unique flavors and
aromas. Cuisine across India has also been influenced by various cultural
groups that entered India throughout history, from regions as diverse as West
Asia, Central Asia and Europe.
History and Influences
As a land that has experienced extensive immigration and intermingling
through many millennia, the subcontinent has benefited from numerous food
influences. The diverse climate in the region, ranging from deep tropical to
alpine, has also helped considerably broaden the set of ingredients readily
available to the many schools of cookery in India. In many cases, food has
become a marker of religious and social identity, with varying taboos and
preferences, which has also driven these groups to innovate extensively with
the food sources that are deemed acceptable. One strong influence over
Indian foods is the longstanding vegetarianism within sections of India's
Hindu and Jain communities. At 31%, slightly less than a third of Indians are
vegetarians. Around 7000 BCE, sesame, eggplant, and humped cattle had
been domesticated in the Indus Valley. By 3000 BC, turmeric, cardamom,
black pepper and mustard were harvested in India. Many recipes first
emerged during the initial Vedic period, when India was still heavily forested
and agriculture was complemented with game hunting and forest produce.
In Vedic times, a normal diet consisted of fruit, vegetables, meat, grain, dairy
products and honey. Over time, some segments of the population embraced
vegetarianism. This was facilitated by advent of Buddhism and a cooperative
climate where variety of fruits, vegetables, and grains could easily be grown
throughout the year. A food classification system that categorized any item
as saatvic, raajsic or taamsic developed in Ayurveda. Each was deemed to
have a powerful effect on the body and the mind. mLater, invasions from
Central Asia, Arabia, the Mughal empire, and Persia, and others had a deep
and fundamental effect on Indian cooking. Influence from traders such as the
Arab and Portuguese diversified subcontinental tastes and meals. As with
other cuisines, Indian cuisine has absorbed the new-world vegetables such as
tomato, chilli, and potato, as staples. These are actually relatively recent
additions. Islamic rule introduced rich gravies, pilafs and non-vegetarian fare
such as kebabs, resulting in Mughlai cuisine (Mughal in origin), as well as
such fruits as apricots, melons, peaches, and plums. The Mughals were great
patrons of cooking. Lavish dishes were prepared during the reigns of
Jahangir and Shah Jahan. The Nizams of Hyderabad state meanwhile
developed and perfected their own style of cooking with the most notable
dish being the Biryani, often considered by many connoisseurs to be the
finest of the main dishes in India.
During this period the Portuguese introduced foods from the New World
such as potatoes, tomatoes, squash, and chilies and cooking techniques like
baking. The staples of Indian cuisine are rice, atta (whole wheat flour), and a
variety of pulses, the most important of which are masoor (most often red
lentil), chana (bengal gram), toor (pigeon pea or yellow gram), urad (black
gram) and mung (green gram). Pulses may be used whole, dehusked, for
example dhuli moong or dhuli urad, or split. Pulses are used extensively in
the form of dal (split). Some of the pulses like chana and "Mung" are also
processed into flour (besan). Most Indian curries are fried in vegetable oil. In
North and West India, groundnut oil is traditionally been most popular for
frying, while in Eastern India, Mustard oil is more commonly used. In South
India, coconut oil and Gingelly Oil is common. In recent decades, sunflower
oil and soybean oil have gained popularity all over India. Hydrogenated
vegetable oil, known as Vanaspati ghee, is also a popular cooking medium
that replaces Desi ghee (clarified butter). The most frequently used spices in
Indian cuisine are chilli, pepper, black mustard seed (rai), cumin (jeera),
turmeric (haldi), fenugreek (methi), asafoetida (hing), ginger (adrak), and
garlic (lassan). Popular spice mixes are garam masala, which is usually a
powder of five or more dried spices, commonly comprised of cardamom,
cinnamon and clove; and Goda Masala, a popular spice mix in Maharashtra.
Some leaves are commonly used like tejpat (cassia leaf), coriander leaf,
fenugreek leaf and mint leaf. The common use of curry leaves is typical of
all Indian cuisine. In sweet dishes,cardamom, nutmeg, saffron, and rose petal
essence are used. The term "curry" is usually understood to mean "gravy" in
India, rather than "spices."
Beverages
Tea is a staple beverage throughout India;the finest varieties are grown in
Darjeeling and Assam. It is generally prepared as masala chai, tea with a
mixture of spices boiled in milk. The second popular beverage, coffee, is
largely served in South India. One of the finest varieties of Coffe, ‘Arabica’
is grown around Mysore, Karnataka, and is marketed under the trade name
"Mysore Nuggets". Other beverages include nimbu pani (lemonade), lassi,
badam dood (milk with nuts and cardamom) & Chaach (made from
curd/yogurt), sharbat and coconut water. India also has many indigenous
alcoholic beverages, including palm wine, fenny, bhang and Indian beer.
However, the practice of drinking a beverage with a meal, or wine and food
matching, is not traditional or common in India.
Etiquette
Several customs are associated with the manner of food consumption.
Traditionally, meals are eaten while seated either on the floor or on very low
stools or cushions. Food is most often eaten without cutlery, using instead
the fingers of the right hand. However, these traditional ways of dining are
losing popularity as modernization has modified these customs. Silverware
and Western-style seating arrangements are becoming the norm in urban
areas of India. Traditional serving styles vary from region to region in India.
A universal aspect of presentation is the thali, a large plate with samplings of
different regional dishes accompanied by raita, breads such as naan, puri, or
roti, and rice. In South India, a cleaned banana leaf is often placed under the
food as decoration.
The different aspects of Indian Cuisine:
Indian Cuisine is becoming popular due to its exotic flavors and healthful
preparations. The repertoire of Indian Cuisine is vast and the following are
interesting aspects of the cuisine. Cooking according to tastes: In India, there
really aren't actual written
recipes, so the person cooking is encouraged to orchestrate a dish by using
fresh, seasonal and local vegetables. Spices are used sparingly, and Indian
dishes are not always hot. Other than spices, herbs and other natural
seasonings offer the sweet, sour, salty, bitter, pungent and astringent senses.
Cultural Influences: Many Indians are vegetarians, having been influenced
by Buddha, Mahavir and King Ashoka. Our cuisine has been influenced by
the Aryans settlers, the Arab and Chinese traders and conquerors such as the
Persians, Mongolians, Turks, the British and the Portuguese. Ayurveda:
Created by India, this ancient science system is comprehensive of health,
diet and nutrition. India's cuisine has been shaped by this science. Ayurveda
is the common thread that runs through the various sub cultures/regions of
India. Otherwise, the cuisine can be vastly different from region to region.
Diversity: India is slightly smaller than Europe, but has a greater diversity of
people, language, climate, cultures and religion than almost any country in
the world. Consequently, Indian cuisine is also diverse.
Royal Kitchens of India: Under the patronage of the Kings, or rajahs of India,
the art of food was elevated to a high level of advancement and
professionalism. The royal chefs understood the finer points of food, the art
of presentation and created exquisite preparations.
North Indian Cuisine
A typical North Indian meal will consist of an assortment of items. They
include chappatis, paratha or pooris (unleavened flat breads), pilafs, dals,
mild curries made in ghee, thick, creamy dals, vegetables seasoned with
yogurt or pomegranate powder, greens such as spinach and mustard greens
cooked with paneer, North Indian pickles, fresh tomato, mint, cilantro
chutneys and yogurt raitas. Hot, sweet cardamom milk is very common
before going to bed. North Indian desserts and sweets are made of milk,
paneer, lentil flour and wheat flour combined with dried nuts and garnished
with a thin sheet of pure silver. Nimbu pani (lemonade), and lassi (iced
buttermilk) are popular drinks of the North. Tandoori cooking is a
NorthIndian specialty.
South Indian Cuisine
South Indian cuisine is rice based. Rice is combined with lentils to make
wonderful dosas, idlis, vadas and uttapams. These items are glorious and
delicious besides being nourishing and digestible (due to the fermenting
process). They are combined with sambhar (dal), rasam (tamarind dal), dry
and curried vegetable and pachadi (yogurt). Their rice preparations are also
masterpieces like biryani from Hyderabad, lemon rice and rice seasoned
with coconut peanuts, tamarind, chilies, curry leaves, urad dal and fenugreek
seeds. South Indian chutneys are made of tamarind, coconut, peanuts, dal,
fenugreek seeds, and cilantro. Meals are followed by coffee. South Indian
dals and curries are more soupy than North Indian dals and curries. South
Indian cuisine is also hotter.
Coconut milk straight from the nut is a common beverage in South India.
Coffee is very popular and Madras coffee is popular in South Indian
restaurants throughout the world. The South Indian food is a brilliant blend
of flavors, colors, seasoning, nutritional balance, fragrance, taste, and visual
appeal. Parimaral is the South Indian style of serving a traditional Meal.A
typical traditional meal in South India is served on a "vazhaillai", a
freshlycut plantain leaf. The sappad or food that is served on a banana leaf
(even the size of the leaf varies from one community to another) is displayed
like an identity card. One look and a guest will know the community, the
status, the exact wealth of the family, and from where they originate. The top
half of the leaf is reserved for accessories, the lower half for the rice, and in
some communities, the rice will be served only after the guest has been
seated. The lower right portion of the leaf may have a scoop of warm sweet,
milky rice payasam, which should be lapped up quickly. While the top left
includes a pinch of salt, a dash of pickle and a thimbleful of salad, or a
smidgen of chutney. In the middle of the leaf there may be an odd number of
fried items like small circles of chips, either banana, yam or
potato, hard round discs of spiced, ground dal known as VADA, thin papads,
or frilly wafers.The top right hand corner is reserved for the heavy artillery,
the curries, hot, sweet, or sour, and the dry items. If it is a vegetarian meal,
the vegetables are carefully chosen, between the country ones – gourds,
drumsticks, brinjals/eggplants – and the ‘English’ ones, which could be
carrot, cabbage, and cauliflower. If it is a non-vegetarian meal, in some cases,
a separate leaf is provided for the fried meats, chicken, fish, crab, and so on.
But again, the variations are presented carefully, dry next to a graviy one.
There may be a side attraction such as a puran poli, or sweetened dal stuffed
into a pancake, puris, sweet rice or any one of the famed rice preparations
such as pulisadam, or bisibele bath. After having worked through the
preliminaries, the long haul starts with the rice, which is generously doused
with ghee. Sambhar, the highly spiced dalbased dish containing whatever
appropriate vegetable there is in season, follows and this is succeeded by
rasam. After a final round of rice and curds, or buttermilk or both, a
traditional meal concludes with a small banana, a few betel leaves and nuts.
South Indian cuisine has the following culinary schools – Karnataka, Andhra,
Hyderabadi, Tamil, Chettinad, and Kerala.
East Indian Cuisine
The traditional society of Eastern India has always been heavily agrarian;
hunting, except by some local clans men, was ncommon. The rearing of
animals was also not popular. This is reflected in the cuisine, which relies on
staples like rice and đal, with little place for game or meat. Fish is the
dominant kind of meat, cultivated in ponds and fished with nets in the
freshwater
rivers of the Ganges delta. More than forty types of mostly freshwater fish
are common, including carp varieties like rui (rohu), katla, magur (catfish),
chingŗi (prawn or shrimp), as well as shuţki (small dried sea fish). Salt water
fish (not sea fish though) Ilish (hilsa ilisha) is very popular. Almost every
part of the fish (except fins and innards) is eaten; the head and other parts are
usually used to flavor curries.
Courses in a daily meal
The starting course is bitter. The bitter changes with the season but common
ones are kôrolla (bitter gourd) which is available nearly throughout the year,
or tender nim leaves in spring. Bitters are mostly deep fried in oil, or
steamed with cubed potatoes. Portions are usually very small - a spoonful or
so to be had with rice - and this course is considered to be both a
palatecleanser
and of great medicinal value. Another bittersweet preparation usually eaten
in summer, especially in West Bengal, is a soupy mixture of vegetables in a
ginger-mustard sauce, called shukto. This usually follows the dry bitters, but
sometimes replaces it, and is eaten in much bigger portions. This is followed
by shak (leafy vegetables) such as spinach, palong (chard), methi
(fenugreek), or amaranth. The shak can be steamed or cooked in oil with
other vegetables such as begun (eggplant). Steamed shak is sometimes
accompanied by a sharp paste of mustard and raw mango pulp called
Kasundi. The đal course is usually the most substantial course. It is eaten
with a generous portion of rice and a number of accompaniments. A
common accompaniment to đal is bhaja (fritters). Bhaja literally means
'deep-fried'; most vegetables are good candidates but begun (aubergines),
kumra (pumpkins), or alu (potatoes) are common. Machh bhaja (fried fish)
is also common, especially rui (rohu) and ilish (hilsa) fishes. Another
accompaniment is a vegetable preparation usually made of multiple
vegetables stewed slowly together without any added water. Labra,
chorchori, ghonto, or chanchra are all traditional cooking styles. Then
comes the meat course. The divide among the Bengalis of Bangladesh and
West Bengal is most evident when it comes to the meat course. Meat is
readily consumed in urban parts of Bangladesh and some consider it the
meal's main course. Khashi (mutton or goat meat) is traditionally the meat of
choice, especially West Bengal, but murgi (chicken) and đim (eggs) are also
commonly consumed. Although it is debatable as to whether chicken is more
popular than khashi in West Bengal today, the proliferation of poultry farms
and hatcheries makes chicken the cheaper alternative. Finally comes the
chutney course, which is typically tangy and sweet; the chutney is usually
made of mangoes, tomatoes, pineapple, tamarind, papaya, or just a
combination of fruits and dry fruits. Papoŗ (papadum), a type of wafer, thin
and flaky, is often made of đal or potatoes or shabu (tapioca) and is a usual
accompaniment to the chutneys.
West Indian Cuisine
West Indian Cuisine consists mainly food from Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa
Maharashtrian Cuisine: Maharashtrian (or Marathi) cuisine is the cuisine
of those people from the state of Maharashtra in India. Western Indian
cuisine covers a wide range from being extremely mild to very spicy dishes.
Wheat, rice, jowar, egetables, lentils and fruit form important components.
The staple dishes of the cuisine are based on bread and rice:
The bhaji is typically a vegetarian dish made from a vegetable, with some
masala essentially consisting of some combination of onion, garlic, ginger,
red chilli powder, green chillies and mustard. A particular variant of bhaji is
the rassa. Vegetarians prepare rassa or curry of potatoes and or caulifower
with tomatoes or fresh coconut kernel and plenty of water to produce a more
fluid behaviour than bhaji.
Non-vegetarian dishes mainly consist of chicken, mutton (lamb, sheep or
goat), fish and other sea food. The coastal regions of Konkan are more
famous for the fish and seafood dishes.
A typical lunch or dinner usually starts with bread, accompanied by oneor
more bhaji(s) and a salad along with some side (usually pickles). This is
usually followed by a second course of curry or rasa with rice. As with most
of Indian cuisine however, each region has its own quirks, preferences and
variations of the above general format