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Second Greek-Russian Symposium on Mechanics
Xanthi, Greece, June 28-July 1, 2015
Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic Precursors
Alberto Carpinteri
Politecnico di Torino, Department of Structural, Politecnico di Torino, Department of Structural,
Geotechnical and Building EngineeringGeotechnical and Building Engineering
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
G. Lacidogna, A. Manuello, O. G. Lacidogna, A. Manuello, O. BorlaBorla for their extensive for their extensive
collaboration collaboration
R. Sandrone for his contribution in geological issuesR. Sandrone for his contribution in geological issues
A. Chiodoni and S. A. Chiodoni and S. GuastellaGuastella for their contribution in microfor their contribution in micro--
chemical analysischemical analysis
L. L. NegriNegri for his contribution in Planetary Science for his contribution in Planetary Science
D. D. VenezianoVeneziano, A. , A. GoiGoi for their contribution in electrolysisfor their contribution in electrolysis
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WAVELENGTH vs FREQUENCY
EarthquakesEarthquakes HumansHumans InsectsInsects BacteriaBacteria ProteinsProteins
MetreMetre
HertzHertz
101033 101000 1010−−33 1010−−66 1010−−99
10101212101099101033101000 101066
v = λλλλ ×××× f ≈ 103 m s–1
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Energy vs Energy vs FrequencyFrequency
VibrationalVibrational Energy Energy ofof the the AtomicAtomic Lattice vs Lattice vs TeraHertzTeraHertz
E = ħ ×××× f
0.025 eV = (6.58 ××××10–16) eVs ×××× (38 ×××× 1012) Hz
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• Volodichev, N.N., Kuzhevskij, B.M., Nechaev, O. Yu., Panasyuk M.,
and Podorolsky M.I., “Lunar periodicity of the neutron radiation burst and seismic activity on the Earth”, Proc. of the 26th International Cosmic Ray Conference, Salt Lake City, 17-25 August,
1999.
NEUTRON EMISSION FROM EARTHQUAKES
• Sigaeva, E., Nechaev, O., Panasyuk, M., Bruns, A., Vladimirsky, B.
and Kuzmin Yu., “Thermal neutrons’ observations before the Sumatra earthquake”, Geophysical Research Abstracts, 8: 00435
(2006).
• Sobolev, G.A., Shestopalov, I.P., Kharin, E.P. “Implications of SolarFlares for the Seismic Activity of the Earth”. Izvestiya, Phys. Solid
Earth 34: 603-607 (1998).
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Neutron flux up to 100 cm–2 s–1 (103 times the background level) was
detected in correspondence to earthquakes with a magnitude of the 4th degree in Richter Scale (Volodichev N.N., et al. (1999)).
Seismic activity and neutron flux measurements in the period 1975-1987,
Kola Peninsula, Russia (Sobolev et al. 1998).
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During a preliminary experimental analysis During a preliminary experimental analysis four rock specimensfour rock specimens were used:were used:
•• two made of two made of CarraraCarrara marblemarble, specimens P1 and P2;, specimens P1 and P2;
•• two made of two made of Luserna graniteLuserna granite, specimens P3 and P4; , specimens P3 and P4;
•• all of them measuring all of them measuring 6x6x10 cm6x6x10 cm33..
P1 P2 P3 P4
NEUTRON EMISSION FROM ROCK SPECIMENS
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P1 P2 P1 P2
P3P4 P3P4
Specimens P1 and P2 in Specimens P1 and P2 in CarraraCarrara marblemarble following compression failure.following compression failure.
Specimens P3 and P4 in Specimens P3 and P4 in Luserna graniteLuserna granite following compression failure.following compression failure.
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Load vs. time and cps curve for P1 test specimen of Load vs. time and cps curve for P1 test specimen of CarraraCarrara marble.marble.
Brittle Fracture Experiment on Carrara Marble specimen
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Load vs. time and cps curve for P3 test specimen of granite.
Brittle Fracture Experiment on granite specimen
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Neutron emissions were measured on nine Green Neutron emissions were measured on nine Green LusernaLuserna
stone cylindrical specimens, of different size and shapestone cylindrical specimens, of different size and shape (D=28, (D=28,
56, 112 mm; 56, 112 mm; λλ= 0.5, 1.0, 2.0)= 0.5, 1.0, 2.0)
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
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Energy release and stable vs. unstable stressEnergy release and stable vs. unstable stress--strainstrain behaviourbehaviour
Axial Strain, ε A
xia
l S
tress,
σ
ductile
brittle
catastrophic
DUCTILE, BRITTLE AND CATASTROPHIC
BEHAVIOUR
stable
O
peak stress
Axial Strain, ε
Axia
l S
tre
ss,
σ
A
E D
B C
unstable
Post-peak regime
Released Energy
stable
O
peak stress
Axial Strain, ε
Axia
l S
tre
ss,
σ
A
E D
B C
unstable
Post-peak regime
Released Energy Emitted Energy
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Subsequent stages in the deformation history Subsequent stages in the deformation history
of a specimen in compressionof a specimen in compression(I) (II)(I) (II)
δ=
(I)(I) Carpinteri, A., Carpinteri, A., ““Cusp catastrophe interpretation of fracture instabilityCusp catastrophe interpretation of fracture instability””, , J. of Mechanics J. of Mechanics
and Physics of Solidsand Physics of Solids, 37, 567, 37, 567--582 (1989).582 (1989).
(II)(II) Carpinteri, A., Carpinteri, A., CorradoCorrado, M., , M., ““An extended (fractal) overlapping crack model to describe An extended (fractal) overlapping crack model to describe
crushing sizecrushing size--scale effects in compressionscale effects in compression””, , Eng. Failure AnalysisEng. Failure Analysis, 16, , 16, 25302530--2540 2540 (2009).(2009).
(a)(a) (b)(b) (c)(c)
cσ
l;E
l cσσσσεεεεδδδδ ========
cw; l
E++++====
σσσσδδδδ .w
c≥≥≥≥δδδδ
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Stress vs. displacement response
of a specimen in compression
Normal softening
Vertical drop
Catastrophic behaviour
u,cσu,cσ u,cσ
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Granite (Fe ∼∼∼∼ 1.5%)
NEUTRON EMISSION FROM CAVITATION IN
LIQUIDS AND FRACTURE IN SOLIDS
Basalt (Fe ∼∼∼∼ 15%)
Magnetite (Fe ∼∼∼∼ 75%)
Marble
LIQUIDS −−−− Cavitation
NEUTRON EMISSION
Iron chloride
SOLIDS −−−− Fracture
101 times the Background Level
2.5 times the Background Level
up to
102 times the Background Levelup to
103 times the Background Levelup to
up to
Background Level
MATERIAL
Steel 2.5 times the Background Levelup to
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The equivalent neutron dose, at the end of the test on basaltic The equivalent neutron dose, at the end of the test on basaltic rock, was rock, was
2.62 2.62 ±± 0.53 0.53 mSv/hmSv/h (Average Background Dose = 41.95 (Average Background Dose = 41.95 ±± 0.85 0.85 nSv/hnSv/h).).
Effective Neutron DoseEffective Neutron Dose
Average Background DoseAverage Background Dose≅≅≅≅≅≅≅≅5050
Cyclic Loading Experiments on Basaltic Rocks
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Map of the salinity level in the Mediterranean Sea expressed in Map of the salinity level in the Mediterranean Sea expressed in p.s.up.s.u. .
The Mediterranean basin is characterized by the highest sea saliThe Mediterranean basin is characterized by the highest sea salinity nity
level in the Worldlevel in the World..
Salinity level in the Mediterranean SeaSalinity level in the Mediterranean Sea
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Map of the major earthquakes in the last fifteen yearsMap of the major earthquakes in the last fifteen years
Nickel Depletion:Nickel Depletion: 1nClNaNi 3517
2311
5928 ++→
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MARS: THREE INDEPENDENT INVESTIGATIONS
MarsMars OdisseyOdissey, Nasa 2001, Nasa 2001MarsMars Global Global SurveyorSurveyor, Nasa 1996, Nasa 1996
1.Knapmeyer M. et al. “Working Models for Spatial Distribution and Level of Mars Seismicity” J. of Geophys. Res., 111, E11006,, (2006).
1.Hahn, B., McLennan, S., “Gamma-Ray Spectometer Elemental Abundance Correlation with Martian
Surface Age: Implication for Martian Crustal Evolution”. Lunar and Planet. Sci. 37,1904 (2006).
Elemental Abundance
Neutron Emissions
Seismicity
1.Mitrofanov, I. et al., “Maps of Subsurface Hydrogen from the High Energy Neutron Detector, Mars Odyssey”, Science, 297, 78-81, (2002).
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Faults
Neutrons (> 0.18 cps)
Faults vs Neutrons
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In-situ Monitoring at a Gypsum Mine in Murisengo (Alessandria, Italy)
The mine is structured in five levels and a pillar located at
about 100 meters below the ground level has been subjected to a multi-parameter monitoring since March 30, 2014.
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Multiparameter Monitoring System
Acoustic Emission(50 – 800 kHz)
Electromagnetic Emission(1 – 50 MHz)
Neutron Emission(0.025 eV – 14 MeV)
PZT TRANSDUCER TELESCOPIC
ANTENNANEUTRON
DETECTOR
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Monitored pillar
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PZT Transducers
Neutron detector
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Telescopic Antenna
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March, 8 2015
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
Mag
nit
ud
e
Earthquake
AE Rate
EME Rate
Neutron Fluence Rate
A
E R
ate
(A
E/h
ou
r)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
E
ME
Rate
(E
ME
/day)
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
Mag
nit
ud
e
Earthquake
AE Rate
EME Rate
Neutron Fluence Rate
A
E R
ate
(A
E/h
ou
r)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
E
ME
Rate
(E
ME
/day)
Neutron Emissions
Electromagnetic Emissions
Acoustic EmissionsEarthquake
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Neu
tro
n F
luen
ce R
ate
(10
−− −−3cm
−− −−2s
−− −−1)
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April, 1 2015
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
Mag
nit
ud
e
Earthquake
AE Rate
EME Rate
Neutron Fluence Rate
A
E R
ate
(A
E/h
ou
r)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
E
ME
Rate
(E
ME
/day)
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
28/0
2/20
1401
/03/
2014
02/0
3/20
1403
/03/
2014
04/0
3/20
1405
/03/
2014
06/0
3/20
1407
/03/
2014
08/0
3/20
1409
/03/
2014
10/0
3/20
1411
/03/
2014
12/0
3/20
1413
/03/
2014
14/0
3/20
14
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
Mag
nit
ud
e
Earthquake
AE Rate
EME Rate
Neutron Fluence Rate
A
E R
ate
(A
E/h
ou
r)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
E
ME
Rate
(E
ME
/day)
21/0
3/20
1522
/03/
2015
23/0
3/20
1524
/03/
2015
25/0
3/20
1526
/03/
2015
27/0
3/20
1528
/03/
2015
29/0
3/20
1530
/03/
2015
31/0
3/20
1501
/04/
2015
02/0
4/20
1503
/04/
2015
04/0
4/20
15
21/0
3/20
1522
/03/
2015
23/0
3/20
1524
/03/
2015
25/0
3/20
1526
/03/
2015
27/0
3/20
1528
/03/
2015
29/0
3/20
1530
/03/
2015
31/0
3/20
1501
/04/
2015
02/0
4/20
1503
/04/
2015
04/0
4/20
15
21/0
3/20
1522
/03/
2015
23/0
3/20
1524
/03/
2015
25/0
3/20
1526
/03/
2015
27/0
3/20
1528
/03/
2015
29/0
3/20
1530
/03/
2015
31/0
3/20
1501
/04/
2015
02/0
4/20
1503
/04/
2015
04/0
4/20
15
21/0
3/20
1522
/03/
2015
23/0
3/20
1524
/03/
2015
25/0
3/20
1526
/03/
2015
27/0
3/20
1528
/03/
2015
29/0
3/20
1530
/03/
2015
31/0
3/20
1501
/04/
2015
02/0
4/20
1503
/04/
2015
04/0
4/20
15
21/0
3/20
1522
/03/
2015
23/0
3/20
1524
/03/
2015
25/0
3/20
1526
/03/
2015
27/0
3/20
1528
/03/
2015
29/0
3/20
1530
/03/
2015
31/0
3/20
1501
/04/
2015
02/0
4/20
1503
/04/
2015
04/0
4/20
15
21/0
3/20
1522
/03/
2015
23/0
3/20
1524
/03/
2015
25/0
3/20
1526
/03/
2015
27/0
3/20
1528
/03/
2015
29/0
3/20
1530
/03/
2015
31/0
3/20
1501
/04/
2015
02/0
4/20
1503
/04/
2015
04/0
4/20
15
21/0
3/20
1522
/03/
2015
23/0
3/20
1524
/03/
2015
25/0
3/20
1526
/03/
2015
27/0
3/20
1528
/03/
2015
29/0
3/20
1530
/03/
2015
31/0
3/20
1501
/04/
2015
02/0
4/20
1503
/04/
2015
04/0
4/20
15
21/0
3/20
1522
/03/
2015
23/0
3/20
1524
/03/
2015
25/0
3/20
1526
/03/
2015
27/0
3/20
1528
/03/
2015
29/0
3/20
1530
/03/
2015
31/0
3/20
1501
/04/
2015
02/0
4/20
1503
/04/
2015
04/0
4/20
15
Neutron Emissions
Electromagnetic Emissions
Acoustic EmissionsEarthquake
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Neu
tro
n F
luen
ce R
ate
(10
−− −−3cm
−− −−2s
−− −−1)
![Page 29: Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic ......Xanthi, Greece, June 28-July 1, 2015 Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic Precursors Alberto Carpinteri](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022071218/604f4b6ef5b26205d6423432/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
-11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 40
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
No
rmalized
En
erg
y E
mis
sio
ns (
%)
Days
Acoustic Emissions
Electromagnetic Emissions
Neutron Emissions
-11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 40,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
4,5
5,0A
vera
ge E
art
hq
uake M
ag
nit
ud
e
Earthquake
Neutron Emissions
Electromagnetic Emissions
Acoustic EmissionsEarthquake
![Page 30: Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic ......Xanthi, Greece, June 28-July 1, 2015 Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic Precursors Alberto Carpinteri](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022071218/604f4b6ef5b26205d6423432/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
8.24
12.86
13.32
AFTERSHOCKS
Time after the previous earthquake
(days)
±±±± 1.946.95Neutron
Emissions
±±±± 0.382.40Electromagnetic
Emissions
±±±± 0.651.73Acoustic
Emissions
Standard Deviation
(days)
PRECURSORS
Time to the next earthquake
(days)
![Page 31: Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic ......Xanthi, Greece, June 28-July 1, 2015 Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic Precursors Alberto Carpinteri](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022071218/604f4b6ef5b26205d6423432/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1010
-5
10-4
10-3
10-2
10-1
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
1010
1011
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1010
-5
10-4
10-3
10-2
10-1
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
1010
1011
Average Neutron Background
(Volodichev et al. 2000)
Earthquake
Magnitude 4.7
Francia
(Local Magnitude
in Murisengo 2.3)
Earthquake
Magnitude 4.8
Garfagnana
(Local Magnitude
in Bettola 2.6)
Earthquake
Magnitude 4
Earthquake
Magnitude 9
~1010
cm−−−−2
s−−−−1
Neutron Fluence Rate vs. Magnitude
Neu
tro
n F
luen
ce R
ate
(cm
−− −−2s
−− −−1)
Neutron Fluence Rate vs. Magnitude
Neu
tro
n F
luen
ce R
ate
(cm
−− −−2s
−− −−1)
Local Magnitude
A value of about 1010 n cm–2 s–1 for seismic events of the 9th degree of the
Richter scale is extrapolated (Sumatra 2004, Chile 2010, Japan 2011).
For small earthquakes (M < 2.5) a plateau close to the neutron background
is observed. This could be due to the eigen-stress to which Earth’s Crust is continuously subjected.
![Page 32: Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic ......Xanthi, Greece, June 28-July 1, 2015 Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic Precursors Alberto Carpinteri](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022071218/604f4b6ef5b26205d6423432/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
� Integrated neutron flux from a 9th degree earthquake (total time of 15 minutes): 1013 cm–2
� Therapeutic dose: 1012 cm–2
� Lethal dose: 1015 cm–2
![Page 33: Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic ......Xanthi, Greece, June 28-July 1, 2015 Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic Precursors Alberto Carpinteri](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022071218/604f4b6ef5b26205d6423432/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Turin Shroud
![Page 34: Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic ......Xanthi, Greece, June 28-July 1, 2015 Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic Precursors Alberto Carpinteri](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022071218/604f4b6ef5b26205d6423432/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Neutron Radiography
![Page 35: Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic ......Xanthi, Greece, June 28-July 1, 2015 Acoustic, Electromagnetic, Neutron Emissions as Seismic Precursors Alberto Carpinteri](https://reader035.vdocuments.mx/reader035/viewer/2022071218/604f4b6ef5b26205d6423432/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Neutron imaging is substantially a photographic Neutron imaging is substantially a photographic
technique.technique. The most important reaction used in neutron imaging is:
MeV)(8.5 electrons conversiongammaGdnGd 15864
10
15764 ++++++++→→→→++++
The most important nuclear reaction induced by neutrons on nitrogen nuclei of the linen fibres is represented by:
that is liable of radiocarbon increase, imaging, and post-dating of organic materials (Phillips & Hedges, Nature 1989).
11
146
10
147 HCnN ++++→→→→++++