. . . a damp dreary place where all. . . a damp dreary place where allmanner of wild beasts dash about uncooked.manner of wild beasts dash about uncooked.
Anonymous, 19th CenturyAnonymous, 19th Century
Wilderness is . . .Wilderness is . . .
Jeff Marion, Unit LeaderJeff Marion, Unit LeaderVirginia Tech Field UnitVirginia Tech Field UnitPatuxent WL Res CenterPatuxent WL Res Center [email protected]@vt.edu
Managing Visitor Use ImpactsManaging Visitor Use Impacts
Presentation ObjectivesPresentation Objectives
1. Describe trail management strategies, including: Trail system assessments Trail design strategies Construct resistant trails Maintain trails to reduce impacts Manage visitors to reduce impacts
2. Describe campsite management strategies, including:
Select resistant sites Construct resistant sites Provide facilities that reduce impacts Maintain sites to contain impacts Manage visitors to reduce impacts
2. Review alternative camping management strategies.
If recreation If recreation visitationvisitationis permitted …is permitted …
. . . some degree of resource. . . some degree of resourceimpact is inevitable.impact is inevitable.
Prevent avoidable resource and social impacts
Minimize unavoidable impacts
Preserve the quality of resources and recreation experiences
The Wilderness The Wilderness ManagementManagementChallengeChallenge
Trail System AssessmentTrail System Assessment
Existing Inventory of Trails: Evaluate the suitability of what you have in light of trail system objectives.
Are all the trails in the inventory needed?
Do they follow the most resistant alignments, are relocations needed?
Are any new segments needed to fulfill administrative or recreation purposes?
Are the desired types of uses suitable and sustainable?
Trail Design StrategiesTrail Design Strategies
Select resistant alignments – most important factor (trail alignment relative to topography and trail grade)
Design in rolling grade dips
Construct resistant trails (apply the most sustainable construction practices)
Trail Alignment Angle to the Prevailing Slope
Resistant Resistant AlignmentsAlignments
Low Alignment angle
Direct-ascent or “fall-line” alignment
High Alignmentangle
Side-hill alignment
Non-Sidehill Trails Sidehill-Constructed Trails
Post-construction surface outsloped 3-5%
Original land surface
Post-construction surface
Original land surface
Berm develops over time
Trail Profiles with Different Topographic Trail Profiles with Different Topographic Positions and Trail Alignment AnglesPositions and Trail Alignment Angles
Trail Profiles
Upper Slope
Upper Slope
Mid-slope
Lower Slope
Trail GradeTrail Grade
Trail Grade
Remarks Drainage Spacing
0-2 Avoid – difficult to drain Not possible
3-6% Ideal for general uses 500 ft
7-10% OK in places if maintained 300 ft
11-15%OK for short segments if well-maintained or in rocky soils
100
>15% Avoid unless steps are constructed <50
Horse & Motorized Use Trails – Grades should not exceed 10% due to their higher potential for erosion. Gravel is also recommended unless soils are rocky.
0-22 23-45 46-68 69-90
Trail Slope Alignment Angle (degrees)
100
200
300
400
Est
imat
ed M
arg
inal
Mea
ns
Trail Grade
0-6%
7-15%
16-48%
Cross Sectional Area (in2)
Big South Fork
Some Research Results: Some Research Results: Grade vs. Alignment AngleGrade vs. Alignment Angle
Tread design
Construct Construct Resistant TrailsResistant Trails
Rolling Grade DipRolling Grade Dip
Rolling grade dips or “grade-reversal” features should be designed into ALL new trails. They can be added to existing trail alignments but require substantial work. Advantages:
Sustainable drainage w/no maintenance
More effective than water bars, drainage dips, or out-sloping over the long term
Rocks to Slow erosion
Gravel
Relocations vs. Maintenance Nightmare
Maintain Trails to Maintain Trails to Reduce ImpactsReduce Impacts
Steep grade and low alignment angle
Maintenance Features:Stream Crossing Impacts
Maintain Trails to Maintain Trails to Reduce ImpactsReduce Impacts
• Remove water from treads well before stream crossings
• Outsloped treads are better than water bars: sheet flow vs. concentrated flow
• Armor steeper embankments with rock or gravel
Tread Drainage
Maintain Trails to Maintain Trails to Reduce ImpactsReduce Impacts
Water bars
Outsloped tread
Manage Visitors to Reduce ImpactsManage Visitors to Reduce Impacts
Educate Visitors
Regulate Visitors
Visitor RegulationsVisitor Regulations
Regulate the Type,
Amount, &
Behavior of
Visitation
Visitor EducationVisitor EducationLeave No Trace: Travel & Camp on Durable SurfacesLeave No Trace: Travel & Camp on Durable Surfaces
Stay on formal trails when possible, walk single file in the
center of the tread. Don’t create new trails.
Campsite Design & Management Campsite Design & Management StrategiesStrategies
Select resistant sites Construct resistant sites Provide facilities that reduce impacts Maintain sites to contain impacts Manage visitors to reduce impacts
Select resistant sites Construct resistant sites Provide facilities that reduce impacts Maintain sites to contain impacts Manage visitors to reduce impacts
Select Resistant SitesSelect Resistant Sites
Organic litter
Rock
Sand/gravel
Grasses
Select Resistant SitesSelect Resistant Sites
Select campsites that resist expansion due to:
Topography
Dense Vegetation
Rockiness
Construct Resistant Sites Construct Resistant Sites
Create raised tent pads
Use site engineering to contain site expansion in high use problem areas:
Place fill in rocky terrain
Cut and fill work on slopes
Campsite Construction – Flat TerrainCampsite Construction – Flat Terrain
Campsite Signpost Ice-berg Rocks
Campsite Construction – Sloping TerrainCampsite Construction – Sloping Terrain
• Are these practices appropriate in Wilderness?
• Only in certain zones? • Are they the “minimum tool”
when other actions fail to resolve problems of site proliferation or expansion?
Provide Facilities ThatProvide Facilities ThatReduce ImpactsReduce Impacts
Campfire Rings
Toilets
Shelters
Maintain Sites ToMaintain Sites ToContain ImpactsContain Impacts
Improve Tent Pad Sites
Reinforce Eroding Spots
Restore Unnecessary Areas
Manage Visitors to Reduce ImpactsManage Visitors to Reduce Impacts
Promote Leave No Trace Practices Establish Regulations
Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor EthicsLeave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics
The Center partners with federal land agencies, outdoor product manufacturers, retailers, outfitters, user groups.
A non-profit organization whose mission is to promote and inspire responsible outdoor recreation through education, research and partnerships.
Bureau of Land Management
U.S. Fish &Wildlife Service
National ParkService
U.S. ForestService
Promote Promote Leave No Leave No TraceTrace Practices Practices
Avoid Campfires - Use Stoves
Use Durable Surfaces
Promote Promote Leave No Leave No TraceTrace Practices Practices
Use Established Sites in High-Use Areas Concentrate activities
within disturbed areasConcentrate activitieswithin disturbed areas
Use Pristine Sites in Remote Areas
Disperse activitiesDisperse activities Avoid permanent disturbanceAvoid permanent disturbance
Establish RegulationsEstablish Regulations
Prohibit Axes, Saws, or Campfires
Designate Campsites
Require Permits or Reservations
Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management Strategies
Area Closure to Camping
At-Large (Unregulated) Camping
Dispersed Camping
Established/Designated Site Camping (Containment)
Four Standard Strategies:
Rationale for Dispersal & Containment StrategiesRationale for Dispersal & Containment StrategiesUse/Impact Relationship
45 sites, eachw/1 night/yr
.
Dis
pers
al
Containmentb
45
1 campsite45 nights/yr
Close 2 campsites
Impact is minimized by closing two campsites and tripling use on the third.Impact increases on third site from “a” to “b”but aggregate impact is reduced from (3 x a) to (1 x b)..
.
15
a
3 campsiteseach w/15 nights/yr.
.Unregulated
Camping
Nights/Year (#)
To
tal
Ch
ang
e (%
)
ClosuresClosures
Cultural sites
Sensitive wildlifehabitats
R,T&E species
Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesAt-Large (Unregulated) Camping
Camping is unregulated: visitors may camp in any location they choose.
Advantages: Maximizes visitor freedom in site selection.
Disadvantages: Jeopardizes visitor solitude and resource protection at higher use levels.
At-Large (Unregulated) CampingAt-Large (Unregulated) Camping
Problems:Problems:
Poor site selectionPoor site selectionSocial - too close to other sitesSocial - too close to other sitesResource - fragile rather than resistantResource - fragile rather than resistantCampsite expansionCampsite expansionCampsite proliferationCampsite proliferation
Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesDispersed Camping
Visitors are instructed to camp on the most resistant surfaces available that show no obvious signs of previous camping use. Dispersal from popular areas may also be promoted to reduce problems with crowding or conflicts.
Point Dispersal Lineal Dispersal Total Dispersal
Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesDispersed Camping
Advantages: Provides greater visitor freedom in site selection and
promotes solitude. When successful, avoids impact by dispersing
use to a level that prevents formation of permanent campsites.
Disadvantages: Visitors tend to resist dispersing very far. Considerable off-trail searching may be necessary to locate an appropriate site. Selecting, using, and renaturalizing a pristine site requires greater knowledge and effort.
Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesDispersed Camping
Why Resource Dispersal Is Often Ineffective:
Park Environment - Limited flat land or resistant surfaces.
Park Management - Restrictions on camping close to trails or water
resources may prevent use of the most available flat land. Visitors
not instructed to use only pristine sites or Leave No Trace camping
practices. Insufficient visitor education.
Park Visitors - Visitors may not want to disperse far from trails, water, or other groups. Visitors may lack or fail to apply LNT knowledge.
Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesCamping Containment
Visitors are encouraged or required to camp on existing sites or within designated areas. Sites or areas may be selected for their environmental resistance and/or to promote visitor solitude.
Existing Sites Designated Areas
Camping ContainmentCamping Containment
Problems:Problems:
Loss of visitor freedomLoss of visitor freedomAvailability of open campsitesAvailability of open campsites
Problems:Problems:
Loss of visitor freedomLoss of visitor freedomAvailability of open campsitesAvailability of open campsites
Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesCamping Containment
Options:
Established Sites - Visitors are required to use existing “established” campsites. Managers close and rehabilitate sites that fail to meet minimum criteria for environmental resistance and/or distance to trails, water, other sites, etc.
Advantages: Retains some visitor freedom in site selection and ensures solitude. Minimizes area of disturbance and aggregate impact more than an “at-large” camping strategy.
Disadvantages: Permits more sites and greater impact than under designated site camping. Visitors may create new sites or camp on closed sites.
Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesCamping Containment
Options:
Designated Sites - Visitors are required to use only designated
campsites. The minimum number of sites needed for a specified
level of overnight visitation are selected, based on their
environmental resistance and solitude potential. Sites that fail to
meet criteria or are unnecessary are closed to use.
Advantages: Minimizes resource impacts while maximizing visitor solitude.
Disadvantages: Restricts freedom in campsite selection, sites will become highly altered.
Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesMulti-Strategy Examples
Shenandoah National Park (New)
Dispersal and closure within designated areas
Designated campsites
Existing campsites
Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesA Comparison
Management StrategyCampsite
Occupancy
Resource
Protection
Visitor
Freedom
At-Large Camping Low Low High
Dispersed Camping LowLow –
HighMod.
Established Site Camping Mod. Mod. Mod.
Designated Site Camping High High Low
The EndThe End
Carrying Capacity:Carrying Capacity:
The Art of Avoiding The Art of Avoiding Undesirable Future Undesirable Future
ConditionsConditions