yesevishism rituals in ottoman wrestling dervish lodges

Energy Education Science and Technology Part B: Social and Educational Studies

2012 Volume (issue) 4(4): 2081-2090

Yesevishism rituals in Ottoman

wrestling dervish lodges

Mehmet Turkmen*

Ondokuz Mayis University, School of Physical Education and Sport, Samsun, Turkey

Received: 20 July 2011; accepted: 11 October 2011

Abstract

Having a significant place in Turkish sports history; wrestling has become an indispensible part of

religious, political, economic, and social ceremonies. Wrestling, which has martial styles and proto-

religions by its nature, has been institutionalized as from the very early periods in Turkish history.

Ottoman Wrestling Lodges has been training any kind of sport of the period particularly wrestling. In

addition to this, they have also been fulfilling many of the social functions. As for Yesevishism,

known as a cult, is a phenomenon underlying Turkish culture in terms of its structure and influences

beyond being a cult. In this study, the organizational structure of the Ottoman Wrestling Lodges, the

practical and theoretical rituals performed in the organizations, and the similar patterns existing in

Yesevishism have been compared and systematized in a sociological and folkloric framework with the

help of the literature review technique. Since there were no monographic studies relevant to this issue

in the picture, some other concerning studies on wrestling lodges and Yesevishism has been touched

upon. Furthermore, the Ottoman archival files have been availed. Whether wrestling lodges embody

the national and religious elements existing in Yesevishism has been questioned. The fact that

wrestling lodges were led and trained by the syncretic fathers who are the Western representatives of

Yesevishism cult in Ahi and Bektashi communities has been found out. It has been confirmed that

these fathers have equipped the cult wrestlers with the sensitivity based on Turkish public awareness

and traditions as it is done in Yesevishism; therefore, the wrestling lodges and Yesevishism have the

same roots to be nourished. It has been concluded that Yesevishism which hierarchically shows

parallelism with Ottoman Lodges in all practical and theoretical rituals has both a propelling and

directive element of power for these foundations.

Keywords: Wrestling in Ottoman, Wrestling Dervish Lodges, Küsti-gah, Yesevishism.

©Sila Science. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

1. 1. Wrestling Culture

Petroglyph and archaeological datum indicate that wrestling has originated with the history

of humanity [1, 2]. The authorities of the sports history are also of the same opinion that

wrestling, being the first sporting phenomenon, is formally the first organized sport [3-5].

Appearing in almost all of the antiquities, it has had different dimensions in each’s culture and __________________ *Corresponding author. Tel.: +90-532-658-8027; fax: +90-362-457-6924.

E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Turkmen).

2082 M. Turkmen / EEST Part B Social and Educational Studies 4 (2012) 2081-2090

performed different functions creating a distinctive satisfaction style [6-8]. Wrestling is

observed in almost every phase of national, religious, economic, social structures and life

styles in Turkish communities, which also has had a place among the antiquities. It has played

a profound role in the formation of art, literature, customs and traditions and it is regarded as

a ‘form of honor’ in the whole Turkish world from the Asia Major to the Balkans and in

relative communities [9-11].The Turkish regard wrestling as a kind of worship, the wrestling

place as a chapel, and the wrestling area as a field of contest [12, 13].

1. 2. The organizational structure

The most comprehensive lodge in respect to the foundation is called dervish lodge, a

smaller one is called lodge,and a much smaller one is called hermitage. The ‘Asitanes’ are the

dervish lodges in the central position [14, 15]. The wrestling lodges are different from the cult

lodges in terms of practices anda are more privileged by the state in every period. They were

not far more different from both current Wrestling Training Centers with regard to education

and from the cult lodges in terms of social functions. The contemporary researchers use the

term ‘ wrestlers lodge’ for the wrestling lodges which is a senior and main unit of Turkistani

sports with riding and archery coming in the first place. The Western researches in a limited

but considerable number refer to the concepts such as “Wrestling Training Centers” or

“Sportsmen Training Centers” [16, 17]. In Ottoman records, we witness some concepts like

“tekke-i küstig’rân”, “küsti-gah”, “küsti-ca”, “küste-giran”, and “pehlüvanan tekyesi” [18-20].

The trainers and administrators in the Wrestling Dervish Lodges were being chosen among

the experienced people who have a wrestling background. These were called “Mentor”,

“Sheikh”, “Dervish”, “Postnisini” or “Master”. Regardless of their seniority, the trainees of

the Lodges were called “Follower”, “Pretender”, “Apprentice” or “Pupil” [21-25]. The

present studies indicate there exist 32 Wrestling Lodges in Ottomans; however, the sources as

to these are only available for the six of these [26, 27].

1. 3. Yesevishism and its constituents

Yesevishism is relatively mentioned in the name of Hodja Ahmet Yesevi (1093-1166). It is

a phenomenon which underlies Turkish culture in terms of its structure and influences rather

than being a cult. Yesevi, called as ‘Kara Ahmet’ by the Kirghiz-Kazakh people, was born in

Turkestan [28] in Cimkent district of Kazakhstan and is the chief character of Turkish

Sophism and the transitional period of Islamization. He, who enabled the past Turkish beliefs

to be adapted into Islamism and put a ritual forward, is the most prominent cult founder

considering its influences. Yesevi, the Great Sultan in the Turkishness of Asia Major even

today, held the purpose of infusing Islamism with its long-standing traditions to the Muslim

Turkish communities in a way that they could comprehend and internalize through figures

and applications. This purpose is achieved with the help of the prodigious missionary

activities (extending all through Balkans) of colonizer Turkmenian Fathers, who are Yesevi’s

pursuers [28, 29]. Yesevishism, which was not more than an organization that Kalenderi

Sophism branched under different names in Anatolia in the 13th century, turned into an area

of merging for the dervishes who are members of Haydarism, Kalenderis, and Vefaism cults.

Yesevi is a saint who may be coincided by name in any phase of spiritual ascension of the

Turkish Sufis. He is literally the head of the fountains for the Ahi community and Bektashi,

briefly the main resource and the chief of Turkish culture well. Anything that is done for

Turkish culture in Anatolia and Rumelia has his name[30, 31].

The cult lodges established with the help of the public’s approval and the incentives of the

central especially in the boundaries and rural areas in the period of Ottoman foundation were

M. Turkmen / EEST Part B Social and Educational Studies 4 (2012) 2081-2090 2083

administrated by the tribal chiefs called Father, Dede in original sense, Sheikh, Mentor, Saint,

Master, or Dervish. These chiefs, coming from the ancestors tradition of Turkestan, and the social

clans under their administration were performing many of the social, religious, political, and

military functions of the state well. They were transporting the traditional cultural elements of

Turkestan from Khorasan to Anatolia and all through the Balkans. Moreover, they were also

transferring the wrestling culture which has an important role in Turkish culture within the same

range and keeping it alive through various organizations. So as to resist the majority, the Turkish

Fathers having a few followers but great ideals could only make them possible along with a

qualified work force which could be gained via institutionalization [32]. In the contemporary

periods, the title of “bravery” was identical to the titles such as “wrestler”, “heroism”, and “valor”

in Turkish communities. It was also synonymous with the words “abdal”, “bas/baş”, “civi”,

“arvak”, “gazi”, “temur/timur/demir”, “şuca/el şuca” and “ahi/ahi/ahilik” [33-36]. The successors

of Yesevishism (Ahi, Bektashi, etc.) who are known to be titled with these divine names in

Anatolia and Balkans corresponded not only to the ideas based on the Turkish public awareness

and morals of Turkestan but also to their organizational structuring [37, 38]. Holding some parts of

proto-religions and combat styles of individual fights by nature, wrestling was organized by

attaining legitimization with this style [39].

1. 4. Importance

The communities which don’t clear their way with the materials from their history display

a weak appearance in the world’s literature and this indicates that they won’t have a very

fortunate fate as a result. It makes no sense for any of materialist or moral cultures to exist if

they are not aware of their history and identity. The historical heritages equipped with

national and moral motives such as ‘Ottoman Wrestling Lodges’ are not merely the historical

values of the Ottoman State and Turkey as its successor but they are the common values of

the whole Turkish world and Turkestan from which they date back to for reference.

Such long-standing traditions and historical heritages could only be maintained by the

people or foundations that value, protect and have the sense of belonging to them. The

researches with regard to the Ottoman Wrestling Lodges are considerably limited and they

don’t contain the Yesevishism motive of the lodges. Yesevishism is not only a research aimed

at understanding the history of Lodge Wrestling but also has an important place in respect to

its contributions to the future of traditional Turkish Wrestling. The fact that the same

resources were repeatedly used due to the lack of the primary sources in most of the present

researches is a drawback getting in the way of the efforts to make deeper analytical and

historical studies on lodge wrestling. Today, especially Turkey and Turkish sport literature

need the means and goal values of the Ottoman Wrestling Lodges to be showed great respect

again.

2. Methodology

Problem-goal-method: The problem is that the rituals of Yesevishism and its successors in the first

place with regard to the religion and the organizational and practical resemblances of the Ottoman

Wrestling Lodges have not been put forth yet. The study is known to comprise several primordial,

archetype, liturgical, etymological, historical, and terminological sub problems. As you would

appreciate, the analyses of all these problems would exceed the capacity of study. This self-

deprecating study aims to shed light for the researchers studying on the issue, to remind Turkish

people the socio-cultural values and organizational constituents such as Yesevishism and wrestling

again, and to reflect these properly to Turkish and World’s Sports Literature. It has been systematized

in a historical and sociological framework through literature review. Ottoman records, contemporary

researchers, and travel books have been used.


3. Discussion

3. 1. Predisposing historical background

The historical personages founding and pioneering the Ottoman State and the Turkish

nomadic communities enabling it to prosper and expand were of the same social

neighborhood and background which are of the same culture [40-47]. Emigrating from the

Middle East to Anatolia, some of these were the pioneers of Seljuks. The rest were the

entrepreneur nomadics, known as the Mongolian nomadic in the middle of the 18th century,

coming from the same geography and having the same historical fate. That the Turkish-

Mongolian shamanism and these movements directed from the Middle East would pose

effects and take an active role in the foundation of the religious and Muslim-mystic cults in

Anatolia was uncontroversial [48]. These were the ‘Combatants’, ‘Coloniser Turkish Dervishs’

or ‘Khorasan Saints’ having intimacy in Yesevishism and spreading from Turkestan to all of the

Asia Minor and the Balkans with the moral force of the Yesevishism [28].

These were called ‘ Anatolian/Rumelian Saints’, ‘veterans’, ‘sufis,’ wandering Dervishes’

, ‘sisters’ , ‘fathers’ or ‘dadas’ considering the Anatolian, which they serve with the same

spirit, and Rumelian geographical terms that covers Anatolia at that time. According to the

rumour the formest names such as Baba Ilyas Horasani, Sari Saltik, Haci Bektasi were sent by

personally Hoca Ahmet Yesevi to Rum country, Anatolian and the Balkans. It tuned into a

tradition that the other dervishes certainly bond with Yesevi in a genetic and religious way.

Despite the fact that a part of humours were true and there is an anachronism in some of them,

it can definitely see that Yesevi was in psychic ascent to heaven of all. Because of social-

economic lifes it was difficult that these social groups coming from Yesevi, accepted the

Orthodox (sunni) Islam that Selcuks center accepted and would continue to accept after the

Otoman State foundation and live for a enter life. They accepted the Heterodox Islam

containin of old religious elements like Yesevi and they were settling in the area. They were

able to prevent their language, culture, tradition and custom with this lifstyle.

All refugees with high ideal coming from Turkish homeland to east brought traditional

culture elements [28]. One of them was wrestling. Wrestling was head action in Middle asia

spor culture that they came from and wrestling also was a privileged symbol.Wrestler hero

man was generous, hero, brave, bearable/undaunted, strong and leader. [33, 35, 49-51]. They

could continue their old tradition dynamism by combining with wrestling and wrestler,

ghazi,dervish, Abdal like Persian and arabic new names. They voluntarily took over the

religious order dervish convent that they established with the important help of the Otoman

State administer and social, religious, miltary and political duties. So, Yesevi duration that

independent from government but in parallel with it, already got confirmation of carrying out

the social duties perfectly. It is known that Yesevi had a mission in order to prevent and

continue the Turkish culture elements and the first founder of the government accepted this

mission of dervish order sincerely. Organisation of wrestlers who is transporter of turkich

culture and extension of wrestling tradition would market the each two part contented and it

would be so. As a matter of fact that the foundation was ready to carry out Yesevi elements.

3. 2. Inauguration and publication

The organizational archetypes of wrestling in societies were come across under the name of

“Pi-Yung” and “Combatants Organization” earlier than the periods of Ottoman Wrestling Lodges

(B.C) The first of these were come across in Turkestan and the second one both in the

aforementioned geography and in Anatolia and Selchuks geography. Anatolia was not unfamiliar

with the organization of wrestling in the form of the main part of the martial and general training


[52-54]. They were organized 2500 years earlier than Ottomans emergence in the sports premises

called Palaistra and built for mythical gods within the body of Gymnasions in ancient Greek-

Rome Civilizations [52].

Ottoman’s new land, once more, hosted the military-designed constructions of the Hittites’ (B.

C 1600) which are called “Koptuti” and the Summerians’ (B. C. 3000) similar constructions [2].

These were the institutions which exposed only to a few changes in a 4500-year period of time

including physical, ideological, and organizational changes [7, 55]. It may be relatively figured out

that the aforementioned sports organizations of the ancient Anatolian civilizations are not

qualitatively convenient and leading models for the sports organizations that would be established

by the Ottomans. The Ottomans had a basis inherited from the Selchuks, which they separated

from, in the matter of sports lodges and donations. The researchers were only aware of the

donations but not wrestling lodges and the researchers studying on sports or culture were only

referring to the ‘Combatant’s organization’ or the Bravery-Prowes ideology (Gaziyan) and its

concept of nine-conditioned World and Religious Bravery [56] based on Asik Pasha’s literary

work called “Garipname” [32, 53, 57].

The first wrestling lodge was built near the Bey Palace in the castle at Orhan Gazi’s wife’s,

Nilufer Hatun, request once Orhan Gazi (1326-1360) made Bursa the first capital of the Ottoman’s

right after he seized it. The second one which was also mentioned in Asik Pasa History [58] has

served as a donation beside the Spa gate of castle [59]. The third one located in the southside of the

city near the headwater has also served as a donation which was used as place for wrestling and

public amusement and Beyazit I (1389-1402) provided it with vast opportunities [60].

Together with these, having densely situated in the West and the Balkans, the wrestling lodges

in Ottomans carried on their activities till the beginning of the 20th century [23, 61]. The mentors

of all wrestling lodges such as “Wrestler Suca” and “Wrestler Demir” in Istanbul, “Sheikh

Cemaleddîn” in Edirne, “Wrestler the Silk” in Skopje, “Father Demir” in Deliorman, “Father

Musa” and “Father Huseyin”, “Niksar Ahi Wrestling Hermitage” were the members of

Yesevishism either known or unknown [62].

Maintaining their Asiatic functions, the wrestling lodges by the Ottomans would be more

comprehensive sports organizations in comparison to its contemporaries as they are much like

clubs yet have a social security function at the same time [63]. Since its foundation (1299), the

Ottomans used to assign Kadi and Riverhead to any town or city captured to start with, and

right after that they would build religious, political, and social service facilities [50, 51].

Apart from these, they used to build wrestling lodges [27, 64]. As regards to the charitable

institutions bearing the expenses of the Ottoman wrestling lodges, they used to provide the

sportsmen, trainers and the administrators, in a modern context, with social security. The

charitable institutions were a part of Turkish national and religious culture in addition to

functioning as deep-rooted and traditional foundations existing prior to the Ottomans [32, 65].

While deciding on where to build the wrestling lodges, population density and waste of

resources would be taking into consideration.

Accordingly, the Western frontiers coming in the first place, the large and small wrestling

lodges used to scatter and deeply organize all around the State. Both in Turkey and

worldwide, the wrestling lodges were known as the organizations far beyond today’s concept

of clubs in terms of its scope and generally mentioned as the first organization gravitating

towards sports and wrestling in private [32, 63]. The Western researches agreed on that and

stated that the lodges were determinant on the development of sports in Asia Minor and the

Balkans [16, 17, 66]. Lodge/s in cities and hermitages in villages used to be built and their

expenses were covered by the income from the charitable institutions. The expenses of the

lodges in most of Anatolia’s towns far from centre were covered by the Ahi organizations

functioned as a financial institution [61].


3. 3. In practice

Lodge wrestlers found the chance for practicing only in Kirkpinar and some fairgrounds and in

organizations such as sur-i humayun and riding/peace [67]. The wrestlers would perform some

religious, moral, formative,and ideological motives before, midst,and at the beginning and end of

the wrestling matches [12, 67]. These rituals would take the wrestlers to the feasts such as

“Cilgayak” by Altays, “Isiah” by Sakas, “Urrüs” by Kalmuks, “Sabanto” by Baskirs and Tatars,

“Worship for Kok (Tanri)” by Hakas and Tuvas [54]. These rituals with Yesevishism-syncretism

displayed some Baksi and Kam-based, archetype and primordial characters and were associated

with the Yesevishism rituals ideological and formal senses [68]. Henceforth, it was quite natural

that Yesevishism acted as a propelling and directive power for the Ottoman Wresting Lodges

[13, 27, 69].

The trainees’ ethnic origin was not taken into account in accepting them to the wrestling lodges

[17]. Raiko Petrov was referring to the wrestling lodges in his book “Wrestling in Bulgaria” as

“Wrestling Training Centers” and stated, “The lodges were administrated perfectly by the

heteredox leaders from inner Asia who had sensitivity to their culture and religious tolerance.

Beside their social functions, the lodges of Demir, Musa and Father Huseyin were accomodating

highly-trained wrestlers. The Bulgarian Wrestlers were also trained in these lodges; nonetheless,

the wrestlers from Turkey and Deliormanli were far more popular” [16]. The wrestling lodges

were actually built for the healthy, strong, powerful, brave, self-sacrificing and talented sportsmen

of the area. As a routine, the Sheikh (the master) used to lead them to utter “Gulbank-I

Muhammedi” and there played some music with a flourish of trumpets. Later on, periodic trainings

used to be performed for the name of “Piryar-I Mahmut Veli” whom they regarded as saint.

Regardless of their social status, anyone especially the passengers and the poor could be perfectly

welcomed and quartered in the lodges. The followers (wrestlers) would be taught the traditional

wrestling in the first place beside all round sports according to the Turkish customs and Islamic

ethics. They would also perform military service when necessary [20].

According to Svertson, wrestling in Turkish- Mongolian communities is an essential element

for the commitments of religious, social, political, military, economic and cultural functions [70].

Kickinu, a field researcher, states, “Wrestling could be observed in any phase of socio-cultural

structures and lives of the Turkish-speaking communities” [68]. Semenov cites the idea, “ All

formal and ideological lines observed in the organization of wrestling in Turkish communities

are extensions of ancient Shamanistic figures. Apart from that, it covers a siginificant place in

art, literature, customs and traditions” [71]. Graham Noble studying on the well-known

Deliorman wrestlers states, “The Turks consider the wrestling areas the same as battle fields

and temples and they regard wrestling as a religious and national obligation. They accept Pir

Mahmud Veli as their great master” [72]. The same writer comments in one of his researches,

“Wrestling is a very popular sport especially for Bulgarian Turks who have heteredox beliefs

unlike Ottomans. The resource of Ottoman wrestling is Deliorman. The strongest wrestlers

are known to have been trained in this wrestling training center called Demir Pehlivan Baba”

[64]. The idea that Ottoman wrestling lodges were administrated by Heteredox Turkish

dervishes and the wrestlers were accordingly trained is a frequently highlighted issue by the

Western sports historians [5, 16, 42, 43, 66].

3. 3. 1. Categories

From Asia to the Balkans, in the all Turkish world, traditional wrestlings were made of

four categories since early times. These categories were made starting from the most

inexperienced fourth one continued as the third, the second and the most experienced first

one. The last category was considered as the status of head wrestler. In Historical Kirkpinar


Oil Wrestling these four category tradition continued until early years of The Republic and in

Karakucak and aba wrestling in Anatolia they continued until 1970. In the shalwar wrestling

done in the region of Kahramanmaras continued until 1983 [69]. There are four conditions for

being mature people in Yesevi’s system of thought and they are listed like this: place, time,

brotherhood and Rabt-i Sultan. The purpose of being mature people’s moral ascension

authorities must be poverty way [73]. The number four also symbolizes the sky regarded as

sacred in ancient Turkish belief, ground / earth, mountains and sea and also emphasizes the

four-way code in the military strategy. Four stages are needed to be head wrestler. This

category of wrestling is a deep-rooted tradition in pre-Islam military entity of Turkish. Since

four conditions here is directly reminds of the ancient Turkish system of thought. Recent

researches have already been committed on the order of Yesevishism, are extending the

thought that this order is completely a military entity occurrence [74, 65]. It can be said that

these four categories in the wrestling corresponded with the condition of being mature in

Yesevishism. This tradition will continue later on with the thought of four doors by the

followers who are mentors in Anatolia and the Balkans.

3. 3. 2. Prizes

In Otoman State, Money was given as award to the wrestlers,while stallion,ram and adult

male camel was given as award in Turkistan and West Turkish Public.This tradition was

mentioned in banquet organised for Dede Korkut like this: “I gave stallion from horses, rams

from sheep, adult male camel from camels” [69]. In Turkish wrestling tradition, getting an

award is secon plan. As a matter of fact that, as a shampion the most important award for a

wrestler is protecting his tribe, ancestor,lineage or vicinity’s reputation he belongs to and also

protecting his honour is in the foreground.This Kazakh proverb certifies this: “Palwannin

quni juz jilki, ari min jilki/ Wrestler’s value is hundred jades, while wrestler’s honour is

thousand jades” [10, 76]. In Yesevishism’s system of thought, knowledge is the mean of

svery strong belief and this belief was riveted with not evidences but divine light [77].

Knowledge also comes to mean of being full and sure of heart about the truth of

something..Yesevi’s system of this thought is parellel with act of being wrestler in Turkish.

Rewarding to the top three in wresler wrestling is a tradition never chanced. In Islamic sufism

culture, three degree as “ilm-el yakin”, “ayn-el yakin”, “hakk-el yakin” of knowing the divine

truth in Serrac and Kuseyri pamphlet. At once this thought is valid in Yesevi [74]. The top

three award of wrestlers are in harmony with the real ones. When the competitions satisfied

the owner of banquet or eatings or number of attendance increased, the wrestler’s awards are

increased seven or nine fold.The same tradition is continuing in Turkistan and this award

increase is called “yettileme” and “tokkuzlama” [69, 76].

Perfect human teaching of Yesevi thought, there are seven degrees to know the truth.There

are also seven kinds of qualitative position to show the maturity of spirit. All of these

categories are kind of epistemological system insipired by ontological theory [74]. The

concept of this number seven symbolizes sevenfold heaven in- etymon god belief-(kok tanri

belief). Morever, increase the awards as ninefold is related with old turkish belief system.In

this respect, it is seen that Islamic elements seen in Turkish wrestling award tradition consist

of polish and shaped by using as a source old Turkish belief and tradition [77-79].

4. Conclusion

In an effort to summarize the sharpest tendencies of Turkish culture, it is obvious that even today it will be

not found a more efficient field than traditional wrestlings for this. Anectodes which public imagination made up

always involve truth part. In this respect, wrestler and its synonymouses were described in Turkish culture as a

high and lofty quality incorporating many spiritual / moral and skills. The meaning of wrestling and its


synonymouses displayed an appropriate character to their acts then it was seen that wrestling lodge and its

Sheikhs were named accordingly. Turkistan and Yesevishism lying at the heart of it were always in the spirit of

the lodge Sheiks in Anatolia and Rumelia and wrestlers who are their chelas and it could be seen that that place

always took part in the spirit of wrestling tradition. This Turkistan town of Kazakistan which is collective of

Oguz Kagan who is the material and moral source of Turkish Culture, is a sacred place where national dimension

of wrestling tradition socialized with religious property and inhabitants. Each element of the lodge’s material and

rituals has the way of Yesevi in religious and ethical context and paralel symbolical meanings and also is under

the influence of a sensebility basing on the same religion and traditions. It wasn’t encountered that wrestling

lodges, performing social and military function like Ottoman Heterodox religious order lodges didn’t break the

ties with government and have any historical interruption. Consequently, despite the fact that wrestling lodges

were conducted by the mentors who have Heterodoks belief and duration of Yesevi, it was understood that they

were privileged by the government.

It was seen that lodge wrestlers were trained in a way of functional suitability based on terminological

description and Yesevi trading. It was also seen that the number of weigh class, especially Ottoman lodge

wrestling implemented, the amount of the award with the type and number, date of implementation, all rituals

being displayed during the train and match, corresponded one to one. It was occluded that like Yesevishism

rituals, Ottoman Lodge Wrestling has some religious elements in its ideas and some national elements in its

form.

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