wood resource exploitation by cantabrian late palaeolithic groups (n spain) related to mis 2...

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Wood resource exploitation by Cantabrian Late Upper Palaeolithicgroups (N Spain) regarding MIS 2 vegetation dynamics

Paloma UzquianoDept. Prehistory, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), C/Mediodía Grande 17, 28005 Madrid, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Available online 26 February 2013

a b s t r a c t

A series of charcoal analyses for nine Upper Palaeolithic caves in northern Spain chronologically placed inMIS 2 (19.6e10.3 ka uncal BP) is presented in this paper. Juniperus, Fabaceae and Salix, together withHippophae and minor occurrences of Betula, Corylus and deciduous Quercus are recorded in some sitesdated prior to 13 ka BP. This open vegetation was still dominant between 13 and 11 ka BP, although thesharp increase of Betula and deciduous taxa indicates greater environmental diversity. Pinus, Betula anddeciduous Quercus are dominant between 11 and 10 ka BP. However, the manifestation of charcoal data isconditioned by the interaction of several natural and human factors that are the focus of anthracology.This paper discusses the vegetal landscape surrounding Cantabrian archaeological sites in relation withthe major vegetation dynamics outlined in MIS 2 high-resolution pollen records from SW Europe, theavailable woody resources, and the human exploitation of these plant communities throughout the LateUpper Palaeolithic.

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1. Introduction

For the last two decades, new charcoal analyses fromnine UpperPalaeolithic caves located in the Cantabrian Region (Fig. 1) havesupplemented the charcoal information available (Uzquiano,1992a,1992b, 1992c, 1995). This ensemble of human occupations (Fig. 1),dated in the Late Upper Pleistocene (Table 1), covers virtually thecomplete Marine Isotope Stage 2. Thus, they have been placed inconnexion with the chronostratigraphy recorded in the Greenlandice cores (Dansgaard et al., 1993) and in the Iberian margin marinecores (Naughton et al., 2007) (Fig. 2) with particular emphasis onthe vegetation dynamics outlined in sea and continental high res-olution pollen records from southwestern Europe (Jalut et al., 1992;Allen et al., 1996; Peñalba et al., 1997; Muñoz et al., 2004; Iriarteet al., 2005; Sánchez Goñi, 2006; Naughton et al., 2007; GonzálezSampériz et al., 2010).

The climatic deterioration at the end of MIS 3 characterisesmuch of the MIS 2 climate dynamics: the Last Glacial Maximum(LGM), with its final maximum extension ca. 18 ka BP and twoHeinrich events at the beginning (H2) and the end (H1) of theperiod. The following Late Glacial, characterised by a series of sta-dial and interstadial oscillations according to the resolution recor-ded by each regional deposit, leads to the Holocene (Naughtonet al., 2007; González Sampériz et al., 2010).

Pollen information derived from such environmental dynamicsdepicts a vegetal landscape characterised by open environmentsduring most of MIS 2, where dominant herbaceous plants co-inhabited with high amounts of Pinus and Juniperus, Hippophae,and Salix. Sporadic amounts of Betula and mesophilous taxa werealso scattered in the landscape. The major extent of Betula takesplace from 13 ka BP, as a result of increased humidity and pre-cipitations (Jalut et al., 1992). Herbaceous taxa were once moredominant from 11 ka BP due to colder conditions. However, thegradual warming at the Holocene boundary favours the deciduousQuercus expansion.

The Cantabrian region comprises the territories between theCantabrian Sea and the watershed of the eponymous mountainrange (Cendrero et al., 1986). The disposition of mountains andvalleys, as well as the intense hydrological system generate a clearfragmentation of the territory into diverse natural regions. Bothslope orientation and the nature of the dominant substrate condi-tion the modern wide floristic diversity: several vegetation com-munities with different ecological needs grow in geographicproximity. The EeW disposition of the mountains constitutes abarrier against the prevailing western winds, thereby generating anumber of shelters (Bertrand,1974). Cantabrian geographic featuresare important to understand the past distribution of plant com-munities around the archaeological sites discussed in this work.

The ensemble of sites (Fig. 1) is culturally affiliated with the LateUpper Palaeolithic. Classical studies of Late Upper PalaeolithicE-mail address: [email protected].

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Quaternary International 337 (2014) 154e162


settlement and economy in the Cantabrian Region (Altuna, 1990;Straus, 1992; Bernaldo de Quirós and Cabrera, 1996) show a dis-tribution pattern relatively close to the shoreline, with short-termseasonal stratigraphic records and economic activities based onthe hunting of a diverse range of ungulates and shell-fishingpractises.

The synthesis of charcoal data presented here contributes tothe characterisation of the daily subsistence of Cantabrian Palae-olithic inhabitants, highlighting the interaction between differentnatural (geographical features, environmental dynamics) and hu-man factors (economic activities) responsible for the distributionof the past plant communities surrounding these sites and theirmanagement to supply domestic fires as far as anthracology isconcerned.

2. Geographical setting and archaeological context of thesites

The geographical location of the sites (Fig. 1) covers a di-versity of environments inside the Eurosiberian vegetation cir-cle, including the shoreline with estuarine and marshlandareas, the coastal plain, pre-littoral mountains and inland valleys

(Cendrero et al., 1986). The shoreline is characterised by alter-nation of karst massifs which houses Cantabrian evergreen oakforest, siliceous reliefs with dominant heathland shrubs, andsome estuaries and marshes where halophytic plant commu-nities proliferate. The sites of Tito Bustillo (E Asturias, 50 masl, SEorientation), La Pila (W Cantabria, 25 masl, N orientation) and ElCarabión (E Cantabria, 20 masl, SE orientation) are located in thisarea.

The pre-littoral mountains of Cantabria, 250 masl in average,run parallel to the coast and separate the coastal plain andmarshland areas from the lower river basins (Cendrero et al., 1986).The caves of Cualventi (75 masl, SW orientation); Las Aguas(100 masl, NeNE orientation) and Linar (80 masl, S orientation) arefound in the different tributary valleys of the lower Saja basin (WCantabria). Altamira cave (70 masl, NW orientation) visuallydominates the coastal plain of W Cantabria due to its high-groundlocation. Cobrante cave (80 masl, SE orientation) opens to anendorheic valley in the lower Asón basin, relatively close to thecoastal marshes of E Cantabria. The contact between limestone andsiliceous soils occurs in this transitional area, affecting the distri-bution of the main plant communities with these edaphic discon-tinuities (Cendrero et al., 1986): evergreen oak and spiny-deciduous

Table 1Radiocarbon dates for the Cantabrian sites mentioned.

Sites Levels Cultures Reference lab. Dates yr BP Calendric age cal BPa 68% range cal BPa Material

El Linar B-3 Upper Solutrean GrA-21436 19,680 � 320 AMS 23,518 � 295 23,223e23,813 BoneCobrante 4 Upper Solutrean GrA-22439 18,260 � 70 AMS 21,955 � 326 21,629e22,281 BoneCobrante 3 Upper Solutrean GrA-22438 18,540 � 70 AMS 22,146 � 309 21,836e22,455 BoneAltamira III Upper Solutrean GifA-90045 18,540 � 320 AMS 22,173 � 472 21,700e22,645 BoneAltamira II Lower Magdalenian I-12012 15,919 � 230 19,113 � 280 18,832e19,393 BoneCualventi E Lower Magdalenian GrA-21431 15,950 � 70 AMS 19,113 � 218 18,895e19,331 CharcoalLas Aguas B-4 Lower Magdalenian GrA-21524 15,030 � 60 AMS 18,263 � 238 18,025e18,501 CharcoalLas Aguas B-3 Lower Magdalenian GrA-21525 14,550 � 60 AMS 17,771 � 234 17,476e17,945 CharcoalLas Aguas B-1 Lower Magdalenian GrA-21526 14,440 � 70 AMS 17,579 � 252 17,327e17,831 BoneTito Bustillo 1BeC Middle Magdalenian OxA-6260 14,550 � 110 AMS 17,721 � 277 17,444e17,998 BoneEl Linar C-3 Lower Magdalenian GrA-21435 14,040 � 60 AMS 17,282 � 214 17,067e17,496 BoneLa Pila IV.4 Late Magdalenian Gif-90033 12,580 � 190 AMS 14,899 � 415 14,484e15,314 CharcoalLa Pila IV.2 Late Magdalenian Gif-8147 12,160 � 130 14,222 � 294 13,927e14,516 CharcoalLa Pila III.4 Early Azilian Gif-8148 11,710 � 120 13,593 � 170 13,423e13,763 CharcoalLos Azules 3-F Azilian BM-1878R 10,910 � 290 12,789 � 336 12,452e13,125 CharcoalLos Azules 3-E Azilian BM-1879R 10,510 � 130 12,395 � 225 12,170e12,620 CharcoalEl Carabión 3 Azilian Poz-30594 10,310 � 60 AMS 12,187 � 196 11,990e12,383 Bone

a CalCurve: CalPal_2007_HULU http://www.calpal-online.de e Copyright 2003e2007.

Fig. 1. Location of Late Upper Palaeolithic sites in the Cantabrian Region (northern Spain) aim of this work: 1-Los Azules; 2-Tito-Bustillo; 3-Linar; 4-Las Aguas; 5-Cualventi; 6-Altamira; 7-La Pila; 8-Cobrante; 9-Carabión. Location of other sites mentioned: A-Sopeña; B-Peña del Perro.

P. Uzquiano / Quaternary International 337 (2014) 154e162 155


shrubs proliferate along endorheic valleys with relevant calcareousreliefs (e.g. Linar, Cobrante), while acidophilous deciduous forestand heathland shrubs predominate near the Altamira, Cualventiand Las Aguas sites, directly linked to the dominant siliceous sub-strates of the coastal plain.

The Cangas de Onís basin, where Los Azules cave opens (80masl,S orientation), is located in the pre-littoral depression of E Asturias.This area between two EeWoriented mountain ranges presents analternation of calcareous gorges and green basins such as Cangas deOnís. Some patches of acidophilic deciduous oak forests andhazelnut formations dominate the vegetation landscape (Bertrand,1974).

The complete archaeological context information of sites, sum-marized in Table 2, reveals some short-term stratigraphic records.Their occupations seems to have been structured around a hearth,which is occasionally clearly defined, and contains more or lessabundant accumulations of artefacts and organic debris such asshells, faunal remains and charcoal, evidencing the nature of theeconomic practices carried out in each site. Despite the variety ofanimals, particularly ungulates, recovered, red deer andmolluscs aredominant in most of the sites, two species traditionally consideredthe key subsistence resources for Cantabrian Late Upper Palaeolithicpeople. This information is very helpful throughout the discussionabout the wood resource exploitation performed in this region.

Table 2Archaeological context information of sites: stratigraphy, description of main archaeological items, faunal remains and cultural record, sensu Freeman (1988 Altamira);Fernández-Tresguerres (1980,1990 Los Azules); Bernaldo de Quirós et al. (1992 La Pila); Lasheras et al., (2005e2006 Linar, Cualventi and Las Aguas); Balbín and Alcolea, (2007e2008 Tito-Bustillo); Rasines (2009 Cobrante); Pérez Bartolomé (2010 Carabión).

Sites Layers Description Archaeological features Faunal remains Cultural period

El Carabión 0 Calcareous crust with eboulis (4.5 cm) Scattered shells and faunal remains1 Deposit of yellowish silts and clays (35 cm) Holocene shellmidden Mesolithic2 Calcareous crust, silts and clays (20 cm) Sterile3 Deposit of yellowish silts and clays (25 cm) Lithic artefacts, terrestrial fauna and

abundant shells. Charcoal studyCervus, Capra, Sus, Capreolus.Plenty of shellfish (limpetsand mussels)

Azilian

4 Yellowish silts and clays (25 cm) SterileLos Azules 3 Deposit with alternating reddish and

blackened sediments (20e25 cm) andsubdivided into several beds: lower beds(e, f, g) and upper beds (aed)

Traces of several hearths with abundantcharcoal. Lithic and bone artifacts(harpoons). Charcoal study of lower beds

Cervus dominant. Increase inforest species: Sus and Capreolus.Presence of Capra. Scarce presenceof molluscs

Azilian

La Pila III Sandy silt deposit (25 cm) subdivided inseveral beds separated by flooding silts

Shellmidden of Littorina and Patella withlithic and bone artifacts. Charcoal study

Cervus dominant; increasingCapra and forest species. Plentyof molluscs

Early Azilian

IV Sandy silt deposit (25 cm) subdivided inseveral beds separated by flooding silts

Lithic, bone tools and portable art.Charcoal study

Cervus, Capra, Rupicapra, Bos, Susand Capreolus. Absence of molluscs

LateMagdalenian

Linar C 1 Surface silts (2 cm) Sterile2 Calcareous crust (3 cm) Sterile3 Dark brown sandy silts (10e15 cm) Very rich in artifacts. Pit-hearth packed

with reddening silts and charcoal.Charcoal study

Cervus dominant followed byEquus and Bos. Molluscs andSalmonidae abundant

MiddleMagdalenian

4 Reddish-brown sands (20 cm) SterileTito Bustillo 1BeC Deposits of blackened silts and clays

(30 cm) subdivided into several beds.1A stalagmitic crust sealing lowerbeds B, C and D

Area of successive discharges: shells,bones, lithic and bone tools. Charcoalstudy

Cervus dominant followed byCapra, Bos, Equus and Rupicapra.Sporadic presence of Raginfer.Plenty of shellfish

MiddleMagdalenian

Las Aguas A Silts and sands deposit SterileA2 Stalagmitic level SterileUnit B Blackish sandy silts (25 cm) subdivided

into several beds (B1eB4)Lithic and bone artifacts, faunal remains,charcoal and abundant shells. Charcoalstudy

Cervus dominant besides Equusand Bos. Plenty of Patella, Littorina

LowerMagdalenian

Cualventi D Sands deposits (3.5 m) SterileE Blackish silts and sands (70 cm) Shellmidden with bones, charcoal and

tools. Charcoal studyCervus elaphus dominant, besidesEquus, Bos and Capra. Plenty ofmolluscs

LowerMagdalenian

F Base layer. Blackish silts and sands (4 m) Scarce undiagnosed archaeologicalevidences

Altamira II Blackened clayey deposits (5e10 cm) andbrownish deposits (5e25 cm)

Shellmidden densely packed withshells, bones, tools andblackened ashy lenses and charcoal.Charcoal study

Cervus and molluscs co-dominants;Presence of Bos/Bison Capra,Rupicapra, Capreolus, Rangifer

LowerMagdalenian

III Brownish, sandy clays with occasional ashlenses (25e50 cm)

Presence of shells, bones, charcoal,tools and chunks ofochre. Charcoal study

Cervus dominant. Bos/Bisonabundant. Presence of Capra,Rupicapra, Capreolus, Rangifer

Upper Solutrean

Cobrante 3 Yellowebrown sandy silt deposit (4e8 cm) Very poor in artefacts. Charcoal study Cervus dominant; Capra abundant.Presence of Rupicapra, Bos andEquus. Littorina obtusata (ornament)

Upper Solutrean

4 Dark grey deposit with sandy silt texture(8e10 cm)

Richer in artefacts. Charcoal study Cervus dominant. Capra abundant.Rupicapra, Bos and Equus present.Absence of molluscs

Upper Solutrean

Linar B 1 Surface crust (3 cm)2 Thin layer of dark silts (2e5 cm) Sterile3 Blackish silts (20e22 cm) Abundant tools and fauna. Hearth

with scattered charcoal.Charcoal study

Evidences of Cervus, Equus, Bos,Capra and molluscs

Upper Solutrean

4 Brown silts settling (20 cm) Sterile

P. Uzquiano / Quaternary International 337 (2014) 154e162156


3. Material and methods

The 4120 total charcoal fragments analysed (Tables 3 and 4)were retrieved following the standard methods developed inanthracology (Uzquiano, 1992a, 1997; Badal et al., 2003; Théryet al., 2010). The irregular and occasionally scarce finds insome of the sites partly reflect excavation methodology: smallsurface diggings of ca. 1e2 m2 (Lasheras et al., 2005e2006).However it may also reflect the dominant environmental con-ditions at the time of human occupations, which triggereddepositional processes affecting the size and preservation degreeof the charcoal contained in these sediments. This is a common

feature in most Cantabrian Palaeolithic sites, unlike othergeographical areas such as the Mediterranean region (Uzquiano,1997). Hence, the total amount of the sediments excavated mustbe systematically processed using a combination of manualflotation, sieving (with 5.0, 3.0 and 0.5 mm meshes) and manualsorting of the organic material found in the sieves, in order torecover all charcoal remains. Charcoal was fractured by handalong the three anatomical observation plans following theidentification keys for both non-charred (Jacquiot et al., 1973;Schweingruber, 1990) and charred wood (Vernet et al., 2001).Nomenclature follows the guidelines in Flora europaea (Tutinet al., 1964).

Table 4Complete charcoal floristic data between 12.5 and 10 Kyr BP.

Climatic events BeA interstadial YD (YoungerDryas)/Holocene boundary

Cultures Late Magdalenian Early Azilian Azilian

Sites La Pila Los Azules El Carabión

Layers IV 4/3 IV 2/1 III 4/3 III 2/1 3g 3f 3e 3

Taxa N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

Juniperus sp. 187 41.64 124 21.23 35 6.07 14 2.82Pinus sylvestris 5 1.11 16 2.73 8 1.38 3 0.61 190 76.00 121 75.62 77 36.32Picea sp. 35 7.79 13 2.22 3 0.52Betula sp. 61 13.58 43 7.36 175 30.38 163 32.86 6 2.40 3 1.87 8 3.77 94 62.25Salix sp. 6 1.33 9 1.54 50 8.68 70 14.11 5 3.31Quercus (deciduous) 18 4.00 38 6.51 37 6.42 66 13.21 31 12.40 29 18.12 118 55.66 12 7.94Corylus avellana 1 0.22 9 1.54 5 0.86 15 3.02Castanea sativa 1 0.22 1 0.17 1 0.17 2 0.41Fraxinus excelsior 3 0.51 2 0.41 6 3.97Alnus glutinosa 3 1.98Fagus sylvatica 1 0.21 10 4.00 1 0.66Sorbus aria 6 1.33 5 0.85 49 8.51 54 10.88Hippophae rhamnoides 3 1.98Crataegus monogyna 2 0.80Sambucus nigra 3 0.66t. Buxus 1 0.21Arbutus unedo 4 0.68 1 0.21Laurus nobilis 1 0.17Fabaceae (Cytisus sp.) 41 9.13 203 34.76 115 19.96 34 6.85Indeterminables 85 18.93 115 19.69 98 17.00 69 13.91 11 4.40 7 4.37 9 4.24 27 17.88Total 449 584 576 495 250 160 212 151

Table 3Complete charcoal floristic data between 19.6 and 14 Kyr BP.

Climatic events LGM H1 H1/Bölling

Cultures Upper Solutrean Lower Magdalenian Middle Magdalenian

Sites El Linar Altamira Cobrante Altamira Cualventi Las Aguas El Linar Tito-Bustillo

Layers B-3 III 4/3 II E B4 B1/B2 C-3 1B/C

Taxa N N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

Juniperus sp. 2 5 5.91 138 41.07 26 32.90 24 12.90 26 21.67 10 10 44 34.37 54 28.87Abies sp. 1 1.16Pinus sylvestris 2 2.32 2 2.53 1 1 9 7.03 2 1.06Betula sp. 1 0.53 21 21 5 3.91 1 0.53Salix sp. 47 54.65 164 48.80 31 39.24 44 23.65 6 5.00 10 10 22 17.18 6 3.21Quercus (deciduous) 2 2.32 2 0.59 5 5 1 0.78 2 1.06Corylus avellana 3 1.61Castanea sativa 1 1.26Sorbus aria 2 0.59 1 0.53Hippophae rhamnoides 1 0.29 4 5.06 32 17.21Arbutus unedo 1 0.29 1 0.53 1 0.53Erica sp. 1 0.29 1 0.53Cytisus sp. 5 16 18.19 4 5.06 4 2.15 12 9.37 8 4.27Ulex sp. 12 33 17.74 3 2.34 14 7.48Fabaceae 1 0.29 20 10.75 76 63.33 37 37 16 12.51 83 44.38Indeterminables 1 13 15.11 26 7.73 11 13.92 23 12.36 12 10.00 16 16 16 12.51 15 8.02Total 20 86 336 79 186 120 100 128 187



4. Results

The diagram in Fig. 3 shows for the period between 20 and15 ka BP a low-biodiversity with open environment in the pre-littoral areas of western (Altamira-III) and eastern (Cobrante)Cantabria. Juniperus and Salix dominated the vegetal landscape ofsites culturally assigned to the Upper Solutrean.

Fabaceae seems to be characteristic in western Cantabria to-wards 19.6 ka BP (Linar-B) (Table 3) and especially towards15.9 ka BP in Lower Magdalenian occupations (Cualventi, Altamira-II). Scattered individuals and low amounts of Pinus, as well as aweak presence of Betula (Cualventi) and mesophilous trees are alsonoticed.

A minor increase in biodiversity in the sites between 15 and14 ka BP (Fig. 3) encompasses the pre-littoral territories of westernCantabria (Las Aguas-B4, Las Aguas-B1/B2, Linar-C) and the littoralof eastern Asturias (Tito-Bustillo). Fabaceae becomes the mostcharacteristic and even dominant taxon, besides Juniperus andsmall amounts of Salix. Large numbers of Betula are recorded inendorheic valleys (Linar-C), particularly in the ones oriented to-wards the coastal plain of western Cantabria (Las Aguas-B1/B2).This taxon is also sporadically present in the Asturias littoral(Tito-Bustillo). Pinus is more abundant towards the endorheic val-leys (Linar-C). The alternative exploitation of siliceous and calcar-eous territories by humans is more evident in this period.

Juniperus, Betula and Fabaceae are still the most characteristictaxa between 13 and 11 ka BP in the coastal areas of westernCantabria (La Pila site) (Uzquiano, 1992b). The noted increase ofbirch (Fig. 3) differs from preceding periods, while juniper densitiesdecreased. A sharp increase in Fabaceae is noted towards 12 ka BP(transition to Azilian culture), being replaced by Betula as thedominant taxon in layer III, together with a wider range of vegetalenvironments.

Pinus and deciduous Quercus are the most characteristic taxabetween 11 and 10.5 ka BP in the Cangas de Onís basin (Los Azulessite) (Uzquiano, 1995), with the latter spreading at Pinus’ expense(Fig. 3). Charcoal data are lacking in coastal areas during most ofthis period until 10.3 ka BP, according to the results from El Cara-bión. Betula dominates the landscape, and the ensemble of meso-philous taxa indicates a large variety of vegetal environmentssurrounding the site.

5. Discussion

The floristic nature of the charcoal data reveals open envi-ronments with pioneer taxa during most of the period consid-ered. Diachronically (Fig. 3), Juniperus, Salix and Fabaceaedominate a poorly diversified vegetal landscape between 20 and14 ka BP. Betula is negligible until <13 ka BP, in a context of largebiodiversity. Finally, Pinus, deciduous Quercus and Betula are

Fig. 2. The Cantabrian Late Upper Palaeolithic occupations in the MIS 2 western European palaeoecological context. The climatic chronostratigraphy follows Naughton et al. (2007).The sites and their corresponding abbreviations, fromWest to East : AZ (Los Azules); TB (Tito-Bustillo); SPÑ (Sopeña); LIN (Linar); AGS (Las Aguas); CVT (Cualventi); ALT (Altamira);LPL (La Pila); CBT (Cobrante); CRB (Carabión); PP (Peña del Perro).



characteristic between 11 and 10 ka BP. In regional scale, charcoalfloristic features clearly mirror the floristic and environmentaldynamics recorded in the European pollen deposits cited in theIntroduction. LGM climate dynamics are responsible for the openenvironments and the presence of pioneer taxa. The dynamics ofHeinrich events start with high rates of moisture according to theincrease in heathland taxa recorded in the marine pollen recordsof the Iberian margin (Naughton et al., 2007). This particularitywould explain the large amounts of Fabaceae recorded in somesites coinciding with the absence or scarce amounts of othermajor fuel materials (Fig. 3). The extent of birch is the mainfeature of the Late-Glacial interstadial. The spread of deciduousQuercus at Pinus or Betula expense is characteristic of the YD-Holocene boundary.

Charcoal data also allows retracing the wood resource exploi-tation carried out by Cantabrian Late Upper Palaeolithic groupsbased on the interaction of the geographical features of this regionalready outlined above, and the set of economic activities sum-marized in Table 2. Thus, discussion is structured according to themost outstanding floristic features appearing throughout eachperiod considered.

5.1. JuniperuseSalix duality

The dual presence of Juniperus and Salix in Upper Solutrean(Cobrante) and particularly in Lower Magdalenian occupations(Altamira-II, Cualventi) indicates the alternative exploitation ofplain and valleys by human populations according to thegeographic features of this region. The location of these sites,

halfway between the pre-littoral mountains and the coastal plain,allows the alternative exploitation of wood resources from bothecosystems. This particular duality tends to disappear as other taxasuch as Fabaceae, birch and deciduous trees appear in the land-scape (Las Aguas-B4, Linar-C). Both ecosystems also house anumber of associated fauna according to the archaeozoologicalrecord of northern Spain (Altuna, 1990). A variety of ungulates ispresent in the faunal assemblages of the sites concerned (Table 2),indicating logistical hunting expeditions to the valleys and otherenvironments of the coastal plain (Straus, 1992). Regarding mol-luscs, shell-fishing practises appear to be more frequent during theLower Magdalenian (Table 2), showing the use of routes to thecoast through the valleys and coastal plain (Bernaldo de Quirósand Cabrera, 1996). The presence of Hippophae in the LowerMagdalenian occupations (Altamira-II, Cualventi) (Fig. 3) may berelated to these pathways to the coast, considering the ecologicalneeds of this Elegnaceae. Furthermore, its edible fruits ripen inautumn, remaining in the branches for most of the winter (Riveraand Obón de Castro, 1991) and thus coinciding with the shell-fishing period. This coincidence in the presence and use of Hip-pophae in both sites could be related to the contemporaneity ofboth human occupations (Lasheras et al., 2005e2006) and to theshared use and management of the same exploitation territory, asthese sites are only 2.5 km apart. There is no evidence of coastaloccupations despite the frequent human use of the shore. LGMclimatic conditions may not have been favourable for a coastalsettlement, explaining why all LGM sites are located in the shel-tered position provided by the EeW disposition of the pre-littoralmountains.

CRB-3

AZ-3E

AZ-3F

AZ-3G

LPL-III2/1

LPL-III4/3

LPL-IV2/1

LPL-IV4/3

LIN-C3

TB-1BC

AGS-B1/B2

AGS-B4

CVT-E

ALT-II

ALT-III

CBT-4/3

LAYERS

18540±70

18540±320

15919±230

15950±70

15030±60

14440±60

14550±110

14040±60

12580±190

12160±130

11710±120

10910±290

10510±130

10310±60

C-14DATES

50 100 150 200

Junip

erus

50 100 150 200

Pinus

50 100 150 200

Salix

50 100 150 200

Betula

50 100 150

Quercu

s dec

iduou

s

20

Mesop

hilic

trees

20 40

Hippop

hae

Karstic

shrub

s

100 200 300

Fabac

eae

151

212160250

495576584449

128

187

100120

186

7986

336

Total n

º Cha

rcoal

SITES

COBRANTE

ALTAMIRA

CUALVENTI

LAS AGUAS

TITO BUSTILLO

EL LINAR

LA PILA

LOS AZULES

CARABION

Synthetic diagram

CULTURESSITES

Upper

Solutrean

Azilian

Early

Azilian

Late

Magdalenian

Middle

Magdalenian

Lower

Magdalenian

Fig. 3. Synthetic diagram showing the main charcoal vegetation dynamics throughout Late Upper Palaeolithic and Azilian (ca. 20e10 Kyr uncal BP). Mesophilic trees include Corylus,Fraxinus, Castanea, Fagus. Karstic shrubs include Crataegus, Sambucus, Arbutus, Laurus, Buxus. Fabaceae also includes Ulex, Cytisus.



5.2. Heathland exploitation

The predominance of Fabaceae (Ulex, Cytisus) as well as theirhigh representation in virtually all human occupations throughoutthis period is quite remarkable (Fig. 3). An increase in moistureconditions, which seems to be part of the dynamics of the Heinrichevents H2 and H1, is responsible for the expansion of heathlandtaxa in the pollen record of the NW Iberianmargin (Naughton et al.,2007). These dynamics would explain the extent of Fabaceaethroughout the study region and its recurrent exploitation by theUpper Palaeolithic people from the Gravettian occupation ofSopeña rockshelter (ca. 24 ka BP; Figs. 1 and 2) (Uzquiano, un-published data), but more specifically in the Lower Magdalenian(Altamira-II, Cualventi, Las Aguas, Linar-C). These areas also pro-vided enough firewood in the later Magdalenian periods (Tito-Bustillo, La Pila), highlighting the relevance of the siliceous sub-strates surrounding the sites. It generated a second duality in woodresources exploitation, characterized by the alternation of calcar-eous and siliceous reliefs and the associated populations of Juni-perus and Fabaceae (Fig. 3) as most sites are located in the contactarea between both substrates (Cendrero et al., 1986). From anethnobotanical and ethnographic perspective, Fabaceae are ignitiontaxa frequently used by itinerant shepherds in their occasionalcampfires along the Cantabrian Mountains (Aseguinolaza et al.,1989). The recurrent use of this taxon may suggest short-termhuman occupations for these sites, closely connected to seasonalanimal resource exploitation and its related need of mobility(Straus, 1992; Lasheras et al., 2005e2006). The larger size of Cytisusand Ulex probably determined their choice among heathland spe-cies, as these shrubs provide enough fuel biomass for domestichearths. Furthermore, the increase in heathland shrubs exploita-tion may have complemented the caloric loss due to the virtualabsence of Betula prior to 14 ka BP, and the limited Pinus presence inpre-littoral areas. Undoubtedly, environmental factors played adecisive role in this regard.

5.3. Fluctuations of Betula and mesophilous taxa

Betula is practically absent in the Cantabrian charcoal recordbefore 15 ka BP (Linar-B, Cobrante, Altamira, Las Aguas-B4), exceptfor Cualventi, the first site where this taxon was recorded (Fig. 3).Birch absence in Altamira may be related to its less sheltered po-sition compared to the sites in the valley bottom (Cualventi).However, this taxon was already significant between 14.5 and14 ka BP in Las Aguas-B1/B2 (where it was absent 500 years before,Aguas-B4), and in Linar-C. On the other hand, on the easternAsturias coast (Tito-Bustillo) it is only slightly noticed. Betula be-comes an important component of the woody vegetation exploitedby Cantabrian Magdalenians from 12.5 ka BP in La Pila site, at thewestern Cantabrian shoreline (Fig. 3).

The different geographical location of the sites explains thediscontinuous presence of birch at the local scale. However, ac-cording to available AMS dates, their gradual increase can berelated to the development of favourable environmental conditionsat the regional scale that would also have allowed human settle-ments at the shoreline. This human displacement to present daycoastal areas offered Late Magdalenians new territories and furtherpossibilities to develop the dual exploitation of resources whichhad already started (Bernaldo de Quirós et al., 1992; Straus, 1992;Bernaldo de Quirós and Cabrera, 1996).

Birch fluctuations are not alien to those experienced by the restof the mesothermophilous taxa recorded in the area (Fig. 4). Itsweak, scattered and discontinuous appearances before interstadialconditions resulted from a combination of natural and humanfactors regarding the peculiar topography of the area and people

mobility throughout the territories between the pre-littoralmountains, their tributary valleys and vales, the coastal plain andthe rugged littoral. At the regional scale, the increase of deciduousQuercus is clearly related to the interstadial environmental condi-tions, whereas the reduced values for the rest of deciduous treeswould result from the interaction of natural and human factorsaforementioned. Climate improvement would not only haveinvolved the human occupation of new coastal territories (La PilaIV, Late Magdalenian occupation) but also encouraged the devel-opment of multiseasonal habitats favoured by the exploitation of awider range of animal resources from different biotopes as well asenough firewood from such environments to supply domestichearths (La Pila III, Early Azilian occupation).

5.4. The YD and the transition to the Holocene

By ca. 11 ka BP, human occupation at the shoreline completelyvanished according to the Cantabrian archaeological record avail-able. In western Cantabria, for instance, La Pila was abandoned. Asimilar situation is found in the eastern Cantabria shoreline (Fig. 1),in Peña del Perro rockshelter, and further east, in Santa Catalinacave (Uzquiano, 1992a). At the regional scale, environmental con-ditions were unfavourable for human habitation, so the YD eventmay be responsible for the abandonment of the coast. The onlycharcoal information currently available comes from the Azilianoccupations in the Asturias hinterland (Los Azules cave), where theabundance of Pinus coincides with its regional extension in the SWEuropean pollen records (González Sampériz et al., 2010). Thegradual decline in Pinus exploitation is replaced by deciduousQuercus, coinciding with the transition to the Holocene observed inthe European pollen record (Fig. 3). The shoreline was once moreinhabited 10.3 ka BP according to the charcoal information from theEl Carabión Azilian occupation, and coincides with the reinstalla-tion of favourable environmental conditions leading to the Holo-cene. At the time, birch was the major taxon exploited, togetherwith a number of deciduous species (Fig. 3).

Pine distribution areas are better represented as the sites arelocated in the inner valleys with a southern orientation and animportant development of calcareous relief. This is the case forLinar-C and especially of Los Azules cave. The strong presence ofsiliceous substrates in the coastal plain is responsible for thelimited Pinus extension. Hence, Betula precedes the subsequent

Fig. 4. Histogram showing the gradual progression of mesophilous trees in relation tothat of Betula throughout the late Upper Pleistocene and the transition to the Holocene.



Holocene deciduous Quercus extent in coastal areas, while in innervalleys Pinus plays the same pioneer role (Uzquiano, 1992b).

6. Conclusions

The set of taxa identified by Anthracology in northern Spainpresents close analogies with themain floristic features observed inwestern European pollen records. Moreover, charcoal data high-light the presence of plant communities of diverse ecology thatproliferated close to each other in the neighbourhood of the humansettlements considered. The geographical peculiarities of this areaare responsible for such distribution of plants. In a similar way, thelocation of the sites in ecotone areas and human mobility patternsin this territory generated alternative woodmanagement strategiesthroughout this period.

The aforementioned duality in wood resources exploitation isinherent to the development of a bipolar economy characterised bythe combined exploitation of terrestrial and marine resources, atypical feature of the Late Upper Palaeolithic (Straus, 1992;Bernaldo de Quirós and Cabrera, 1996). The same choice of the sitesto inhabit, combining the coast and lower valleys, is closely linkedto the development of such economic practises.

The extremely variable climatic conditions ofMIS2 not onlyaffectplant communities but also influence the nature of human occupa-tions, even causing the abandonment of some sites. Upper Solutreanand Lower/Middle Magdalenian occupations are mainly located inthe sheltered position favoured by the EeW disposition of the pre-littoral mountains (Altamira, Las Aguas), especially the southernexposures (Cualventi, Cobrante, Linar, Tito-Bustillo). According tocharcoal information (Fig. 3), the earliest occupations show a lowbiodiversity (Cobrante, Altamira-III, Las Aguas-B4) related to unfav-ourable environmental conditions (LGM, H1). Towards 14.5e14 ka BP, a certain increase in biodiversity is noticed (Las Aguas-B1/B2, Linar-C, Tito-Bustillo) indicating an improvement in environ-mental conditions (post-H1) for human occupation, which never-theless remain in the same sheltered positions. The more favourableclimatic conditions which characterised the Late Glacial interstadialbring human occupations closer to the coast (La Pila). Here, thesubsequent exploitation of a wider range of wood resources clearlyreflects the longer duration of human occupations (Bernaldo deQuirós et al., 1992). Later, the YD cold conditions results in theabandonment of the coast and the retrieval to sheltered positions forsome early Azilian occupations (Los Azules). Finally, new favourableenvironmental conditions encourage the development of Azilianoccupations in the eastern Cantabrianmarshlands (El Carabión) and,sometime later (10 ka BP), on the shoreline (Peña del Perro) (Fig. 2).

Strong climatic instability forced humans to adopt a constantand recurrent mobility throughout these territories following thedifferent seasonal cycles of the animal resources that constitute thebasis of their subsistence. Regarding plants, this mobility is one ofthe many factors that result in the scattered evidence of Betula andother mesothermophilous taxa (Fig. 4) which appear in the char-coal records considered.

DuringmostofMIS2, thewholepre-littoral areaplayed the roleofa shelterwhich integrates humanpopulations (location of the caves),different plant communities (reservoirs of phytodiversity and fire-wood) and associated fauna, generating the successive interactionsdiscussed here. In this sense, human mobility could be consideredthe best strategy for survival in a radically changing environment.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to Aixa Vidal and Sol Mallía-Guest for assisting in the English text.

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