HUMAN EVOLUTION Vol. 1 - N. 6 (545-556) - 1986

M. Mussi Dipartirnento di scienze storiche, archeologiche ed antropologiche dell'Antichit~ Universit?~ degli Studi di Roma

Key words: Upper Palaeolithic burials. Mesolithic burials. Burial rites.

Italian Palaeolithie and Mesolithic Burials

More than 50 skeletons have been found in Italy in Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic burials, most of them being of Pleisto- cene age. As for as Upper Palaeolithic is concerned, two distinct phases are recognized, with a gap in records between them of several millennia: 1) a first phase, in which rich burials, generally of adult or adolescent males, are found. Associated industries are of Gravettian - - Early Epigravettian type. Strict rules are fol- lowed in funerary practices. Sites of this period are only a few in Italy, but most of them yelded burials; 2) a second phase, of late W(irm IV age, with burials found in several sites all over Italy, associated with Final Epigravettian industries. Women as well as children are now buried in single graves, but men still outnumber women. Grave goods are scarce or lacking, except at Arene Candide, where very rich burials, customarily attributed to Meso- lithic, but actually of Dryas III age, were found. Truly Mesolithic sepultures are only a few, and burial goods are scarce or lacking.

Introduction

Some fifty inhumation of Pleistocene age so far known in Italy. As for as Palaeolithic mortuary practices are concerned, the data yielded by Italian sites are therefore promi- nent. However, those burials are widely ignored in the international literature, for at least two reasons:

1) several important caves, mainly in Liguria, were excavated last century, and most of the required informations are now lost;

2) most of the recent findings have been published in Italian, sometimes in local scientific journals, and have not attracted attention outside the country.

We intend to present a review of the better known and/or preserved Italian Upper Palaeolithic burials and, for comparison purposes, of the not many Mesolithic burials. An attempt is made to classify the inhumations on the ground of chronology. The consistency of the resulting burial groups is made clear with respect to personal characteristics of the inhumated, grave goods, burial attributes, and possibly rituals.

Upper Palaeolithic burials: first phase

While no sepulture is known in Italy during Middle Palaeolithic times, 13 of them are more or less firmly dated from Wiirm I I I to early w/irm IV, and are associated with Gravettian or Early Epigravettian industries (MFssI, in press). They were found mainly in Liguria, and only in two instances in Apulia. Actually, it means quite a high percentage of findings, as there are only a few caves or shelters with deposits of this period in Italy (Figure 1).

Those 13 sepultures correspond to 17 skeletons, as there are two double burials, and

546 MUSSI

(

*': 0

Oil

O

�9 burial{s)

Figure 1. -- Distribution map of caves and rockshelters with Upper Perigordian and Early Epigravettian (<<Leaf-shaped tools Phase>>) in- dustries. Bibliographic references for the data arranged in Table I and II are included. 1. Gr. dei FanciuUi (or Gr. des Enfants) (VERNEU 1902; VILLENEUVE et al., 1906-1912). 2. Ri- paro Mochi (no burial). 3. Gr. del Caviglione (RIVI~RE, 1872; RIVIERE, 1875b; RIVI~RE, 1887). 4. Barma Grande (GRAZlOSI, 1942; MASSARI, 1958; VERNEAU, 1892; VERNEAU, 1899; VILLENEUVE et al., 1906-1912). 5. Baousso da Torre (RIVI~RE, 1875A; RlVZ~RE, 1887). 6. Gr. deUe Arene Candide (CARmNI, 1942; PAOLI, 1974; SERGI et al., 1974. 7. Gr. della Cala. 8. Gr. delia Calanca. 9. Gr. di Trene. 10. Gr. Paglicci (BORGOGNINI TARLI & PALMA DI CESNOLA, 1979; BORGOGNINI TARLI et aL, 1980; MALLEGNI & PARENTI, 1972-73; MEZZENA & PALMA DI CESNOLA, 1972). 11. Gr. delle Veneri a Parabita (CREMONESI et aL, 1972; CREMONESI & GRIFONI pers. corn; FRAYER, 1981). 12. Riparo del Sambuco (MussI & ZAMPETTI iff press).

one triple. Most of them are males: only two females were found, in the so-called <<Negroid>> double sepulture at Gr. dei FanciuUi, and in the Triple sepulture at Barma Grande. Another skeleton in a double burial, Parabita II, has been determined by PARENTI & ROMANO (CREMONESI et al. , 1972) as a female, but with many doubts, and giving weight to a palaeoethnological characteristic: just the fact of being in a double sepulture. FRAYER (1981), who mensured this specimen, considers it as a male (erroneously quoting it as <<Mesolithic>>).

The age at death ranges from 13-14 years to an unspecified <<old age>> (the lady of the <<Negroid>> grave), most of the skeletons being referred to as males. However, there are no less than 5 adolescent males, and possibly one female (in the Triplex of Barma Grande). They are accompanied by exactly the same kind of goods, and have the same position as the adult people. The only exception is the adolescent from Baousso da Torre, oddly found laying face downwards, and without any accompanying implement.

Elsewhere, grave goods are always found: personal ornaments (necklaces, bracelets, caps, etc...) - made with perforated marine shells and canines of deer, or with fish vertebras - and some chosen bone or, more often, flint implements. In this case, they are valuable objects, either for their uncommon size, or shape. Only at Gr. delte Veneri (Parabita) the goods are few, but it should be remembered that half of the grave was destroyed by a hole dug in Neolithic times. A t Barma Grande the two poorer burials at 8.40 m. and 6.40 m. depth have either been much disturbed during excavations, or burnt. Some of the earliest dated graves (Gr. dei Fanciulli lev. I <<Negroids>> and H) are also simpler.

Graves were positively recognized in 4 out of the 13 burials, and possibly in a fifth (Barma Grande 8.40 m.: MussI, in press). In 7 occurrences, their presence was unnoticed,

I T A L I A N P A L A E O L I T H I C AND M E S O L I T H I C B U R I A L S 547

TABLE I - Upper Paleolithic burial characteristics (finding arranged, when possible, in a chronological order, from earlier to later burials).

Grave goods are defined as <~rich~ if including as least two of the following items: 1) elaborate ornaments made up of many perforated shells and canines of deer; 2) un-usually large flint blades or tools; 4) incised bone pedants. They are ~medium~ if only including simpler ornaments (made either with shells or with canines of deer) or unusually large flint blades. <~Scarce~ if consisting in a few items such as horns, pebbles, perforated shells.

Bex: male

Bex: female

~hild

Bingle burial

Multiple burial

3~ave: found

3rave: not found

3rave: ?zzs

Grave goods: rich

Grave goods: medium

3rave goods:

~>> ~ o ~ m cmmm

m m m m ~ o o o ~

f l . . . . . . . .

D O 0 0 0 0 0 Q 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 �9 �9

0 0 0 �9 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 O 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 �9 0 0 0 O 0 �9

�9 .. oo

. . . . . o o o

D ~ 0 0 0 7 ~ �9 0 0 1 0 �9 �9 0 �9

O 0 �9 �9

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O I

O 0 O 0 O 0

�9 �9 �9 O 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 �9

? O 0 �9 0 0 0 7 ? 0 0

0 0 0 0

~rave goods: not found

Ochre: plentiful

Ochre: scarce

Ochre: not found

3tones: as a structure

3tones: to cover

3tones: to support

~tones: not found

5ocalisation: inner cave

5ocalisation: entrance

5ocalisation: close to a wall

5ocallsation: away from walls

�9 0 0 0 O O Q O 0 �9

�9 O 0

D O 0 �9 O 0 �9 O 0 �9 �9

O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Q O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

�9 ? O e �9

�9 0 0 0 0

�9 ? 0 0 0

? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

? ? ? ?

O 0 �9 Or ? ? ? ? ?

O 0 O 0 O 0 �9

? ? ? ? ? ?

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ? ? 0 0 0 0

�9 O Q �9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

�9 0 0 7 ? 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 ? 0 ? ?

0 less than 20 years old

but should be granted by the good preservation of skeletal parts and personal belongings. Only at Gr. Paglicci lev. 21d the absence of a grave is positively stated (MEZZENA & PALlVIA DI CESNOLA 1972).

The corpses were left lying either on the back (9 occurrences) or on the side (4 occurrences), or even the abdomen (the adolescent of Baousso da Torte). Contracted positions are uncommon: they are found only in the early <~Negroid>> burial of Gr. dei Fanciulli, and possibly in the burnt sepulture of Barma Grande. The head was laying on the left side (8 occurences), when its position is known, and only rarely in another direction (<~Negroids>>, Paglicci 21d). It was often facing East, South-East or North-East (7 out of 11 occurrences in which the head orientation is known). This should be related to the fact that all the caves have a more or less North-South axis, and that 13 skeletons followed it. Only 3 - belonging to the Triplex of Barma Grande - - were in a transverse position (while in one instance this is unknown). The reason, for all of them, could be that

548 ~uss~

TABLE II - Upper Paleolithic corpse characteristics (finding arranged, when possible, in a more or less chronological order, from earlier to later burials).

Position: ext. back

Position: ext. side

Position: contracted

Position: unknown

Orientatiom: North-South

Orientation: South-North

Orientation: other

Orientation: axial

O~ientation: tr~nswerse

Orientation: unknown

Head on the ~is side

Head on the left side

Head in anothe~ position

Head position unknown

Head pointiD~ inside

Head pointin~ outside

Head in another direction

Head direction thnk~own

Head oriented eastwards

Head oriented westwards

Head opientation unknown

~ < > > m m m m m m m m m ~

O 0 O O O O �9 O O 0 �9 O 0 �9

O O �9

o o o �9 ~ n o o o �9 �9

g i g

O O � 9 �9 O O O O 0 0 0

�9 �9 0 0 0 O 0 �9

0 0 0 O 0 �9

0 0 0 �9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 �9 �9

0 0 0

u u m

~ ~ ~

O O �9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

�9 �9 �9

$ 0 0 0 0 O 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 a

O 0

O 0

�9 O Q O O 0 0 �9

0 0 0 0 0 O 0

Q �9

�9 O 0

g o

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 �9 �9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O face do~auwards m SW-NE @NE-BW m NE

�9 legs semi-flexed ~NW-SE ~.SE Q face upwards

a place close to a wall or to a very large boulder was always preferred. In the case of the Triplex, the only possibility to stay close to the wall for each sketeton to put the heads near it, and this obviously meant a transverse position. Similarly, in the double burial at Gr. delle Veneri (Parabita), both the skeletons could lie following the axis of the cave, and mean-while close to a wall, only if deposited with heads or feet close to the inner wall. This was the solution actually chosen, with feet towards the inner cave.

Only the first skeleton found in 1884 at Barma Grande was close to the entrance: otherwise, they are in the inner part of caves. It is not known if this fact is connected or no t with a better preservation of inner deposits.

Some ochre - - even a bed of ochre - was always found, except with the old lady of the <~Negroid~ sepulture, the odd adolescent of Baousso da Torre, the burnt skeleton of Barma Grande and, apparently, the other male skeleton at the same level of this cave.

Stones were found in connection with 8 skeletons: to protect heads or feet with a slab supported by other stones (4 occurrences), to support parts of the skeleton itself (4 occurrences), or just to cover the bones (3 occurences).

Summarizing, a typical sepulture of that period was as follows: a male adult or adolescent; lying in an extended position on the back or on the side, in the inner part of a cave. The deposition followed the axis of the cave itself, and was close to a wall, with the skull lying on the left and oriented in a more or less Eastern direction. There was a grave,

I T A L I A N P A L A E O L I T H I C A N D M E S O L I T H I C B U R I A L S 549

Figure 2. - Distribution map of caves and rock- shelters with Early Epigravettian (<<Shouldered tools phase>>)and Evolved Epigravettian indus- tries. No burial has been found. (Modified af- ter PALMA DI CrSNOLA, 1982).

f t ~ tl ~"~ t~t ,.:.-----.-" "~../, "--x; "-. . . . . I eJ

but stones were not always found, and in any case mostly to protect the skeleton. Ochre was present, as well as personal ornaments, and chosen bone and flint implements. The earlier burials (<<Negroids>>), and at least one found outside Liguria (Gr. Paglicci lev. 21d) are to a certain extent different. As a whole, we have a picture of highly ceremonial events, with formal and ritual rules strictly followed. By no means should it be taken for granted that the people eligible for burial in the caves were representative of the whole population.

Upper Palaeolithic burials: second phase

In later times, after a gap in findings of several millennia (Figure 2), 16 burials (with 19 skeletons) are known all over Italy (or even more, if we take into account the Arene Candide <<Mesolithic necropolis>>: see below). They are found from Liguria to Veneto, to Sicily, in accordance with a wider distribution of those later sites (Figure 3), and well dated to the end of Wiirm IV, from about 13,500 B.P. onwards (BARTOLOMEI et al., 1982; BELLUOMINI 1980; GRAZIOSI 1966; ONORATINI & DA SILVA 1978; PALMA DI CESNOLA 1976; PALMA DI CESNOLA & GALIBERTI 1983; SEGRE & VIGLIARDI 1983). As a rule, they are single burials, but in 3 instances (two at Gr. del Romito, one at Gr. dei Fanciulli) there are double ones. As usual, men outnumber women (12 to 3), but now the ladies are found in single as well as in double graves. Adolescent were recognized at Gr. del Romito auly (2 males and 1 female), but 4 skeletons of children are known, ranging from 2 to 8 years.

A grave was positively recognized in 4 instances, and only for Gr. Maritza I it is said that the corpse was just left lying on the ground (GglFONI & RADMILLI 1964). Elsewhere,

550 MUSSI

'4 oOo

"'"JO O

1 ,:~ � 9 O0

0 0

7

O no b u r i a l found ~ ^

�9 b u r i a l ( s ) o f Ple tBtocene age

�9 b u r i a l ( s ) o f H o l o c e n e age

!1

Figure 3. - - Distribution map of caves and rockshelters with Final Epigravettian industries of Pleistocene and Holocene age. Bibliographic references for the data arranged in Table I, II and III are included. (Modified after PALMA m CESNOLA, 1982). 1. Gr. dei Fanciulli (or Gr. des Enfants) (RIVI~RE, 1875b; RIVI~RE, 1887; VILLENEUVE et al., 1906-1912). 2. Gr. delle Arene Candide (CARDINI, 1980; PAOU et al., 1980. 3. Riparo Vatte di Zambana (CoRkAIN et al., 1976). 4. Riparo Tagliente (BAaTOLO- MEI et al., 1974; BARTOLOMEI et al., 1982). 5. Vado all'Arancio (MINELLONO et al., 1980). 6. Gr. Maritza (BORGOGNINI TARLI, 1969a, b; FA- VATI VANNI, 1964; RADMILLI & GRIFONI, 1964). 7. Gr. Paglicci (CORRAIN, 1966; MEZ- ZENA & PALMA nI CESNOLA, 1967). 8. Gr. della Madonna a Praia a Mare (CARDINI, 1970; NEWELL et al., 1979). 9. Gr. e Riparo del Romito (GRAZlOSI, 1962; GV, AZlOSI, 1963; GRAZIOSI, 1964; GRAZIOSI, 1965; GRAZlOSI, 1971; MESSERI, 1965). 10. Gr. di S. Teodoro (GRAzIOSI, 1943; GRAZlOSI, 1947; PARDINI, 1975). 11. Gr. dell'Uzzo (BORGOGmm TARLI, 1980; BORGOGNINI TARLI & REPETTO, 1985a, b; BORGOGNINI TARLI & REPETTO (in press); Cos- TANTINI, 1981; PII'ERNOI 1976-77; PIPERNO, 1985; PII'ERNO et al., 1980a, b; PIPERNO & TUSA, 1976; SEGRE & PIVERNO, 1975).

this fact is not made clear. Sepultures were in the inner part as well as at the entrance of caves and shelters (6 over 10 occurrences). Once again, one wonders how much of this apparent lack of preference for inner parts of caves is real, or instead just related to a better preservation of outside sediments in later times. It should be underlined, however, that apparently less than half of the sepultures are now close to a wall, the other ones being quite away from it. They still usually follow the axis of caves, but are sometimes found in a trasverse positions (7 occurences against 3, 6 others being unknown).

The position and orientation of the head is, unfortunately, rarely mentioned, so that nothing can be said about this. In all the 15 recorded occurrences, the skeleton was lying on the back.

Ochre was positively found in 7 instances (and is most abundant at S. Teodoro, even if one wonders if it was actually connected with any specific sepulture), but was apparently lacking in 5 other occurrences. Stones are not usual, but have been found with 5 skeletons, either under, beside, or over them. No elaborate stone structure, as in earlier graves, was reported. Grave goods are scanty (8 instances), or even lacking (3 instances). Only with S. Teodoro 1 were 12 perforated canines of deer collected, but it should be stressed that it was not during regular excavations. At Gr. dei Fanciulli lev. C, however, the two children after whom the cave was named, and who were lying side to side, wore a garment richly decorated with hundreds of small perforated shells. Elsewhere, as it has already been acknowledged (MINELLONO 1980), a whole or fragmentary horn is sometimes found.

As a conclusion, it can be said that Italian late Upper Palaeolithic burials usually contain a single adult male skeleton, but female as well as children's remains are

ITALIAN PALAEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC BURIALS 551

sometimes found. Apparently, there is no more emphasis on adolescents. The skeletons lay on their back, in a grave which often follows the axis of the cave, but they are located much more freely than in earlier times: either in the rear or at the mouth of caves and shelters, close to walls or away from them. Neither ochre, nor stones are often found in connection with sepultures, When occurring, the latter are just a heap of stones to fill the grave, or some slabs or boulders over the skeleton. Grave goods are usually scanty or lacking: when found, they often consist of a horn, which, being recurrent throughout Italy, looks much more like a ritual element, than as an occasional personal belonging. Apparently, rules related to the disposal of the dead were less rigid and compulsory than in previous times. The skeletons which have been found are possibly representative of a broader section of the population.

Mesolithic burials

Turning to Mesolithic sepultures, we cannot have an overall picture of the rules possibly followed: in fact, outside the two main sites of Arene Candide and Uzzo, only two other inhumations are known, one at Vatte di Zambana and the other at Praia a Mare. Moreover, as they are widely separated from each other, the impact of different local traditions cannot be ruled out (Figure 3). Actually, a 14C date of 10,330 q-95 B.P. (CARDINI 1980), as well as the study of bird remains (CASSOLI 1980), indicate that the Arene Candide <~necropolis~> is not of Holocene, but of late Upper Pleistocene age. However, as it has customarily been considered as Mesolithic (see, for instance, the main publication by CARDINg quoted above), it is included under this section. Anyway, even comparing it with the late Upper Palaeolithic burials, the peculiarities of the inhumation rules followed in this site are still self-evident.

Details on corpse and head position and orientation are not usually available (Table 3). However, it can be said that single sepultures are most frequent, even if some double ones are known. Even taking into account some disturbed burials at Arene Candide (not included in Table 3), the male skeletons are much more frequent than the children (even foetuses at Arene Candide). Graves have almost always been recognized, and skeletons lay on their back, except at Uzzo were there are two contracted ones.

Grave goods are scanty or even lacking (as ochre is) outside Arene Candide where, on the contrary, they are as a rule very rich, even with very young children: many perforated marine shells, canines of deer, flint and bone implements, lumps of ochre and other pigments, small animal remains with bones in anatomical connection (squirrels, birds, hedgehogs), etc... Apparently, they consist in personal belongings, as well as in ritual objects, and even in supplies of raw materials for some purpose or other. As said, the same ritual is followed even with very young children, who apparently were fully entitled to be members of the community.

Conclusions

As a general conclusion, at least two phases can be seen in Italian Palaeolithic burials: an earlier one, with emphasis on adult and adolescent males, inhumated with their rich and highly decorative ornaments and implements, in connection with Gravettian/Early Epigravettian industries; grave location and corpse position and orientation follow fairly rigid rules; and a later one, after a gap in records of several thousand years, with a few

552 MUSSI

TABLE I I I - Mesotithic burial characteristics (including Arene Candide <~Mesolithio> necropolis which is actually of late Upper Pleistocene age).

Grave goods are defined as <~rich~) if including at least three of the following items: 1) perforated marine shells; 2) canines of deer; 3) colouring matters; 4) animal remains as offerings; 5) flint and bone implements; 6) grinding stones. They are ~medium~ if including only two kinds of offerings, ~scarce~ if only one kind of times was selected.

H ~

Sex: male ? �9 �9 �9 �9 �9 �9 �9 Sex: female �9 �9 �9 Child �9 �9 �9 �9 �9 6 0 �9 �9

Single burial �9 �9 �9 �9 �9 �9 O �9 �9 �9 �9 �9 0 �9

Multiple burial �9 @ �9 �9 �9 @

Grave found �9 �9 �9 �9 O �9 �9 Grave ? �9 �9

Grave goods: rich

Grave goods: medium

Grave goods: scarce

Grave goods: not found

Ochre: plentiful

Ochre: scarce

Ochre: not found

Stones: to cover

Stones: to support

Stones: not found

Localisation: inner cave

Localisation: close to a wall

Locslisation: away from walls

Position: ext. back

Position: contracted

Position: unknown

o o o �9 0 0 0 0

o o 0 0 o o o o O o o

�9 o o O O o o o o �9 �9 �9

O O O ? O O O 0 0

O O O 0 0 O O 0 �9 ?

�9 �9 ? O O O 0 �9 �9

? �9 S O 0 0 ? 0 7

O O O O 0 O 0 0 0 O O O O 0 0 0 0 O ? �9 ? �9 O O O O O O O 0 0 �9

? O O O g O 0 �9

0 0 0 7 �9 O ? 0 ? ? ? ? 0 0 0 �9

more inhumated women, even in single graves - - just as in France during Magdalenian (QufiCHON 1976) - - and the first child burials; the inhumations are much more freely located within the caves, and grave goods are not impressive.

However, in the Arene Candide <mecropolis~>, which belongs to the very end of the pleistocene, there are considerable innovations, with respect to the other late Upper Palaeolithic burials. The differences with truly Mesolithic inhumations are self-evident, as well. Even taking into account Gravett ian or Early Epigravettian burials - - older by 10.000 or more years - - there are just superficial similarities in the richness of the

ITALIAN PALAEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC BURIALS 553

accompanying goods: the age the inhumated, the orientation of the skeletons (not considered in Tab. tlI, but extremely variable at Arene Candide: CAI~DINI 1980), and the grave goods themselves, are completely different.

From the extant data, presented above, there is no apparent continuity within Upper Palaeolithic mortuary practices, as seen from Italian burials. This fact is in contrast with some cultural aspects, as known from archaeology: for instance, lithic technology and typology, which apparently follow a gradual evolution. However, it is in accordance with other aspects, such as the chronological distribution of decorated and artistic objects and remains in Italy. The peculiarities of the Arene Candide <~necropolis>> indicate a complex pattern in mortuary practices, at least in our second Upper Palaeolithic phase. An explanatory model should therefore take into account several different aspects of Upper Palaeolithic cultures: demographic factors as well as social organization, local traditions and regional adaptations.

A more detailed knowledge of Upper Palaeolithic social dynamics - - which is beyond our scope - - is also required to properly understand Mesolithic mortuary practices. The scanty evidence we have in Italy for burials of this period do not allow, so far, generalized conclusions about their relationships with the earlier ones. The inhumation of some women and children, even in single graves, and the scarcity of grave goods, could mean that late Palaeolithic traditions are followed. However, the data are scanty, and some elements - - such as two contracted skeletons at Uzzo - - suggest that innovations were possibly under way.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - - I gratefully acknowledge Prof. Renata Cremonesi Grifoni, Istituto di Antropologia e Paleontologia Umana, Univ. di Hsa, for unpublished data on Gr. delle Veneri (parabita).

Drawings by D. Terzi.

References

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554 MUSSI

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Received: April 1985. Accepted: July 1985.