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Marketing Education Review

ISSN: 1052-8008 (Print) 2153-9987 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/mmer20

Who Are You Going After? A Practical Typologyto Generate Engagement in Professional StudentOrganizations

Laura Munoz, Richard J. Miller & Sonja Martin Poole

To cite this article: Laura Munoz, Richard J. Miller & Sonja Martin Poole (2016) Who AreYou Going After? A Practical Typology to Generate Engagement in Professional StudentOrganizations, Marketing Education Review, 26:2, 105-118

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10528008.2016.1166443

Published online: 21 May 2016.

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WHO ARE YOU GOING AFTER? A PRACTICAL TYPOLOGY TO GENERATEENGAGEMENT IN PROFESSIONAL STUDENT ORGANIZATIONS

Laura Munoz, Richard J. Miller , and Sonja Martin Poole

On the basis of experiential learning theory and Cialdini’s principles of influence, two psychologicalstreams focused on providing hands-on experiences and on effectively influencing individuals, thisarticle identifies a typology of students to engage them in professional student organizations.Exploratory factor analysis and cluster analysis tests were used to uncover the typology in which3 distinct segments were identified and named: motivated advocates, uncovered talent, and indifferentagents. Identifying and understanding each segment can lead faculty advisors to more effectivemarketing and engagement of students by better understanding the value that students place inbeing active members of professional student organizations.

Professional student organizations (PSOs) are valued byemployers and students alike. Business students oftenjoin PSOs for the opportunity to develop presentationand interviewing skills, network with professionals,locate internships, gain entrepreneurial experience(Peltier, Scovotti, & Pointer, 2008), and practice skill setslearned in the classroom. These organizations implicitlypromise to enhance the professional expertise that stu-dents will need during their careers. Equally important,employers expect that recent graduates have an appliedknowledge of strategic and tactical methods and entre-preneurial and venture experience (Scott, 2013).

In addition to overseeing campus and communityactivities, and ensuring that students adhere to therequirements set by the organization’s corporate officeand their institution (American Marketing Association,2013), faculty advisors play a critical role in motivatingstudents to join and participate in PSOs. Even with theperceived need for college graduates to gain competen-cies, it is often challenging for faculty advisors to

recruit and retain active members (Clark & Webb-White, 2010; Vowels, 2005) and many often strugglewith determining the best marketing strategies for suchorganizations. At the same time, student satisfactionwith these organizations is at best neutral, and, insome cases, membership often fails to meet expecta-tions (Peltier et al., 2008). There is a lack of detailedinformation about the organizational attributes thatstudents value (Clark & Kemp, 2008) and very little isknown about the kinds of individuals that are likely tovalue organizational membership.

This study aims to expand our understanding of themarket for PSOs by developing a typology that allowsfor a segmentation strategy on the basis of an integra-tion of factors that influence students to becomeengaged members. Results of this study can help facultyadvisors further develop their PSOs to make them moreattractive to students and thus increase membership andretention among these groups. We believe by knowingwho, as faculty advisors, we are going after, it would alsolead to forming positive professional relationships inwhich valued positive experiences between faculty andstudents occur as well. Such experiences are key to build-ing trust and an ongoing relationship in the very com-petitive world of student organizations.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The conceptual framework for this study is anchored intwo complementary theories from the field of psychol-ogy: Cialdini’s principles of influence (POI) and experi-ential learning theory (ELT). The application of aframework based on these theories may enhance

Laura Munoz (Ph.D., University of Texas - Pan American),Assistant Professor of Marketing, Satish and Yasmin GuptaCollege of Business, University of Dallas, Irving, TX, lserviere@udallas.edu.

Richard J. Miller (D.B.A., Cleveland State University),Assistant Professor of Management, Satish and YasminGupta College of Business, University of Dallas, Irving, TX,rmiller@udallas.edu.

Sonja Martin Poole (Ph.D., University of California atBerkeley), Assistant Professor of Marketing, School ofManagement, University of San Francisco, San Francisco,CA, SMPoole@usfca.edu.

Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article canbe found online at www.tandfonline.com/MMER.

Marketing Education Review, vol. 26, no. 2 (2016), pp. 105–118.Copyright � 2016 Society for Marketing Advances

ISSN: 1052–8008 (print) / ISSN 2153–9987 (online)DOI: 10.1080/10528008.2016.1166443

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student engagement, and consequently recruitmentand retention, by helping students recognize thevalue of membership. Cialdini’s POI provide a richsource for a discussion on how to motivate and directstudents to become active members of PSOs, an impor-tant detail of an engaged membership base. ELT offers astrong knowledge base through active learning experi-ences about the contexts and conditions that facilitatereal-world learning in curricular and extracurricularundertakings; given an awareness of job marketdemand for valuable practical experiences, strategicapplication may have an impact on students’ desire tojoin and maintain engagement in PSOs.

Cialdini’s POI Framework

Cialdini (1993) identified six principles that are criticalfor leading people to concede, comply, or change.These principles are situated in behavioral psychologyresearch that shows that persuasion works by appealingto a set of deeply rooted human needs and whenapplied properly can be a powerful way to convinceothers to eagerly do as they are asked. There is widesupport for POI in both scholastic and professionaldomains (Bobbitt, Inks, Kemp, & Mayo, 2000;Cialdini, 2005; Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004; Cialdini &Martin, 2006; Peltier et al., 2008; Serviere-Munoz &Counts, 2013). Consistent findings from experimentaldesigns have documented a systematic relationbetween the use of POI and a broad range of affective,behavioral, and cognitive indicators of social influence(Cialdini, 2001; Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004). POIincludes reciprocity (modeling the desired behavior),consistency and commitment (making people’s com-mitments active, public, and voluntary), scarcity (high-lighting unique benefits and exclusive information),authority (exposing expertise whenever possible),social proof (validating options by using peer powerwhenever it is available), and liking (uncovering realsimilarities and offering genuine praise and comple-ments). Cialdini (2001) suggested that to compoundimpact, managers and executives actively work toincorporate the elements of POI in combination.

Because engagement, recruitment, and retention inPSOs are essentially marketing activities aimed at gener-ating a valuable exchange, it seems appropriate to applyPOI to an engagement strategy. Groups and organiza-tions that receive sustained commitments from theirmembers tend to have high levels of membership

participation (Gruen, Summers, & Acito, 2000). POIemphasizes that such commitment and involvement ofthe group will occur through reciprocity or commitmentand consistency. In addition, PSOs that practice POI maybenefit from a more participative membership wheremany subtasks can be divided among members, limitingtime-consuming and unnecessary strain of energy andcapacities (Clark & Kemp, 2008). The behavioral motiva-tors of POI may help faculty advisors to become moreeffective influencers while building long-term relation-ships in a mutually rewarding way with those whomthey interact (Cialdini & Martin, 2006). However, fewstudies have looked into the antecedents of retention inPSOs (Clark & Kemp, 2008; Gruen et al., 2000) orengagement.

ELT

ELT is a well-known concept that goes beyond theclassic boundaries of a classroom or disciplinary area(Bobbitt et al., 2000). As the name suggests, ELTinvolves learning from experience, or “learning bydoing” (Dewey, 1938). The concept recognizes thatstudents’ experiences, including those outside the for-mal classroom, figure prominently in the learning pro-cess; students learn most effectively when they have a“direct encounter with the phenomena being studiedrather than merely thinking about the encounter, oronly considering the possibility of doing somethingabout it” (Borzak, 1981, p. 9).

Similarly, the marketing education literature indi-cates a clear student preference for learning activitiesthat are experiential (Graeff, 2010). In a study examin-ing pedagogical preferences among marketing researchstudents, Bridges (1999) found that hands-on, interac-tive, real-world learning activities were most preferred.In a multidimensional analysis of marketing students’perceptions of learning activities, Karns (2005) foundthat student perceptions of such activities are struc-tured by the degree to which activities are enjoyable,challenging, and real world based; they prefer learningactivities that are fun, fairly demanding, and moreexperiential in nature. Karns’ study further revealedthat students sense that experiential learningapproaches contribute to their learning. The learningactivities that were seen as moderately effective in con-tributing to the students’ learning were seen as moreapplied (real-world) and specific such as internships,class discussion, and case analyses. Mapped as least

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effective and least enjoyable were text/readings, home-work, multiple-choice tests, essay tests, and termpapers. It is important to point out that the studyfound that not all learning activities that are experien-tial in nature are preferred. The more challenging activ-ities—ones that are more difficult, demanding, abstract,active, and personal—were less preferred by the stu-dents. This finding suggests that although studentsfind experiential learning activities more attractiveand more effective, not all experiential learning activ-ities are viewed equally. Other studies have also sug-gested that students report feeling empowered byhaving greater knowledge and know-how (Graeff,2010; Young & Hawes, 2013) and that experientiallearning leads to better prepared students with strongercareer backgrounds (Clark & Webb-White, 2010;Serviere-Munoz, 2010; Van Doorn et al., 2010).

In general, ELT implementation occurs wheneverthe student switches from the role of passive listenerto that of active respondent as it provides them with abetter understanding of the world, especially whencombined with critical thinking approaches(Frontczak, 1998; Petkus Jr, 2000). Descriptions of tech-niques that are based on ELT in the business educationliterature range from a simple asking for a show ofhands in class, to facilitating student-operated busi-nesses (Hawtrey, 2007; Van Doorn et al., 2010). Anyactivity that uses active learning experiences is apply-ing ELT. For the purposes of this study, these kinds ofactivities are called active learning activities (ALAs).

Membership Management and Segmentation

It is commonly accepted that both recruitment andretention are important to any organization.Recruitment involves attracting the ‘right’ individual:one that is compatible with the organization’s purposeand goals and is likely to provide long-term benefit tothe organization. Retention involves preserving mem-bers that participate, co-produce, and use the member-ship benefits (Gruen et al., 2000). Perhaps even moreimportant is the fact that recruitment and retentionrely on engagement in terms of building and sustaininga membership base. Thus, a task of paramount impor-tance for faculty advisors is to identify the segments onwhom to focus their efforts. For example, students mayjoin an organization because they believe networking isimportant to their career development. As long as thePSO can continue to deliver on its promise to provide

networking opportunities, members will actively parti-cipate and this will positively affect retention rates.

Regarding membership management, the objectiveof a market segmentation analysis is to improve theorganization’s competitive position by dividing adiverse student population into groups of consumerswith distinct needs and wants. Segmentation can bedescribed in terms of implementing customer prioriti-zation and involves a process of identifying right andwrong customers. Once segmented, the organizationcan then identify which market segment it can effec-tively serve. This stage is important as theory andresearch suggest that well-defined segment(s) tend toprovide a source of success for the organization in themarketplace (Angulo, Pergelova, & Rialp, 2010;Rogers, Finley, & Patterson, 2006). By grouping pro-spective and current members based on their needs,backgrounds, and expectations faculty advisors canengage in stronger strategic planning. Because thereare no studies that closely examine constructs asso-ciated with PSO engagement to identify potential tar-gets, this study then explores the existence ofsegments among a pool of prospective as well asenrolled PSO members.

METHOD

As the conceptual background of this article shows,ALAs and POI have a strong track record in being ableto help faculty advisors to attract members in a waythat leads to more engaged students and improvesrecruitment and the retention efforts. To strengthena PSO member base, a typology is created to under-stand the profiles of current and potential members.Such an understanding would aid in communicatingvalue in ways that are relevant to contemporary stu-dent populations. Thus, this paper provides such atypology based on ALAs, Cialdini’s POI, and descrip-tive variables.

Measures

Intention to be an Active Member: Intention to be anactive member was captured using a five-point Likertscale employed by Kidwell and Jewell (2003). Thisthree-item scale was selected to measure intentionbecause it is a more reliable indicator of actual beha-vior than a single-item scale (Kidwell & Jewell, 2003)

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and has been used in previous studies focusing onbehavioral intention (Carrington, Neville, &Whitwell, 2010; Kidwell & Jewell, 2003; Serviere-Munoz & Counts, 2013). The measure’s Cronbach’salpha, .96, denoted internal consistency (Hair,Tatham, Anderson, & Black, 1998). The measuresused can be found in the Appendix.

Discriminating Variables

ALAs

A review of the literature offered no clear consis-tency on how to measure activity preferences forPSOs. Thus, to develop an ALA preference scale,rganizational features were derived from the profes-sional organization literature (Bobbitt et al., 2000;McCarthy & McCarthy, 2006; Peltier et al., 2008)that are relevant to student versions of professionalorganizations and can be deemed ALAs. These ALAfeatures included contact with professionals, interper-sonal/networking skills, professional development,interaction with other industry professionals, andentrepreneurial activities. The respondents wereasked to rate the importance of each of the activitiesusing a 5-point Likert scale to maintain consistencywith other measures. See the Appendix for the listingof the 24 ALAs used.

Cialdini’s POI

All POI factors were included as measures in thisstudy. As with the ALA, these factors were captured byasking the respondents to rate the importance of eachon an existing five-point Likert scale originally pro-posed by Serviere-Munoz and Counts (2013). At leastfour actions were listed per factor in an effort to fullycapture each principle and its content. The scales’structure was confirmed using exploratory factor analy-sis, which supported the five factors as proposed byServiere-Munoz and Counts (2013). In addition, thealpha levels were above the .70, required for acceptablescale reliability (Hair et al., 1998). The factor analysis aswell as alpha levels can be found in Table 1.

Descriptive Variables

To offer a more comprehensive typology, descriptivevariables were included as well. Descriptive variableshelp explain how clusters may differ on importantdimensions such as demographics (Hair et al., 1998)and thus offer a more insightful analysis. The descriptivevariables included were whether respondents werealready a member of a PSO (member), gender, age, eth-nicity, marital status, work load (work) ranging from fulltime, part time or no work, and whether they were firstgeneration college students (first college). See Table 2 forthe frequencies of the descriptive variables.

Table 1Active Learning Activities Exploratory Factor Analysis: Rotated Component Matrix and Total Variance Explained

Component

Contact with

professionals

Item No. Loading

Interpersonal/

Networking Skills

Item No. Loading

Professional

Development

Item No. Loading

Interactions with

other Professionals

Item No. Loading

Entrepreneurial

Activities

Item No. Loading

1 .767 6 .541 11 .671 9 .798 22 .713

2 .753 7 .788 12 .828 10 .762 23 .887

3 .645 8 .694 13 .676 21 .553 24 .888

4 .644 18 .684 14 .628 25 .875

5 .596 19 .586 15 .469 26 .763

20 .670

% of variance explained 18.373 16.938 14.348 13.363 10.567

Cumulative % 18.373 35.312 49.660 63.023 73.590

Alphas .882 .876 .883 .854 .913

Notes.1. Items numbers correspond to scales items as shown in the Appendix.2. Extraction method: principal component analysis. Rotation method: varimax with Kaiser normalization. Percentage of variance explained andcumulative percentage are from the rotation sums of squared loadings.

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ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

Data Collection

Data for this study were collected from introductorymarketing classes in a college of business at a regionalstate university in the southern Unitd States, in whichmembership in several PSOs is available. A total of 242usable surveys were collected.

Exploratory Factor Analysis for ALAs

As previously mentioned, a review of the literature wasconducted to capture the most relevant ALA. However,before running our analysis and to observe the under-lying structure of the ALA scales an exploratory factoranalysis was done using principal component extractionand varimax rotation. The results showed a five compo-nent structure that accounted for a cumulative varianceof 73.590%. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of SampleAdequacy (MSA), which evaluates the appropriateness ofapplying factor analysis, was .935. MSA levels above .50indicate appropriateness (Hair et al., 1998). The results

can be seen in Table 1. Cronbach’s alpha for the ALAshowed adequate levels of reliability: .88 for contactwith professionals, .90 for interpersonal/networkingskills, .86 for professional development, .87 for interac-tions with other professionals, and .94 for entrepreneur-ial activities. Only items loading .50 or above wereretained (five for contact, six for interpersonal, five forprofessional, three for interactions, and five for entrepre-neurial activities). Two items cross-loaded on two factors(#16: having more extracurricular activities on myresume and #17: increased involvement in the learningprocess) and were removed from the solution.

Cluster Analysis

To examine the structure of the data, cluster analysiswas performed in two stages. First, a hierarchical clusteranalysis was conducted to uncover the formation ofclusters using within-group linkage. Through a visualexamination, the dendogram diagram depicted a threecluster solution thus, to confirm this solution, the sec-ond stage involved conducting a k-means cluster analy-sis using 2, 3, 4, and 5 cluster solutions. This approach isconsistent with the use of cluster analysis in marketingresearch (Michaelidou, 2012). Examinations of the itera-tion history and final cluster center outputs for all thepossible solutions confirmed the k = 3 cluster solution asthe best possible solution. The clusters’ membership wasas follows: 152 respondents were grouped in cluster 1;44 respondents in cluster 2; and 46 respondents in clus-ter 3. The three-cluster solution, along with the clusterdescriptors and significance level are included in Table 3.

Clusters

Based on the analysis conducted, the three-cluster solu-tionwas selected as the best possible option. The clusterswere named (a) motivated advocates, (b) unconvincedtalent, and (c) indifferent agents. The strength of inten-tion to be an active member along with the valuesexpressed toward Cialdini’s POI and ALA were used toname and describe the subsequent clusters.

Cluster 1: Motivated Advocates

Representing 62.8% of the sample, this clusterdenoted the highest values across all respondents forintention on being active members, ALA, and Cialdini’s

Table 2Demographic Data of Respondents

Descriptives Level

Percentage

of Sample

Member of PSO Member 43.0

Nonmember 57.0

Gender Male 51.4

Female 48.6

Age (years) 18–22 55.0

23–29 38.9

30 and older 6.1

Ethnicity White 48.3

Hispanic 42.8

Black 4.1

Asian 2.9

Other 1.9

Marital Status Single 74.8

Married 14.9

Divorced 2.9

Unmarried couple 6.6

Other 0.8

Work Part-time 50.2

Full-time 27.2

No 22.6

First time college Yes 30.9

No 69.1

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POI. Thus, this cluster is called motivated advocates asthey will be driven individuals who will respond to thePOI and have a strong preference for ALA, probablymaking them an enthusiastic and committed group.Specifically, the highest values were for commitmentand consistency and scarcity, on how they value beinginfluenced (Cialdini’s principles), and working on theirpersonal/networking skills, as part of their ALA prefer-ences. Membership in this cluster was also character-ized by their youth (average age of 21 years).

Cluster 2: Unconvinced Talent

This cluster accounts for 18.2% of the sample andreported more neutral scores, averaging 3.36 on theintention on being active members of a PSO. These areindividuals who showed a middle-of-the-road interest inALA, with values ranging from 4.25 to 3.86, and not asstrong of a preference as the motivated advocatesshowed on which POI they favor, ranging from 4 to3.70. This seems to be a group that is missing someenthusiasm and thus are not as convinced as the pre-vious cluster. Entrepreneurial activities and scarcity weretheir least favorite ALA and POI, respectively. Perhapsthis is because these is the oldest cluster, average

29.25 years of age, most of them are not first-generationcollege students and have been in the workforce beforeor continue to be and were probably exposed to moreconventional career opportunities.

Cluster 3: Indifferent Agents

Scoring the lowest on intention to be an active mem-ber of a PSO (average 2.63), cluster 3 accounts for 19.0%of the sample. They received their name from reportingthe lowest preference for all ALA and POI factors; makingthem a hard group to potentially recruit and work with.Interacting with other professionals was the least pre-ferred ALA, while reciprocity and scarcity were of noparticular interest to them; choices that reinforce whythey might remain uninterested in joining a PSO. Anadditional characteristic of this cluster is its relativelyyoung age (members average 23 years). A graphical repre-sentation of the clusters centroids based on the sum-mated ALA and POI measures is provided in Figure 1.

DISCUSSION

Most faculty advisors to PSOs would state that there aremany factors as to why certain students show interest

Table 3Cluster Solution

Clusters

1 2 3

n = 152 n = 44 n = 46 ANOVA (F) p

Intention 4.04 3.36 2.63 35.871 .000***

Active Learning Activities

Contact with Professionals 4.28 4.07 3.28 53.051 .000***

Interpersonal/Networking Skills 4.53 4.23 3.46 48.739 .000***

Professional Development 4.39 4.25 3.50 37.823 .000***

Interactions with others 4.27 4.14 3.09 54.984 .000***

Entrepreneurial Activities 4.20 3.86 3.20 29.008 .000***

Cialdini’s Principles*

Reciprocity 3.78 3.75 3.00 29.711 .000***

Commitment and Consistency 4.18 4.05 3.35 33.639 .000***

Social Proof 4.27 4.00 3.07 62.608 .000***

Liking 4.01 3.70 3.20 31.136 .000***

Authority 4.10 3.86 3.13 59.699 .000***

Scarcity 4.18 3.93 3.04 43.260 .000***

% 62.80 18.18 19.02

Notes. N = 242. Cluster descriptors are based on overall scores. Scores range from 1 to 5 (low-high level) for scale based items.*p < .10, **p < .05. ***p < .01.

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and join. However, the literature has not provided clearindications as to who these students are and theapproaches and features that lead to their engagement.This study provides insight into how Cialdini’s POI andALA, as well as other variables, such as work and collegeexperience, can be used to more effectively target andengage different students. From this information, atypology of three distinctive groups, or clusters, wascreated to examine what drives student engagementin PSOs. The examination of what makes these groupsunique can offer a sound direction in the strategicrecruiting and retention efforts in regards to PSOs aswell as highlight theoretical advancements as to thesignificant psychological influences, such as POI andALA that contemporary students are receptive to.

The study finds that all of the POI factors (reciprocity,commitment and consistency, social proof, liking,authority, and scarcity) are significant ways to exertinfluence over a student pool which advances theunderstanding of why students intend to join a PSO.This finding is critical for faculty advisors of PSOs, asthey help their advisees compete for growing member-ship in their respective organizations. However, it is notenough for faculty advisors to just gain membership asthey are probably also interested in the behaviors ofmembers, both collective and individual, the degreethe members participate and use membership benefits,and in co-productive and volunteering behaviors(Gruen et al., 2000). Thus, for example, understandingthe influences of reciprocity and commitment and

consistency sets a baseline on how to stimulatemember-ship as a bridge between practice and theory of PSOs.

As the results show, faculty advisors and their advi-sees need to focus on three distinct groups when work-ing towards building and maintaining organizations.The first segment, named motivated advocates, encom-passes true believers of the value of PSOs. These studentsdo not need to be convinced; they scored the highest onintention to be active members because they see thevalue of ALA. Motivated advocates were also very recep-tive to all the POI factors. This finding establishes aroadmap for faculty advisors on how to recruit andengage them. Perhaps such motivation comes from thefact that most of the members in this segment are firstgeneration college students and were unlikely to haveexperienced much role modeling of how to navigate thecorporate workplace. Therefore, to maintain their inter-est, faculty advisors must include a wide variety of pro-jects and opportunities where these students are able toengage in experiences, such as having contact with pro-fessionals, working on networking skills, and profes-sional development. It is important to note that suchexperiences must include organizational, as well asentrepreneurial and small business interactions, due tothe strong preference these motivated advocates showedfor entrepreneurial activities.

Unconvinced talent, the second cluster, poses a chal-lenge to faculty advisors and student leadership. Asstated before, they reported a middle-of-the-road per-spective towards ALA and POI. These individuals werethe oldest in terms of age, many of them were not first-generation college students (a significant differencewith cluster 1), and showed the least interest and pre-ference in entrepreneurial activities and scarcity. A pos-sible explanation is that some skepticism is preventingthem from scoring higher on their intent to be activemembers and thus, hindering their desire to engageand develop additional talents. For example, if cur-rently employed, they might find more value in theirwork-based activities and relationships. In addition,such a low preference for entrepreneurship could stemfrom seeing their parents have success with their col-lege degree in the corporate world or from observingthat entrepreneurship is a constant hard work lifestyleif they come from entrepreneurial families. In addition,their age and not being first generation college studentsmight make them more likely to seek employmentthan to pursue the entrepreneurial path. Therefore,this segment should not be expected to attend

Figure 1Centroids of Summated Active LearningActivities and Principles of Influence

1

2

3

4

5

1 2 3 4 5

Prin

cip

les o

f I

nflu

en

ce

Active Learning Activities

Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

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entrepreneurially oriented activities or events and themessaging aimed at them has to be carefully thoughtout to highlight compelling reasons of why attendingevents would be advantageous for them. In addition, amembers only positioning of the PSO, as suggested byPOI, will become a strong detractor for them. This seg-ment has the potential to become a late adopter groupthat could potentially join. However, event attendancemight seem a more manageable goal.

A tenet of marketing is that there are segments thatcannot be profitably served and thus should not betargeted. Cluster 3 is formed by what we called indiffer-ent agents and may be part of such a segment. Theseindividuals denoted the lowest preference for ALA andPOI as well as the lowest intention to be active membersin PSOs. A significant difference between them andcluster 1 resides in the differences observed for socialproof, liking, and interpersonal/networking skills.Social proof and liking, both POI, and interpersonal/networking skills, ALA, were of no particular interestfor cluster 3 while these were strongly preferred for clus-ter 1. The common denominator among these threefactors is the social aspect embedded in all of them.Social proof encompasses activities such as studentsdressing the part in events and promotional materialshighlighting the organizations’ achievements, likingcalls for members identifying with each other and favor-ing group experiences and frequent interactions, andnetworking calls for visiting existing businesses andlearning or practicing how to interview and network.Indifferent agents do not find the value of the socialaspect that PSOs offer, as they seem to favor individualexperiences or learning activities. Internships or indivi-dual contests would be a better offering for this group.Table 4 provides details of further cluster segmentation.

An important finding is the fact that ethnicity, mar-ital status, and workload were not significant variablesin the formation of clusters. This contradicts theimpression held by some that certain ethnicitiesmight need a different approach or that having domes-tic or work responsibilities act as detractors to showinginterest and intention to join and be active members.Thus, students should not be discounted, or thought,that they will have no interest in PSOs based on thesefactors. Instead, what should be accounted for is thefact that although interested, marital status and work-load can become barriers to active participation. This iswhere faculty leadership can oversee having events atdifferent days and times of the week, as well as offering

flexible engagements, so students with a family or jobscan nurture their interest for active learning.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR MARKETINGEDUCATORS

The clusters provided in this study show a potential targetsegment that faculty advisors can opt to serve and engageas part ofmanaging a PSO.As shown, it is not just an issueof getting themessage out, but one of understandingwhycertain segments have higher intentions to be activemembers. With this information and once segmentshave been identified, faculty advisors can create a betteropportunity to guide the development, operation, andmaintenance of PSOs. Given the insights of this study,faculty advisors are better positioned to focus on a rela-tionship marketing strategy as they provide resourceswith the purpose of increasing the professionalexchange’s efficiency and effectiveness (Gruen et al.,2000). However, as most of the POI factors indicate, it isnot the faculty advisor alone that will make a PSO suc-cessful as students must be actively engaged in the pro-cess and leadership. Thus, faculty advisors need to helpguide the messaging to engage students but then under-stand when to take the ‘guide on the side’ role to allowstudents to become an integrated part of the process.

The balancing act is made more important becausefaculty advisors must also manage several member rela-tionships (i.e., officers, individual members, and at theaggregate level) to create valuable experiences whilepositively influencing students. Cluster 1 provides valu-able insight into this issue because they want to gainexperience and networking opportunities (networkingand interpersonal skills), while also maintaining anactive role in setting individual and organizationalgoals (commitment and consistency). Thus, the facultyadvisor must keep an active understanding of when toprovide guidance and mentoring that students desire,while also providing the students with enoughautonomy.

The issue of balance is further highlighted by thefaculty member managing individuals with strongintentions to be active members, who can be positivelystimulated by POI, which brings a return on invest-ment to the organization. For example, members whoare influenced by reciprocity and consistency would inturn give back to the organization by being committedtowards the wellbeing and advancement of all themembers. These advocates would also largely benefit

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and thus maintain their high intention to be activemembers from a wide array of ALA. Partnership withother student organizations, as well as with other uni-versity offices and professional programs, are the routeto provide valuable and interesting hands-on projectsand ways to practice their knowledge.

After the engagement of the first cluster isaddressed, the focus must turn to the second cluster,unconvinced talent. They can be attracted by main-taining a general inclusion theme in most or all theactivities carried out by the PSO. This is in light thatscarcity was not a preferred way to influence and thus

attract this segment. While motivated advocates grav-itate towards member only events, this would pre-clude the cluster 2 individuals from participating.Perhaps the organization can limit the number of“members only” events to attract inclusion via thissegment. In addition, the age component of this clus-ter needs to be considered such that they do notconsider events to be ‘too young’ for them.

Cluster 3 is formed by indifferent agents whodenoted the lowest preference for ALA and POI. Manyof the ALA factors tend to have a social element thatcalls for interaction with other members or with

Table 4Managing and Positioning for Professional Student Organizations Advisors

Cluster 1:

Motivated advocates

To generate engagement for this cluster the focus should be placed on including a wide assortment of active

learning activities in the areas of contact with professionals, professional development, entrepreneurial skills,

and interpersonal/networking skills. Being the latter the preferred area for this cluster. Thus a heavy emphasis

on activities such as improving networking and presentation skills, how to interview for jobs, offer help or a

system for finding internships, and visiting real businesses should be placed.

These activities should be challenging, as these are highly motivated and driven individuals. They do not need to be

sold on value as they are fully aware of it. These individuals are seeking the opportunity to engage and thus, the

organization becomes the means to that end. Faculty advisors might find themselves becoming a facilitator

overseeing the group rather than micromanaging it. By delegating, faculty advisors will generate trust and

influence with these students as they have a strong preference for commitment and consistency, one of Cialdini’sprinciples of influence. Students in this cluster understand that making a commitment ties ones’ self to such action.

Thus, their actions will most likely be consistent with their words. It is important to note that to have them act on

such commitment it is recommended that faculty member oversees that these students 1) own the commitment, 2)

have an action associated with it (such as being in charge of chapter events and planning activities), and 3) make

the commitment public (which could be a welcoming luncheon or the first official club meeting) (Cialdini, 2005).

It is recommended that positioning strategies be centered around the individuals and how the organization is the best

solution for them. The message can address how personalization of one’s career path can be achieved through

active engagement.

Cluster 2:

Uncovered talent

Individuals in this cluster reported a middle-of-the-road perspective towards active learning activities and principles of

influence. They were also the oldest in terms of age, many of them were not first-generation college students (a

significant difference with cluster 1), and might perceive that there is more value in their work-based activities and

relationships rather than participating in a professional students organization. The lack of interest or lack of

perceived value causes a cascade effect in how they view the value in learning activities and principles of influence.

To generate engagement, these individuals need to be convinced first that there is value in joining and participating.

Thus, the organization should position by value. The message should clearly delineate the benefits, value and

outcomes that the organization can provide. As these are older individuals who work, posters with either

testimonials or a list of the benefits available would enhance the likelihood of the message being received. Another

positioning strategy could be centered around the specific benefits and how they will positively generate value.

There needs to be a clear promise and outcome delineation of what the organization claims to do. Faculty advisors

could oversee that activities and events be scheduled at various times of the day to be able to cater to different

work schedules. In addition, they could coordinate a special session for those who have been in the work force on

how to integrate student organizations into a resume.

Cluster 3:

Indifferent agents

Indifferent agents represent a challenge to engage as they reported the lowest preference for active learning activities and

principles of influence. The approach might be to simply let that they see the value for themselves as they witness how

active members professionally grow and are engaged in their profession. This group was young so it might be that they

are still transitioning or finding “their way” through college. Hosting open night events, mention of the events and the

benefits in classes, and being exposed to the recruiting materials from cluster 2 can generate awareness and motivation

for trial. Faculty members could rely on advisors to refer students whose major is marketing and who they see have no

involvement in student organizations directly to them. In this way, the faculty member could send a personal email or

have an informal conversation with the student to be able to point out what the student is missing by not joining.

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working professionals. Thus, for this cluster it is morerelevant to participate in activities where they are notpart of an aggregate level. Individual competitions,such as advertising contests or sales competitions,seem the route to serve these students. However, bothfaculty advisors and students in the organization mustrealize that the marginal costs of attracting these stu-dents might not be worth the marginal return. Thisrealization needs to be handled appropriately, but itcan be a great teaching moment to show the studentsthat some potential target markets are better left alone.

The aforementioned implications are further elabo-rated on in Table 5, which offers a how-to guide basedon each principle addressed in this research. It offersexamples of ALA and guidance on how to implementCialdini’s POI to recruit and maintain an active memberbase in PSOs. While developing future professionals whoare well rounded and ready to meet career challenges is aworthy cause, it can often take a substantial amount ofextra time and energy; the goal of Table 5 is to provide aclear how to roadmap to serve as a guide in such efforts.

It is also recommended that faculty advisors engage inplanning activities along with the current member baseto promote a wide internal acceptance of what is neededto grow the organization and maintain member engage-ment. From personal experiences, we propose to workwith the members by identifying the objectives that willlead to organizational development and identify specificactions that will be needed to meet each objective. Arecommended best practice approach is for the facultyadvisor to be more of a facilitator allowing the students ahands-on approach and thus generating greater commit-ment from the student base. In addition, to ensure own-ership of the objectives and promote leadership amongthe members, such goals can be distributed among themember base; faculty advisors continue to serve then asfacilitators. Last, the advisor works with the members indeveloping the identity of the organization. This iden-tity, which becomes the organization’s brand, canbecome one of the major recruiting points and thuseveryone must be aware of the organization’s identityand be educated on how to promote and protect it.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

Our research findings provide some valuable insights toengage student participation in PSOs based on the dif-ferent clusters identified. However, there are some lim-itations that merit acknowledgement. First, this study

includes data from one institution and, although thesample size is adequate, more representation couldhave been achieved if additional institutions wereincluded in the study. Equally important is to mentionthe fact the sample in this study has a high proportionof Hispanic individuals. Thus, future studies thatadvance and include samples with a larger variation ofother ethnicities should be pursued. Second, the lack ofaccounting for personal characteristics (e.g., achieve-ment orientation, dominance) and individual differ-ences (e.g., self-efficacy, locus of control) is also aninherent limitation to this study. It would be beneficialto address in future research how these characteristicsand differences influence motivation and leadership inthese organizations. An additional limitation could befound in social desirability bias from the respondents asno measure was included to control for this tendency.However, it is not likely that this bias exerted a greatdeal of influence in the responses obtained because ofthe nonethical nature of the research topic.Nevertheless, future studies could capture whether thisbias influences the responses obtained.

Future research could also explore personal charac-teristics and individual differences to provide a morecomprehensive analysis to determine whether theyhave an effect on motivation, intention, leadership,and retention among other topics. As mentioned ear-lier, a student’s achievement orientation, self-efficacy,and locus of control, among others, could have a director moderating effect on the behavior exhibited in stu-dent organizations. The effect of environmental forces,such as competition (many PSOs to choose from), auniversity’s wealth and support towards PSOs, and acampus’ social climate, and learned skills, such as lea-dership, problem solving, and critical thinking, areworth exploring as student populations continue toincrease their diversity.

Additional studies could also explore variations ofthe principles of influence and their practices amonginternational students or among students outside ofthe United States. International students’ variationscould be explored where acculturation levels areaccounted for. Thus, acculturation would serve as acontrol mechanism. It could also serve as a moderatingfactor as more acculturated individuals tend to adoptmore practices of the host country and thus mightexhibit results that are closer to those who are native.If samples are collected from other countries, develop-ment could be accounted for to explore whether

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differences in students’ responses vary according toaccess to resources.

Last, the use of social media and its influence inrecruitment, engagement, and retention is encour-aged. Social media tends to have its own rules andetiquette; it seems interesting to explore whetherusing a large number of platforms can truly help to

motivate or might disengage users. It could also serveas a medium to augment the experiences provided.Future research that addresses the use and preferenceof strategies that contribute to understanding studentmotivations with respect to membership and contin-ued growth of these organizations is encouraged aswell.

Table 5Examples of Active Learning Activities and Principles of Influence to Generate Engagement

Active Learning Activities

Contact with professionals: Schedule activities that include: business speakers, hiring managers, staffing agencies, and alumni. Involvement

with several industries and the community, such as local entrepreneurs, could be explored as well. Conducting pro-bono work with local

businesses or non-profits can also foster this interaction with people on the field.

Interpersonal/Networking skills: Coordinate activities with Career Services and other local or regional entities. These offices often have the

resources and contacts to be able to provide help with networking skills, workshops on how to interview for jobs and business etiquette. A

series of events with specific industry professionals, such as advertising executives or sales managers, can serve as venues to help students to

find internships. The college can become a talent partner with such businesses offering the opportunity to develop long-term relationships

rather than just having these professionals as guest speakers. Activities that help them stand-out to start or continue their career, such as

workshops on how to have a professional Linked-in page or resume, could be very well received.

Professional Development: Events aimed at career advancements and personal growth such as developing teamwork and organizational skills,

improving self-confidence, and leadership training are some of the choices available. Some of these events are the National Student

Advertising Competition and the case competitions hold by the American Marketing Association and the American Advertising Federation,

among others. Professional development, along with contact with professionals, can be furthered by undertaking pro-bono consulting

projects for local businesses or non-profit organizations.

Interaction with others: Practicing developing and maintaining these relationships can be an initial challenging task for undergraduates. Thus,

providing a safe environment such as college based activities can provide a boost in confidence. Focused tasks, local projects, or small

functions can serve to develop teamwork and organizational skills and practice interpersonal skills. Professional chapter events further this

opportunity by serving as a platform where the students are in charge and thus have to put in use their teamwork skills.

Entrepreneurial activities: Entrepreneurial activities such as new product development, how to start or run a small business, and how to identify

target markets for entrepreneurs are some options of events or workshops that can be featured. Faculty advisors can collaborate and partner

with entities that already serve the entrepreneurial market so students can grow their network as well and be informed of available choices.

For example, the local Small Business Administration or the Chamber of Commerce and Economic Development can be contacted and asked

to come to campus. Business incubators also present valuable benefits.

Cialdini’s Principles of InfluenceReciprocity: Provide students with activities that are exclusive to the members of the organization. Establish rewards to outstanding students,

especially for those that help other members and give back to the organization.

Commitment and consistency: Hold goal-setting meetings where students set goals for themselves and for the organization that they want to

achieve for the year, such as having members attend at least one event per semester. It is key that the students are the drivers of setting the

goals and the faculty advisor acts as a facilitator.

Social proof: Employ the power of peers (i.e. fellow students) to encourage and influence joining and being an active member. Current students

and success stories can be featured in posters, emails, and social media promoting the organization. For example, location-based sites such as

Foursquare, Twitter, and Facebook can serve as a platform to promote and maintain evidence of events. It is recommended to engage users

by sending announcements, trivias, creating badges and including plugins to the organization’s website (Foursquare), and using signs at

event’s locations.Liking: Future and current members need to find the similarities that they have with each other. This can be accomplished through icebreaker

activities at membership drive events to encourage mixing and conversations among as many students as possible to find commonalities.

Students can organize trips and activities and make an open invitation to the student body. In this way, potential members can meet current

members and become involved.

Authority: The expertise and authority of the advisors and leading members has to be established. Bios should be part of the organization’swebsite. The student leaders ideally should be the ones managing the organization and its events. It can be especially beneficial if another

authoritative figure, such as the Dean, introduces the organizations and its leader(s) in student orientations and/or college materials.

Scarcity: Members only activities and benefits would have to be part of the experience and value of being a member. Successes could be

highlighted to denote it is a serious organization. Enrollment might be allowed only at certain times to promote exclusivity.

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ORCID

Richard J. Miller http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8254-6714Sonja Martin Poole http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9261-0612

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Appendix. Scale Items

Intention to be an active member

1. I plan to be an active member in a student organization

2. I intend to be an active member in a student organization

3. I want to be an active member in a student organization

(Kidwell & Jewell, 2003)

Cialdini’s Principles of Influence

Reciprocity

1. The organization has “members only” events

2. There are special awards for members such as outstanding member

3. There is a “buddy system”; members help each other

4. The organization provides benefits and members are expected to give back

as well

Commitment and Consistency

5. Each member develops their own individual goals to achieve during the

year

6. All the members participate in setting the organization’s goals7. Members meet and are in-charge of implementing their individual and

organizational goals

8. Members are expected to attend or participate in at least one event per

semester

Social Proof

9. Ideas are exchanged and there is interaction with other student

organizations

10. The organization is praised by either the Dean, Department Chairs or

Area Coordinator

11. Students “dress the part” in events. If it’s a community event, they wear

the organization’s t-shirt12. There are promotional materials highlighting the organization’s activities/achievements throughout the school

Liking

13. The organization has attractive members

14. There are some members who you identify with or find similarities

15. Members often interact and help each other

16. Group experiences, such as travels and interesting activities, are part of

the organization

17. There is frequent interaction between the organization and the faculty

advisor

Active Learning Activities

Contact with professionals

1. Number of business speakers

2. Working with professional mentors

3. Job shadowing

4. Quality of business speakers

5. Overall contacts with business

Interpersonal/Networking Skills

6. Improving networking skills

7. How to interview for jobs

8. Improving presentation skills

18. Help/System for finding internships

19. Visiting real businesses

20. Career fairs

Professional Development

11.Working closely with faculty mentors

12. Gain experience in an environment where my grade or

job is not at risk

13. Practice the concepts learned in-class in real-world

situations

14. Exploring various career options

15. Attend leadership training

Interactions with Others

9. Developing teamwork and organizational skills10.

Developing interpersonal communication skills

21. Professional chapter events

Entrepreneurial activities

22. New Product Development

23. How to run a new/small business

24. How to start one’s own business

25. Research for new business

26. Identifying target markets

(Peltier et al., 2008; McCarthy & McCarthy, 2006; Bobbitt et

al., 2000)

(Continued )

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(Continued)

Authority

18. The faculty advisor actively participates and supports the organization

19. Officers of the organization are required to attend a training session

20. The College or School supports and participates with the organization

(faculty is willing to help the members)

21. Alumni are involved with the organization

22. Industry and community participate with the organization

Scarcity

23. The organization holds events for members only such as resume

workshop or industry speakers

24. There are exclusive awards available only to members

25. There are scholarships available only to members

26. Exclusive activities/projects for members that provide experience (i.e.

doing marketing plans)

(Clark & Kemp, 2008; Serviere-Munoz & Counts, 2013)

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