WhenCommunicationsEnteredtheWarMarceloS.Alencar, ThiagoT. AlencarandJuraciF. Galdino

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FederalUniversityof CampinaGrande,CampinaGrande,PB,Brazil�

Military Instituteof Technology, Rio deJaneiro,Brazil

Abstract—Oneof thefirst military applicationsof the telegraph,for tacti-cal purposes,took placeduring the war betweenBrazil and Paraguay, fr om1864to 1870.GeneralSolanoLopezmanagedto commandhis tr oopsfr omhis campsiteusing a telegraph system. When Brazil declared war againstParaguay, attention wastur nedexclusively to the south,and a line connect-ing Rio de Janeiro to the province of Rio Grande do Sul was built in onlysix months. This paper discussesthe first useof electrical communicationfor military purposesin Latin America fr om a historical perspective.

Keywords— Telegraphy. Triple Alliance War, War betweenBrazil, Ar -gentinaUruguay and Paraguay. Communicationsduring the war.

I . INTRODUCTION

The XIX centurywas prodigiousin termsof technologicalingenuity. Several instrumentsandknowledgebasedprocessesappearedwhich allowed to breakthe long-standinginertia ofthe previouscenturiesandsetthe stagefor an unprecedenteraof creativity. TheIndustrialRevolutionbeganand,for theartofwar, theperiodbroughtgreatinnovations[1].

The inventionof cannedbeef,driedmilk (powder)andmar-garine, between1840 and 1860, solved difficult problemsoffeedingthe troops,which permittedthemto operateat greaterdistancesand with lesslimitation in time and durationof thebattles.Commandandcontrol improvedwith theimprovementin communicationsystemsandnew shipsandweaponswerede-veloped.In orderto illustratethe typeof weaponsusedat thattime,Figure1 showsanexampleof theBrazilianartillery, com-mandedby ColonelMallet, duringtheTriple AllianceWar.

Fig. 1. Brazilianartillery, commandedby ColonelMallet.

MarceloS.AlencarandThiagoT. Alencararewith theInstitutefor AdvancedStudiesin Communications(Iecom),ElectricalEngineeringDepartment,Fed-eralUniversity of CampinaGrande,CampinaGrande,PB, Brazil. Phone:+55833101410,E-mail: malencar@dee.ufcg.edu.br

JuraciF. Galdinois with theMilitary Instituteof Technology, Rio deJaneiro,Brazil, E-mail: galdino@ime.eb.br.

This work wassupportedby the IEEE Foundation(Grant2002-076),CNPqandIecom.

In the communicationarea, the novelty was the inventionof the telegraph,which substitutedthe semaphore,createdinFrancein 1794,andemployedby NapoleonBonapartein a net-work that includedVenice,AmsterdamandMainz. That com-municationsystempermittedthetransmissionof messagesfromParisto Lille (a distanceof 270km) in fiveminutes.

Oneof thefirst military applicationsof thetelegraph,for tac-tical purposes,took placeduring the war betweenBrazil, Ar-gentina,Uruguayand Paraguay, from 1864 to 1870. After atrip to Europe,in order to acquireequipmentandhire person-nel with expertisein electricity and communications,GeneralSolanoLopezmanagedto commandhis troopsfrom his camp-siteusinga telegraphsystem.

When Brazil declaredwar againstParaguay, attentionwasturnedexclusively to the south,and a line connectingRio deJaneiroto the provinceof Rio Grandedo Sul wasbuilt in onlysix months.This paperdiscussesthefirst useof electricalcom-municationfor military purposesin Latin Americafrom a his-torical perspective.

I I . PREVIOUS CONFLICTS

During theCrimeanWar, thetelegraphicnetwork, alreadyin-stalledin Europe,wasimprovedto allow NapoleonIII to strate-gically intervenein thealliedoperations.ThatimprovementalsopermittedWilliam Henry Russell,the most famouswar corre-spondentfrom TheTimes,to sendreportsfrom thefront at thattime.

Severalnew equipmentsandweapons,developedduring theSecondIndustrialRevolution,werefirstused,in largescale,dur-ing theCrimeanWar. Thatwasconsideredthefirst technologi-calwar, andopenedthepathto theconceptof total war, accord-ing to the seminaltheoryof the PrussianGeneralandmilitarystrategistKarl VonClausewitz (1780-1831),publishedin his fa-mousbookOn War [2].

Several technologicalresourcesused in the Crimean Warwere later used in other wars, which succeededit, includ-ing the two major wars that hit the Americas: the Ameri-canCivil War (1860-1865)andthe War of the Triple AllianceagainstParaguay, the bloodiestconflict in Latin-Americanhis-tory, fought betweenParaguayand the allied countriesof Ar-gentina,Brazil, and Uruguay. Figure 2 displaysa Brazilianbloodhospitalin Pasodela Patria,Paraguay.

The exigenciesand experiencesof the Civil War demon-stratedthevastutility andindispensableimportanceof theelec-tric telegraphboth asan administrative agentandasa tacticalfactorin military operations.In additionto theutilizationof ex-isting commercialsystems,therewerebuilt andoperatedmorethanfifteenthousandmilesof linesfor military purposesonly.

The technicalwork of Bates,Chandler, andTinker wasim-

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Fig. 2. Brazilianbloodhospitalin Pasodela Patria,Paraguay.

portantin encipheringanddecipheringimportantmessagestoandfrom thegreatcontendingarmies,whichwasdoneby code.Stagerdevisedthe first cipher, which wasso improved by thecipher-operatorsthat it remaineduntranslatableby theConfed-eratesto theendof thewar. Speciallyimportantservicewasren-deredby thecipher-operatorsof theWarDepartmentin translat-ing Confederateciphermessageswhich fell into Unionhands.

A notableincidentin thefield wasthetranslationof GeneralJosephE. Johnston’sciphermessageto Pemberton,capturedbyGrant beforeVicksburg and forwardedto Washington. Moreimportantwerethetwo cipherdispatchesfrom theSecretaryofWar at Richmond,in December, 1863,which led to a cabinetmeetingand culminatedin the arrestof Confederateconspir-atorsin New York city, andto the captureof contrabandship-mentsof armsandammunition.Otherinterceptedandtranslatedciphersrevealedplansof Confederateagentsfor raidingNorth-erntownsneartheborder. Most importantof all weretheciphermessagesdisclosingthe plot for the wholesaleincendiarismofleadinghotelsin New York, which barelyfailed to succeedonNovember25,1864.

The necessityof efficient field-telegraphsat onceimpressedmilitary commanders.In theWest,Fremontimmediatelyacted,andin August,1861,orderedtheformationof atelegraphbattal-ion of threecompaniesalonglines in accordancewith modernmilitary practice. Major Myer had alreadymadesimilar sug-gestionsin Washington,withoutsuccess.While thecommercialcompaniesplacedtheirpersonnelandmaterialfreelyattheGov-ernment’sdisposal,they viewedwith markeddisfavor any mili-tary organization,andtheir recommendationswerepotentwithSecretaryof WarCameron.Fremontwasorderedto disbandhisbattalion,anda purely civil bureauwassubstituted,thoughle-galauthorityandfundswereequallylacking.Efforts to transferquartermaster’s fundsandpropertyto this bureauweresuccess-fully resisted,owing to themanifestillegality of suchaction.

The military telegraphwas absolutelyessentialto success-ful operationsin the valleys of the Cumberlandand of the

Tennessee,wherevery long lines of communicationwerelaid.Apart from train-dispatching,which wasabsolutelyessentialtotransportingarmy suppliesfor hundredsof thousandsof menoverasingle-trackrailwayof severalhundredof milesin length,an enormousnumberof messagesfor the controlandcoopera-tion of separatearmiesanddetachedcommandsweresentoverthe wires. Skill andpatiencewerenecessaryfor efficient tele-graphwork, especiallywhen lines were frequentlydestroyedby Confederateincursionsor throughhostileinhabitantsof thecountry.

Otherthantelegraphicespionage,themostdangerousservicewas the repair of lines, which often was doneunderfire andmorefrequentlyin a guerilla-infestedcountry. Telegraphicdu-ties at military headquartersyielded little in brilliancy and in-terestcomparedto thoseof desperatedaring associatedwithtappingthe opponent’s wires. At times,officeswereseizedsoquickly asto preventtelegraphicwarnings.

Grantusedthemilitary telegraphfor grandtacticsaswell asfor strategy in its broadestsense.From his headquarterswithMeade’s armyin Virginia,May, 1864,hedaily gave ordersandreceivedreportsregardingtheoperationsof Meadein Virginia,Shermanin Georgia, Sigel in WestVirginia, andButler on theJamesRiver. Laterhekeptunderdirect controlmilitary forcesexceedinghalf a million soldiers,operatingover a territory oftwo million squarekilometersin area. Throughconcertedac-tion andtimely movements,Grantpreventedthereinforcementof Lee’s army andso shortenedthe war. Shermansaid, “Thevalueof the telegraphcannotbe exaggerated,as illustratedbytheperfectaccordof actionof thearmiesof Virginia andGeor-gia.” [3–10].

Underall aspectstheAmericanCivil War andtheTriple Al-lianceWar were,with no shadow of a doubt, the two greatestconflictsof theAmericas,andthey markedtheevolution of thecountrieswhich were involved, mainly becauseof the useoftechnologicalinventions,suchasthetelegraph.This articleex-ploresthe useof the telegraphasa tacticalandstrategic factorin theTriple AllianceWar (ParaguayanWar).

I I I . PORTRAIT OF A DICTATOR

FranciscoSolanoLopezwas born in 1826 and becamethesecondandfinal rulerof theLopezdynasty. Hehadapamperedchildhood.His fatherraisedhim to inherit his mantleandmadehim a brigadiergeneralat the ageof eighteen.He wasan in-satiablewomanizer, andstoriesaboundof thecruelexcessesheresortedto whena womanhadthe courageto turn him down.His 1853trip to Europeto buy armswasundoubtedlythemostimportantexperienceof his life. His stay in Paris proved tobe a turning point for him. There,SolanoLopezadmiredthetrappingsandpretensionsof theFrenchempireof NapoleonIII.He fell in love with anIrish womannamedElisaAlicia Lynch,whomhemadehismistress.Figure3 showsaportraitof Lopez.

“La Lynch,” asshebecameknown in Paraguay, wasastrong-willed, charming,witty, intelligent womanwho becamea per-sonof enormousinfluencein Paraguaybecauseof herrelation-ship with SolanoLopez. Lynch’s Parisianmannerssoonmadeher a trendsetterin the Paraguayancapital,andshemadeene-miesasquickly asshemadefriends.LynchboreSolanoLopezfive sons,althoughthey never married.Shebecamethe largestlandowner in Paraguayafter SolanoLopeztransferredmostof

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Fig. 3. GeneralSolanoLopez.

thecountryandportionsof Brazil to herduringthewar, yet sheretainedpractically nothing when the war ended. SheburiedSolanoLopezwith her own handsafter the last battle in 1870anddiedpennilesssomeyearslaterin Europe.

SolanoLopezconsolidatedhis power afterhis father’s deathin 1862 by silencing several hundred critics and would-bereformers through imprisonment. A controlled Paraguayancongressthenunanimouslyelectedhim president.Yet SolanoLopez would have done well to heedhis father’s last wordsto avoid aggressive acts in foreign affairs, especially withBrazil. SolanoLopez’ foreign policy vastly underestimatedParaguay’s neighborsand overratedParaguay’s potentialas amilitary power.

Observers sharply disagreedabout SolanoLopez. GeorgeThompson,an English engineerwho worked for the SolanoLopez(hedistinguishedhimselfasa Paraguayanofficer duringtheWar of theTriple Alliance,andlaterwrotea bookabouthisexperience)hadharshwordsfor his ex-employerandcomman-der, calling him “a monsterwithout parallel.” SolanoLopez’sconductlaid him opento suchcharges.In thefirst place,SolanoLopez’smiscalculationsandambitionsplungedParaguayinto awar with Argentina,Brazil, andUruguay.

Thewar resultedin the deathsof half of Paraguay’s popula-tion andalmosterasedthe country from the map. During thewar, SolanoLopezorderedthe executionsof his own broth-ersandhadhis motherandsisterstorturedwhenhe suspectedthemof opposition.Thousandsof others,includingParaguay’s

bravestsoldiersandgenerals,alsowentto theirdeathsbeforefir-ing squadsor werehackedto pieceson SolanoLopez’s orders.Otherssaw SolanoLopezasa paranoidmegalomaniac,a manwho wantedto bethe“Napoleonof SouthAmerica,” willing toreducehis countryto ruin andhis countrymento beggarsin hisvainquestfor glory.

In 1954, FranciscoSolano Lopez was sent to Europe asplenipotentiaryministerto buy weaponsandestablishcommer-cial contacts.In England,SolanoLopezcontactedBlth & Co.,oneof themoreadvancedcompaniesat thetime. Throughthatcompany, Paraguaybeganto import weaponryandtrain youngsoldiers.Thecompany alsorecruited250Europeantechnicians,between1850and1870– including200British – to modernizethe country. William K. WhiteheadbecameChief-Engineerofthe ParaguayanState,William Stewart becameChief-SurgeonandGeorgeThompsonwasnamedChief-Engineerof theArmy.

IV. THE CONFLICT

Thewar canbedivided into four phases.Thefirst phasein-cludesthe Paraguayanoffensive, the naval battleof Riachueloand endswhen Uruguaianawas re-taken. The secondone ischaracterizedby thecounter-offensiveof theallies. In thethirdphaseoccursthe takeover of Humaita andconcludeswith theconquestof Asuncion,thecapital.TheCampaignof theCordil-heirawasthefourth andlastphaseof theconflict.

Paraguayhadbeeninvolved in boundaryand tariff disputeswith its more powerful neighbors,Argentinaand Brazil, foryears.TheUruguayanshadalsostruggledto achieveandmain-tain their independencefrom those samepowers, especiallyfrom Argentina.

In 1864Brazil helpedtheleaderof Uruguay’sColoradoPartyto oust his Blanco Party opponent,whereuponthe dictator ofParaguay, FranciscoSolanoLopez,believing that the regionalbalanceof power was threatened,went to war againstBrazil.Bartolome Mitre, presidentof Argentina,thenorganizedanal-liancewith Brazil andColorado-controlledUruguay(theTripleAlliance), andtogetherthey declaredwar on Paraguayon May1, 1865. Figure 4 shows Bartolome Mitre, Presidentof Ar-gentina.

Lopez’ action,following his buildup of a 70,000-manarmy,then the strongestin Latin America, was viewed by many asaggressionfor self- and nationalaggrandizement;but, as thewar woreon, many Argentiniansandotherssaw theconflict asMitre’swarof conquest.

At the openingof the war, in 1865, Paraguayanforcesad-vancednorthward into the Brazilian province of Mato Grossoand southward into the province of Rio Grandedo Sul. Lo-gistical problemsand the buildup of the allied troop strength,which soonoutnumberedParaguay’s by 10 to 1, then forcedthe Paraguayansto withdraw behindtheir frontiers. Figure 5shows a map,which illustratesthe invasionof Mato GrossobytheParaguayanforces.

Figure6 shows Fort Coimbra,the first fortification attackedandtakenby theParaguayanArmy duringtheinvasionof MatoGrosso.Figure7 showsarecentpictureof thesamefort.

In June1865 Brazilian naval forcesdefeateda Paraguayanflotilla ontheParanaRiveratRiachuelo,neartheArgentinacityof Corrientes. By January1866 the allies had blockadedtheriversleadingto Paraguay. In April Mitre led anallied invading

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Fig. 4. Bartolome Mitre, Presidentof Argentina.

force into southwesternParaguaybut was preventedfrom ad-vancingfor two years.Fiercebattleswerefought.Themostno-table,wonby theParaguayansatCurupaytyin September1866,inhibitedany allied offensive for nearlya year. Both sidessuf-feredheavy lossesin thecampaign.Figure8 displaystheassaultof the3rd Columnof theArgentinianArmy at Curupayty.

In January1868Mitre wasreplacedascommanderin chiefbytheBrazilianLuıs AlvesdeLima e Silva, Marquis(laterDuke)of Caxias,which is shown in Figure 9. In FebruaryBrazil-ian armoredvesselsbroke throughParaguayandefensesat theriver fortressof Humaita, nearthe merging of the Parana andParaguayrivers,andpressedon to bombardAsuncion, thecap-ital. In the Campaignof LomasValentinasin December, theParaguayanarmy was annihilated. Lopezfled northward andcarriedon a guerrillawaruntil hewaskilled on March1, 1870.

The Paraguayanpeoplehad beenfanatically committedtoLopez and the war effort, and as a result they fought to thepoint of dissolution.Thewar left Paraguaydevastated.Its pre-war populationof approximately525,000wasreducedto about221,000in 1871,of whichonly about28,000weremen.Duringthe war the Paraguayanssufferednot only from the enemybutalsofrom malnutrition,disease(cholera),andthedominationofLopez,who torturedandkilled countlessnumbers.Figure10displaystheattackof theBrazilianNavy at Curupayty.

ArgentinaandBrazil annexedabout140,000squarekilome-ters of Paraguayanterritory: Argentinatook much of the Mi-sionesregion andpart of the Chacobetweenthe BermejoandPilcomayo rivers; Brazil enlarged its Mato Grossoprovince

Fig. 5. Invasionof Mato Grossoby theParaguayanforces.

from annexed territory. They both demandeda large indem-nity (which wasnever paid)andoccupiedParaguayuntil 1876.Meanwhile,the Coloradoshadgainedcontrolof Uruguay, andthey retainedthat control until 1958. The war openedthe wayfor adevelopmentof constitutionalgovernmentin Paraguay.

V. USE OF THE TELEGRAPH DURING THE WAR OF THE

TRIPLE ALLIANCE VERSUS PARAGUAY

The telegraphwasinventedin 1844by SamuelMorse,eightyearslater, at theendof theXIX th centuryit becamea power-ful instrumentof nationalintegration,in Brazil, whenCandidoMarianodaSilvaRondon,patronof Communicationsin Brazil,personallyissued,from 1892to 1912,theinstallationof oversixthousandkilometersof telegraphiclines, integratingthe coun-try’scapital,Rio deJaneiro,to theAmazon.

Brazil wasoneof thefirst countriesin theworld to useelec-tricity. Thefirst practicalexperiencesin thecountrywerecon-temporaryto theinitial applicationsof thatnew form of energyin the United Statesand Europe. The several improvementsandnew applicationsof electricitythatappearedthroughouttheworld werepromptlytestedin Brazil. A largeshareof thatpio-neeringwork wasdueto theEmperor’sown intervention.

In 1851,theMinisterof Justice,EusebiodeQueirozMattoso,

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Fig. 6. Fort Coimbra, the first fortification attacked and taken by theParaguayansduringtheinvasionof MatoGrosso.

Fig. 7. A recentpictureof Fort Coimbra.

authorof a Law which blocked the slave traffic in Brazil, con-cernedabouthow to build a fast link to obtain informationonthe downloadof slaves,askedDr. PaulaCandido,professorofPhysicsfrom theCollegeof Medicineof Rio deJaneiro,to con-structa telegraphline. An experimentalline wasconstructed,usingcopperwire involvedwith silk andresin. The lower partof glassbottleswereusedasisolators,becausenoadequatema-terial wasfoundin Rio deJaneiroat that time. Theexperimentwasnotsuccessful,dueto thelackof transmittersandreceivers.After that,ColonelPolydoroQuintanilhaJordao(thefutureVis-countof SantaTereza)tried,alsowith nosuccess,to transmitbe-tweenthePoliceHeadquarters(onEvaristodaVeigastreet)andMorro doCastelo(CastleMount),usingBreguetdevices,whichweretakenfrom thePhysicsDepartmentof theCollegeof Engi-neering(thenMilitary School),offeredby ProfessorGuilhermeSchuchdeCapanema,thefutureBaronof Capanema.

A few days later, ProfessorCapanemaand Cel. Polydorowereableto realizethe first transmissionbetweentwo rooms,locatedfar apart,at the Military School,and they became,asnoted Cel. Raul de Albuquerque,“the first telegraphersinBrazil”. Becauseof that result, the Minister asked ProfessorCapanemato build thefirst telegraphicline in Brasil.

In thesameyear, ProfessorCapanemaoccupiedthepositionof Directorof theBrazilianTelegraph,whichheheldfor almostforty years,until the endof the Empire. ProfessorCapanema

Fig. 8. Assaultof the3rdColumnof theArgentinianArmy atCurupayty.

wasalwaysapioneer, andunderhisguidancetheBrazilianTele-graphremainedasoneof theleadingofficesin theworld.

The first Brazilian telegraphicline was inauguratedin May11, 1852. The line wasundergroundandhadan extensionof4,300meters,betweenthe Emperor’s Palaceof Quintada BoaVista and the Army GeneralHeadquarters,locatedin CampodeSantana(SantanaGrounds),in Rio deJaneiro.Theline wasconstructedunderthedirectsupervisionof ProfessorCapanema,with agreathelpfrom thestudentsof theMilitary School,whichbecamethefirst official telegraphers.Theinmatesof theHouseof Detentionwerealsousedin theconstruction.

In 1854,an orderfrom theMinister of Justiceinstructedtheconstructionof anothertelegraphicline, to link theCity andBoaVistaOfficial Buildings,theNavy andWar Arsenals,thePoliceHeadquartersandthePetropolisPalace,in themountainsof theRio de JaneiroState.The newspaperCorreio Mercantil, datedFebruary18, 1854,publishedthat “the telegraphline betweentheSecretaryof JusticeandthePoliceHeadquartersenteredintoserviceyesterday”andthat “studentsfrom the military schoolworked on it, proving that we have no needfor foreign engi-neers.” Theline to Petropoliswasonly concludedin Januaryof1857;it measured50,600meters,of which 15,000meterswereof submarinecables,andthe aerialportion consistedof galva-nizediron wires.

Little by little thetelegraphiclinescontinuedto extend.Withthe appearanceof the railroads, the telegraphic net also in-creased,becausetheministerialacknowledgmentof June6th of1872compelledall the concessionairesto constructandmain-tain telegraphiclinesparallelto theroads.

As partof theeffort of preparationfor thewar, Paraguaypro-motedoneof thefirst military applicationsof thetelegraph,fortacticalintentions,during the war againstBrazil, from 1864to

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Fig. 9. GeneralCaxias.

Fig. 10. Attackof theBrazilianNavy at Curupayty.

1870. With the supportof techniciansfrom Germany, GeneralSolanoLopezmanagedto control themovementsof his troopsfrom hisencampment.ThisgaveParaguayacertaininitial com-petitive advantage,partly dueto thework of theDirectorof theTelegraphs,Herr von FischerTreuenfeld,nominatedby Lopez[11].

TheBrazilianEmpirehadalsoinvestedin telegraphyfor mili-tarypurposes.In 1863,asconsequenceof theChristieQuestion,thesubmarinelines for theFortalezasof SantaCruzandVille-gaignonwere launchedin Brazil and, in 1864,a line to CaboFrio, to inform of thearrival of ships. In 1865sincethebegin-ningof theTriple AllianceWar it wasessentialto improvecom-municationswith theSouthof theCountry. EngineerCapanemahimself directedthe constructionof a telegraphicline to PortoAlegre. Also several other lines had beenconstructedin RioGrandedo Sul, at the headquartersin ArgentinaandParaguay[12] [13].

Thefirst telegraphicdeviceswerecomplicatedandwereman-ufacturedby Breguet,they operatedwith Leclanche batteries.Simple devices, for Morse code,had only beenintroducedin1867,whenBrazil joined the internationalconventionof SaintPetersburg. Since1865, the GeneralDistribution of the Tele-graphshad a workshopwhere telegraphic devices and other

equipmentwererepairedandmanufactured.In Brazil, sinceJanuaryof 1857,yearwhenthe telegraphic

stationthat linkedPetropoliswasinaugurated,theexpansionofcommunicationswasguidednorthward of the Country. How-ever, as the war againstParaguaywas declaredit becameanecessityto make a changein orientation[14]. The attentionturnedexclusively towardthesouth,andtheline thatlinkedRiode Janeiroto the province of the Rio Grandedo Sul, passingthroughSaints,Paranagua, SanFrancisco,Itajaı, Deportation,Lagoon,Porto Alegre, Pellets,River Greatandother lessim-portantlocalitiesof the coasthadbeenconstructedin only sixmonths[15]. Dueto therapidity of thework, many defectshadoccurred,thatwerelatercorrectedlittle by little [16]. In theendof the1860´s,therewasatelegraphicline extendingto thesouthof thecountry.

Curitiba was connectedto the generalnetwork in October30th, 1871,from a branchthat camefrom Morretes. In Octo-ber of 1872the Jaguarao stationwasinaugurated,from whichlater on wereestablishedcommunicationswith the Uruguayanlines dueto an agreementcelebratedin Montevideu in August9th of 1879betweenthe Brazilian Minister andSantiagoBot-tini, entrepreneurof a telegraphic line in the EasternRepub-lic (Uruguay),who hadreceivedpermissionto extendit to theneighboringareasof theBrazilianline of Jaguaraofor 10 yearsdueto decreenumber5,895,of April 3rd,1875.

Thecompany Siemens& Halskewasfundedin 1847,to makeandsell telegraphicequipment.Thecompany cameto Brazil in1867,whenit fabricatedandinstalled,in only six months,thefirst long haul telegraphicline, betweenthe EmperorD. PedroII residence,in Rio deJaneiro,andtheProvinceof Sao Pedro,in the Stateof Rio Grandedo Sul. A portrait of D. PedroIIis shown in Figure11. The electromagneticdevices,that usedSiemensdisplaysandmechanicaldriving,wereemployedin thebattlefield,during the Paraguayancampaign. Since1866,ex-perimentswereconductedwith Double-Morses,which becamequitecommonat thetime [17].

After the war, the telegraphicsystemcontinuedto improve,reachingBahia,in 1874,Paraıba,in 1875,Rio GrandedoNorte,in 1876, Ceara, in 1881, Piauı, Maranhao, Ouro Pretoe Dia-mantina,in 1884,andPara, in 1886,covering, then,the wholeAtlantic borderof the Country, andincluding several branchesto the countryside. The first internationalterrestrialline wasinstalledin 1879,linking Uruguay, and,in 1883,a line wasde-ployedto link Argentina.Thefirst internationalsubmarinecablewasinauguratedin June,1974,to Europe,throughLisbon. Thefirst telegramwasdispatchedfrom the Emperorto his nephew,D. Luis, King of Portugal. The cablewasfinancedby IrineuEvangelistadeSousa,Baron,andlater, Viscountof Maua.

VI . CONSEQUENCES OF THE WAR

The war endedthree centuriesof conflicts, inherited fromthe pastdisputesof PortugalandSpain. Despitethe revision-ist ideas,publishedby someauthorsin thepastcentury, whichpointedEnglandas the major interestedin the war andLopezasthe incarnationof the Latin-Americannationalist,it is wellrecognizedtodaythat this theoryis completelywrong andhasseveralhistoricerrors.Thewar wasprovokedby Lopez,whichwantedto createa Major-Paraguay, annexing Brazilian,Argen-tinian andUruguayanterritories,to gain a pathto the Atlantic

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Fig. 11. D. PedroII, Emperorof Brazil.

Ocean[9].At the beginning of the war, Brazil had only 18 thousand

troops, spreadthroughoutthe Country and Paraguayhad 70thousandmenin arms,someof themwell preparedby foreignexperts[18,19]. But, theBrazilianArmy wasvery professionalandhada tradition andaccumulatedexperiencefrom previousconflicts.SeveralBrazilianofficershadbeeninstructorsfor theParaguayanArmy andalsomilitary Engineers,whoconstructedpartof theParaguayanfortifications,includingHumaita.

The Triple Alliance War wasa modernconflict, transitionalbetweentheNapoleonicEraandtheFirst World War, andcom-paredto the AmericanCivil War in the usageof technology.Combinedoperations,betweenthe Navy and the Army wereplanned,which anticipatedthe amphibiousoperationsof theSecondWorld War. Air balloonswere usedto recognizetheterrainin Tuiuti, which coveredthelackof detailedmapsof theregion,asdepictedin Figure12.

Engineeringwasusedalsoto constructroads,bridgesandtotransposenaturalobstacles.Thepresswasusedby thepartstospreadinformationand indoctrination. On the Brazilian side,the Army Mobile Typographypublisheda newspapercalledASaudade. The Paraguayantroops received the newspaperElSemanario, official paperof the Paraguayangovernment,andalsoeditedthenewspapers:El Centinela, CaciqueLambareand

Fig. 12. Air balloonusedto recognizetheterrainin Tuiuti.

Cabichui, which starteda campaignagainsttheallied enemies,particularlytheBrazilians.ThewaralsoimprovedtheBraziliancapacityto constructlargevessels.

VI I . CONCLUSIONS

The war endedLopeztyranny, but left Paraguaycompletelydevastatedandclaimeda largeportionof its population.On theotherhand,thebordersbetweenBrazil, ArgentinaandParaguaywere finally definedand the questionof navigation along theParaguayRiverwassolved.

Among the allied countries,Argentinaobtainedlarger eco-nomic advantagesand,asidefrom that, the countrysolved itsborderproblemsandtookover theMartin GarciaIsland.

EventhoughUruguayplayedamajorroleto ignitethewar, itslosseswereminor in termsof personnelandequipment.Afterthe war, the countrykept its independenceand remainedasabuffer statebetweenBrazil andArgentina.

Brazil solvedits borderproblemswith Paraguayandthenav-igation problemon the riversof the PrataBasin,speciallytheParaguayRiver, improved its foreign policy, not allowing thereconstructionof theVice-Kingdomof thePrata,andgavemoreattentionto connectionsto the Stateof Mato Grosso,ensuring

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the free navigationof the new steamboatsalongthe ParaguayRiver. Thearmedforcesacquiredconsiderableprestigebecauseof thevictory andthebattlesandheroesthatemergedfrom thewarnow nameseveralarmyandnavy relatedorganizations.Thetruth is, although,thatBrazil sufferedlargerlosses,in personnelandequipment,thantheotherallies.

VI I I . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Theauthorswould like to expresstheir gratitudeto theIEEEFoundation,CNPq and Iecom for the financial supportto theresearch.

APPENDIX

I . TELEGRAMS DISPATCHED DURING THE WAR

The Cordilheiracampaignwasdocumentedby Taunay, whowasin chargeof writing theArmy Diary. In thefollowing somepassages,which shedlight on the importanceof the telegraphfor the war, arepresented.Figure13 displaysthe ViscountofTaunayandmilitary Engineers,responsiblefor theconstructionof telegraphiclines,roadsandbridgesduringthewar [12] [13].

Fig. 13. Viscountof Taunayandmilitary Engineers.

Friday, April 16,1869

O ComandantedapracadeAssuncaoenviou umtelegramaaoquartel-generalcomunicandoachar-seprontoparaseguir parao Rosario o vaporPaysandu,quelevaum oficial, algunspracas,um restode cavalhadae, a reboque,um navio carregadode al-fafa. Teve ordemparazarpar, devendotomara bordoo engen-

heiro polacoTenente-CoronelChodasiewic, encarregadode irfortificar a posicaoe fazerum relatorio sobresuascondicoesdedefesa.

Sunday, 18

O Ajudante-de-OrdensSalgadofoi tambem aquelacidadeparatratarde regularizara linha de correioscom a capital deMato Grossoe darordemaovaporAlice a fim dequedescessea buscarmaterialemHumaita.

Monday, 19

OutrotelegramaanunciaterontementradonoRio Manduviraa expedicaoquevai emperseguicaodosvaporesinimigosocul-tosnasvoltasdaquelerio depoisdaocupacaodeAssuncaope-los aliados.Compoe-seeladosmonitoresCeara, Piauhy, SantaCatharina,daslanchasa vaporJoaodasBotas,JansenMuller eCouto,aosquaisposteriormentedevera reunir-sea vaporVol-untariodaPatria,depoisdeumaviagemaoCerrito.

Friday, 23

De Assuncao mandaramdiversostelegramas,anunciando:umachegadadeduaspecasWithwort decalibre2 queseraoen-viadascomapossıvelbrevidade;outroavindadochefeElisiariodoAlto Parana,eumterceiroapartidadosajudantes-de-ordens,Capitao-deFragatasSalgadoeTenente-CoronelLuiz Alves,queseguemparaBuenosAiresaativaremo maispossıvel a remessadecavalos,sobrea qualtantoseteminstado.

Sunday, 25

Da vanguarda,recebeuo quartel-generalum telegramapar-ticipandoque,naexploracaoda manha ate Patino-cue haviam-seadiantadoalgumtempoimprudentementedo grossoda cav-alariadozehomenscomandadospeloCapitao FonsecaRamos,os quais,envolvidos logo por infantariainimiga, tiveramqueabrir caminhoaespada,perdendoquatrohomense quatrocava-los,e ficandoferidoaqueleoficial e umsoldadomais.

Saturday, May1, 1869

PortelegramadeAssuncao,recebeuSuaAltezanotıciadeterdescidoa expedicao do Manduvira. O inimigo em numerosu-periora 1.000homenstentara cortara retiradadosnavios comcorrentes,torpedos,vigase trincheirasartilhadas.Ficarampri-sioneirosdois oficiais paraguaios,um dos quaisajudante-de-ordens,e algunssoldados,alem daperdaquepareceentreelester sidoconsideravel. Do ladobrasileirohouvealgunsferidosetao-somenteummorto.

Sunday, 2

De Assuncaoanunciou-sea chegadado vaporAnnicota,queconduz de Humaita 1.000 pracas saıdas do hospital e trembelico, assimcomoa do Presidente,quetrasde BuenosAiresumalocomotiva,seisvagoese fios eletricosparao telegrafo.

Friday, 7

A telegrafia tem prestadoexcelentesservicos e trabalhain-cessantemente,sendorarososdesarranjosnasmaquinaseletro-magneticasou nalinha defios quea atividadedo oficial engen-

9

heiro imediatamentedispoe utilizando-sedos postesdeixadospelosparaguaiosnoseguimentodaestradadeferro.

Quinta-feira, 13

Retiraram-seasrecomendac¸oesprecisasparaa cessac¸aodasirregularidadesqueexistemno movimentopostalparaCuiaba,devendoos vaporesquevao ao Fechodosmorrosreceberaı amaladacapitaldaprovınciaedeCorumba.

Saturday, 15

O comandantede Assuncao, em telegrama, anunciouquena altura de S. Lourenco fora uma ponta de gado de JoaoApollinario, vinda do Passoda Patria e destinadaa Esquadra,atacadapor um bandoarmadoou inimigo ou formadodedeser-tores,o qual,entretanto,viu-sefrustradoemseusintentospelaresolucaodo capataze desuagente.

Monday, 17

DeAssuncaovempartedehaver-sedadoprincipioaostrabal-hosde fortificacao queSuaAltezadeterminara,fazendo-seemdiversasruas,tranqueirascom plataformasparaartilharianumperımetroquecompreendeosdepositos,ficandoporemforadeleo hospitale a estac¸aodaestradadeferro quehaodeserdefen-didosporobrasacessorias.As trincheirasabertasdeprincıpio enaorevestidastinham-seabatidodepoisdefortetemporalacom-panhadodechuvade13,demodoqueencetaram-seoutrasfeitascommaisregularidadee cuidado.

O Chefedo Estado-Maiorda Esquadracomunica,relativa-menteao embarqueda expedicao destinadaao Rosario queosvapores,transportese chatascarregarama cavalaria;o Silvado,a Infantaria,e o HenriqueMartins, a Artilharia, devendoficartudoabordohojedetarde,paraquepartaamanhaaoalvorecer.

A noite, um telegramade Assuncao transmitiu,a pedidodoGeneralCastro,anotıciadequeo TenenteCoronelCoronado,afrentede80homens,dirigira-seaoestabelecimentodefundicaode ferro em Ibicuy, ondechegaracom felicidade, fazendoaıcentoe tantosprisioneiros,resgataraoitentae tantoshomensdediversasnacionalidades,etrouxeramparacimadecemmulherese criancas.Anunciaele,porem,queforcasmaioresvemaoseuencalco, obrigando-oa pedir reforco, ao qual, na verdade,foi-lhe dadopeloBatalhaoorientalnumero24 e 80 homensnossosdecavalaria,quelogoseguiramaoseuencontroparaaoladosdeSantoAntonio, saindotambemdeLuquea brigadacomandadapeloCoronelM. deOliveiraBueno.

Wednesday, 27

Os fios telegraficos foram tirados: entretantoquasetodosos posteshaviam ficado,de modoquecom brevidadefoi pelohabil engenheiroAlvaroJoaquimdeOliveiracorridanovalinha,estabelecendo-sea imediata comunicac¸ao com a cidade deAssuncao.

Wednesday, June2, 1869

Chegoua Pirayuum telegramada Esquadra,o qual anunciaosfelizesresultadosdaexpedicaodo GeneralCamara:Galeanoderrotado,16 bocas-de-fogotomadas,os paraguaiosdispersosdepoisdaperdade500homense o aprisionamentode300out-ros. Estanotıcia enchede jubilo o nossoacampamento,vindo

asmusicastocara portadeSuaAlteza,querecebeuoscumpri-mentosdetodaa oficialidade.

Thursday, 3

De Assuncao receberam-setelegramascomunicandohaverdesembarcadonaqueledia o Sr. Viscondedo Herval e terchegadode Humaita o vapor Itapicuru, trazendoa bordoqua-tro companhiasdesmontadasdo Corpo12 de Cavalaria,muitamunicao e duzentosanimaismuares.Confirmadoficou o tele-gramada vespera:maisde 500 paraguaiosforam mortos,300aprisionados,3 bandeirase a artilharia todastomadas,muitasfamılias libertadasdo jugo de Galeanoe duasmil cabec¸as degadoarrebanhadas.

Friday, 4

De Assuncao comunica-sehaver chegadodo Alto Parana ovaporPayssandu trazendo120cavalos,caixoesdegranadasper-tencentesa Bateria de Artilharia e 145 cunhetesa cargo do12o Batalhao de Infantaria. Daquelacidadevem tambem anotıcia dehaver o BrigadeiroPortinhotransposto,no dia 24 domes proximo passado,o Rio Parana, notıcia que o vapor IrisvinhatrazendodoCerritoeque,por terencalhadoaquelenavio,chegoua Assuncaopor meiodeestafetas.

Tuesday, 8

Um telegramade Assuncao comunicater-se descobertoumimportantıssimoestragofeito na grandepontedo Ibiray entrea Trindadee aquelacidade: constade seis esteioscerradostransversalmente,algunscompletamente,outrosem parte; es-teiosdecomprimentoconsideravel querepousamempegoesdealvenaria.Apesardaimportanciadoscortes,o tremdeferropas-souquatroou cincovezespor cima dapontesemquesedessesinistroalgum.

Wednesday, 9

Sua Alteza, considerandoa possibilidadede ser a colunado GeneralPortinho ajudadaem suasoperacoes por algunsencourac¸ados,ordenouaoChefe-de-Esquadraquemandasseex-plorar o Rio Tebicuaryo mais longe possıvel, recebendoportelegramadaquelechefeparticipacaodequetal ordemfora logodadaa navios ancoradosno Cerrito, por issoqueno porto deAssuncaonaoexistenenhumemdisponibilidade,estandotodosospequenosempregadosno transportedaexpedicaodo Jejuy.

Tuesday, 29

Depois de ouvir missaas 7 1/2 horasda manha, visitar aguardadoExercitoetomardiversasprovidenciascomo Coman-dantedeAssuncao,embarcouSuaAltezano tremdeferro as81/2horas,e,sempararempontoalgummaisdoqueparatomar-seaguaemJuqueryeemAregua,foi, em2 horas,ateo Taquaral,donde,depoisdedemorade1/2hora,chegouaPirayupoucode-poisdemeio-dia.Em viagemfoi recebidoum telegramaanun-ciandoter passadode Ascurraum paraguaioqueseapresentacom 5 mulherese algumascriancas, formandosuafamılia, aqualcomelecombinarafuga,empreendendo-adeoutroponto.

10

Wednesday, 30

As 8 horasdanoiteveio,comefeito,daqueleponto,um tele-gramaanunciandoqueseapresentaraaslinha argentinase de-poisasbrasileiraso Ministro dosEstadosUnidos,GeneralMac-Mahon,e queele pediapermissao paravir falar com SuaAl-teza.Foi-lhe feita essaconcessaoe as9 horaseraelerecebido,em presenc¸a de muitaspessoasdo Estado-Maior, no Quartel-GeneraldePirayu.

Tuesday, July 6, 1869

Um telegramaanuncioua SuaAlteza que a tardezinhaem-barcarano vaporEduardoEwereto GeneralMac Mahon,tendotido ordema corvetaBelmonteparaseguir aquelevaporate oCerrito.As irregularidadesqueo diplomataamericanopraticaraemAssuncaoiamprovocarqualquermedida,porissonaopoucasatisfacao causoua suaretirada. O dinheiroqueele levava nabagagemfoi convertidoemletras,passadaspor Lesica,LanuseMolina emontavano valarde25.000patacoes.

Wednesday, 21

O Capitao-de-FragataSalgadotelegrafa queLanuslhe asse-gurava deveremhojeentrarno acampamentodePirayu350re-ses,nao tendoido maispor causadenovosdesarranjosemva-pores.Diz maisqueexistemno fechodosmorrosmantimentosparamaisdoismesese quepor issocessava por enquantosuasremessas.E certoque as faltasno fornecimentotem se mul-tiplicado e empecidocompletamenteasdeterminac¸oesasmaisinsignificantessobredeslocac¸oesdefracoesdeforca.

Thursday, 22

O ConselheiroParanhosdeclara em telegrama ter ficadocientedosembarac¸os com que lutava o Exercito por causadaescassezde vıverese quetratava de dar a isto prontoremedio.Essesembarac¸os temsubidoa tal pontoquea carneverde,du-rantediasseguidos,naotemsidofornecida,impossibilitandoosdesarranjoscontınuosdevaporese locomotivase a distribuicaoregulardosoutrosmantimentos.As resesdeAngusturachegamsempremuito magrase cansadas,e o Capitao-de-FragataSal-gadoteve ordemde ir ate la, a fim de verificar o numeroquecontemo deposito.

Sunday, 25

Nao cessandoo quaseestadode crise no fornecimentodevıveres,SuaAltezapor telegramaexigiu quedeAssuncao fos-semosmantimentosmandadosemcostasdeanimais,paralivrara remessaregulardosdesmanchoscontınuosnostrensdeferro.A respostade que os caminhosentreaquelacidadee Pirayuachavam-sepessimose que era consideradaa distancia,nadamaisrepresentado quepretextoscomqueosfornecedoresten-tam encobrira suafalta de meiosde locomocao, nao estandoaindacomo numerodebestasprecisasparaosproximosmovi-mentos.Ordensenergicasforamexpedidas.

Wednesday, 28

O ChefedeEstado-MaiordoExercito,quefeznovaviagemaAssuncaoparair cuidaremnegociosdecavalhada,mandouumtelegramapeloqualdiz ter recebido,dosanimaisvindosultima-mente,150queestavamemboascondicoes.

Saturday, August7, 1869

Em seguida, uma partida forte de cavalaria dirigiu-se aopovoadode Itacurubyqueachouocupadopor numerosagente.Ali havia uma estac¸ao telegrafica e uma estancia da mae deLopez,em cuja casaestavam acumuladosimensostesourosdepratamacica pertencenteaosdespojosde todasas igrejasdoParaguai,a dificuldadede transportaraqueledeposito fez comquefosseentreguea reparticaofiscal tao-somentea porcaoqueossoldadospuderamvir conduzindoate Valenzuela.

Thursday, 12

Todasascasascontinhammoveis, caixas,livros etc.; haviaumaestac¸aotelegraficae umatipografia.

Thursday, 26

O fornecimentoainda chega escassoem Caraguaty. Pelotelegrafo,que ja vem ate Caacupe, reiteram-seasordensparaquesejamdespachadoscarroscomvıveresunsatrasdosoutros.

Wednesday, October13,1869

Ao General Polydoro oficiou Sua Alteza que, pelo fatoda ocupacao de SantoEstanislao, tornava-sedesnecessario apresenc¸a de tropasentreCaraguataye Assuncao, convido quese dirijam a margem do Paraguaias forcas do ��� Corpo deExercito, o ��� Regimento de Cavalaria, presentementeemNhuguacu, o ����� deCavalariaem CerroLeon,o ���� de Infan-taria existenteem Ascurrae o � � de Artilharia queguarneciaPirayue queseretirara,efetuadaa remocaode todasasbocas-de-fogotomadasem agosto. ParaAngusturapoderao ir essasforcas,a fim denaoacumularemAssuncaomaisgente,quandoe de necessidadee desdeja removendoa que la se acha,po-dendotambem serencaminhadasparaHumaita ou outro qual-querpontojulgadoconveniente.A linhatelegraficadeAssuncaoa Caraguataysera desmanchadae o seumaterialtransportadoparao RosarioparanovamenteserestendidaemdirecaoaSantoEstanislao.

Sexta-feira, 24 deDezembro de1869

Da estac¸ao telegrafica de Ihu, a tres leguasde Santani,foi remetidoo seguinte telegramado MarechalVictorino. OCapitao de CavalariaOrlando,quemandeiate o Rio Jejuy, foia Vila de Sao Pedroe de la trouxe 42 paraguaiosque se ap-resentarame mais o italiano de nomeAbrahao Sertorio,cujodepoimentoserabrevementeenviadoparaCuruguaty.

Ao Comandante-em-ChefeinterinodaEsquadraque,a15 docorrente,comunicarahaver assumidoo Comandointerino daEsquadrapelaretiradado Chefe-de-EsquadraElisiario Antoniodos Santos,declarouSuaAlteza que devem ser mensalmenteremetidasas notas dos vaporesfretados pelo Estado, comespecificac¸ao do destinoem que cadaum delesse acha. Asexploracoesda barrado Rio Jejuyserao semanalmenterepeti-dasate conseguir-sea subidade lanchasa vaporate a Vila SaoPedro.

Tuesday, January11,1870

De manha, SuaAlteza deixou Santani: paroujunto ao Ar-rojo Ihu,aduasleguasetresquartosdopovoado,paraexaminara estac¸ao telegraficae foi acamparalem da EstanciaCarolina,

11

completandoquaseseisleguas.Oscaminhos,emboraencharca-dosdaschuvaspassadas,mostramostrabalhosfeitospeloativoengenheiroCapitaoAntoniodeSenaMadureira,encarregadodomelhoramentoda estradacompreendidaentreSantoEstanislaue aVila do Rosario. (p.256)

Wednesday, 12

As 11 horasdo dia entrouSuaAltezanaVila deItacurubi,aquatroleguasdo pousoe aı foi recebidopelo ComandantedoBatalhaonumero9 deInfantariaMajor FlorianoVieira Peixotoe suaoficialidade,indo pararnaestac¸aocentraltelegrafica,cujalinha toda esta entregue aos zelososcuidadosdo engenheiroCapitaoCatao. Depoisdealgumademora,foi o prıncipeacam-parno fim do campoocioso,a leguaemeiadeItacurubi.

Wednesday, February2, 1870

Ao ComandantedaEsquadraoficiou SuaAlteza,declarandoquetemdeembarcarcomtodaa brevidadenosvaporesGalgo,SaoJose e Cuiaba umabrigadacompostadosbatalhoesdeVol-untarios numeros17, 40 e 53, achando-seos dois ultimos naVila doRosarioeo primeiroemHumaita. Do comandantedestabrigadadeveraoreceberordensoscomandantesdevapores,quepararao em SantaCatarinapara,pelo telegrafo,pedirem-seasordensdo Governo.

Wednesday, March 2, 1870

O GeneralJose Auto da Silva Guimaraesparticipapor tele-gramaqueamanhadeveelechegar, comaforcadeCuruguati,aVila do Rosario.

SuaAlteza, por estacircunstancia,adioua viagemque,pornecessidadede saude, pretendefazer pelo rio ate a Vila daConceicao.

REFERENCES

[1] Eric J.Hobsbawn. A Era dasRevolucoes. PazeTerra,2004.[2] Carl vonClausewitz. Da Guerra. MartinsFontes,1996.[3] Dionısio Cerqueira. Reminiscenciasda Campanhado Paraguai. Bib-

liotecadoExercitoEditora,1980.[4] AugustoTassoFragoso.Historia da Guerra Entre a Trıplice Alianca e o

Paraguai - Vol. I. ImprensadoEstado-MaiordoExercito,1934.[5] AugustoTassoFragoso.Historia da Guerra Entre a Trıplice Alianca e o

Paraguai - Vol. II . ImprensadoEstado-MaiordoExercito,1934.[6] AugustoTassoFragoso.Historia da Guerra Entre a Trıplice Alianca e o

Paraguai - Vol. III . ImprensadoEstado-MaiordoExercito,1934.[7] AugustoTassoFragoso.Historia da Guerra Entre a Trıplice Alianca e o

Paraguai - Vol. IV. ImprensadoEstado-Maiordo Exercito,1934.[8] AugustoTassoFragoso.Historia da Guerra Entre a Trıplice Alianca e o

Paraguai - Vol. V. ImprensadoEstado-MaiordoExercito,1934.[9] FranciscoDoratioto. Maldita Guerra: Nova Historia da Guerra do

Paraguai. CompanhiadasLetras,2002.[10] MarcoAntonio Cunha.A Chamada Nacionalidade:Ecosda Guerra do

Paraguai. BibliotecadoExercitoEditora,2000.[11] KennethGeorge Beauchamp.History of Telegraphy. The Institution of

ElectricalEngineers,London,UnitedKingdom,2001.[12] Alfred d’EscragnolleTaunay. A Retirada da Laguna. Companhiadas

Letras,1997.[13] Alfred d’EscragnolleTaunay. Diario doExercito: CampanhadoParaguai

1869-1870. BibliotecadoExercitoEditora,2002.[14] Marcelo S. Alencar. “Guerrase Comunicac¸oes”. Artigo para jornal

eletronico na Internet, Jornal do CommercioOn Line, Recife, Brasil,Setembro2001.

[15] LawrenceF. Hill, Editor. Brazil. Universityof CaliforniaPress,Berkeley,USA, 1947.

[16] MarceloS. Alencar. “A Telegrafiano SeculoDezenove, SegundaParte”.Artigo parajornal eletronico na Internet,Jornaldo CommercioOn Line,Recife,Brasil,Outubro2001.

[17] MarceloS. Alencar. “A Siemensno Brasil – ParteI”. Artigo parajornaleletroniconaInternet,JornaldoCommercioOnLine, Recife,Brasil,Maio2004.

[18] M. S.Neto. Guerrado paraguai:Aspectossumarios. A DefesaNacional,pages97–106,Dezembro2001.

[19] N. R. Boiteux. A guerrado paraguaiem numeros. A DefesaNacional,pages44–62,Dezembro2000.