Vocational training PO3

Governments and non-governmental organizations around the world are developing special programmes for persons with disabilities. Because such persons did not always have the opportunity to go to school, or could study for only a few years, many disabled persons can barely read or write, or are totally illiterate. Training programmes must be especially developed to take this into account and use hands-on training techniques to teach new skills to persons with disabilities.

Creating the opportunity for disabled persons to become self-reliant

Trainers must realize their responsibility towards trainees with disabilities because they will play a major role in the future of the trainees; their work will offer disabled persons a chance for a better life with self-reliance, food security and an improved quality of life.

The main objective is to enable rural persons with disabilities to become economically self-reliant through income generation as small-scale entrepreneurs. The trainer must keep this in mind at all times during the training. All trainees participate in the training by choice and because they believe that the training course will give them the tools necessary for improving their livelihood. It is the responsibility of the trainer to convince trainees that they can do anything and everything they set their minds to.

Considerations for training of rural disabled persons

Training must take into consideration the activities of trainees within their community. In Asia, rice sowing and harvesting are the busiest times of the year for farmers and, therefore, it is very difficult to organize training during these periods.

Trainees may also have received different levels of education and, therefore, they must be encouraged to work as a team, helping one another. Both trainees and trainers must learn to work together towards a common goal, which is to succeed in starting a small-scale enterprise. If the trainees help each other, they can all learn from one another and will feel happier during the training.

Trainees must be well prepared for training in farming and rural activities. They must understand that it is not possible to close the enterprise during the weekend. Rural poor people often work seven days a week since some activities cannot be stopped. For example, animals need to be fed and crops need to be watered every day of the week. Trainers must arrange their schedule according to rural daily realities.

The use of a small-scale entrepreneur's experience can be very helpful and highly encouraging for trainees with disabilities. Trainers should include specialists in enterprise development, disability matters, and agriculture and rural affairs. The training can be provided either by one person with all these specializations or by a strategically selected training team.

Trainers may work on a rotating schedule. Communication between trainers, trainees, consultants and all parties involved is necessary for an effective outcome.

Motivation and capacity-building

Trainers will have to prepare trainees for basic learning and for unexpected events that will certainly occur during and following the training.

Four main learning steps

The objectives and priorities in training rural people with disabilities for enterprise development are:

1. To improve daily living skills2. To impart technical capabilities and capacities3. To develop entrepreneurial skills4. To establish a network and strategic partnerships

1. To improve daily living skills

Trainers should focus on the daily realities of the trainees' community life by direct discussion with the trainees and offering appropriate advice:

Accept who you are and learn to love yourself as you are Think positively, and be convinced that you CAN DO Be an active member of your family and community Be responsible for your life by ensuring food security and quality, and practice good

eating habits for yourself and your family Be aware of your needs Participate in your family and community activities as an equal member Confront and surmount problems through open-minded interactions among

themselves and in addition, through personal prayers, meditation, reflection and physical exercises.

Trainees must be made aware of their personal limitations and potentials; they must never allow other people to determine what they can and cannot do. Training sessions should create the atmosphere of a large family reunion in order to encourage exchange, sharing, discussion, compassion and emotional strengthening. Trainees must learn to listen to the experiences of others in order to learn how to overcome some of the problems and be successful in improving their quality of life.

Finally, enterprise development will offer trainees the chance to become self-reliant once they are convinced that they are capable of doing, even if they do it differently. Surmounting new challenges is never easy but always brings a feeling of achievement and success.

Case study: Teenager with Down's syndrome earns income and confidence from chicken, duck breeding

Fifteen-year-old Darum Bunkum, a resident of Lao Khwan district in Thailand's Kanchanaburi province, suffers from Down's syndrome. The right side of his body was severely weakened and he could study only till grade four. Eight years after he began rehabilitation training, he has recovered much of his strength and became economically self-reliant and confident about the future.

When he was seven, he joined the rehabilitation project run by the Foundation for the Welfare of the Mentally Retarded of Thailand under the Royal Patronage of Her Majesty the Queen. The community-based rehabilitation project (CBR) arranged physiotherapy for physically disabled rural children by giving them small cows. Taking the cows out to graze enables the disabled children to exercise their limbs. It helped make Darum's arms and legs stronger.

Noting that Darum really enjoyed taking care of the animals, the Foundation gave him funds to buy and raise chickens and Bavary ducks. Workers from the Foundation first trained his parents how to raise the chickens and ducks and manage the income. The Foundation actively followed up on his progress every three months. He also learnt how to inject the birds with vaccine and to prepare their feed according to prescribed formula. Darum could earn enough by selling chicken and duck eggs, ducklings and young chickens to expand his small farm.

He now has 50 chickens, 10 pairs of Bavary ducks and five meat cows and earns between 70 to 100 baht per day. He now earns his own income from his enterprise for the first time in his life. A portion of the income is used for expanding his enterprise, another part helps meet necessary family expenses and the remainder is put in Darum's bank account. Darum learnt about money management from his parents and is now proud to manage his bank account by himself He is confident he can become physically stronger and also develop his intellectual capabilities to be successful in life. He wants to make chicken and duck breeding his permanent livelihood.

2. To impart technical capabilities and capacities

Trainers must concentrate on the skills required for the successful accomplishment of all tasks associated with the chosen small-scale enterprise that is to be established in a rural area. These skills and tasks will vary from one business to another.

For persons with physical disabilities, certain techniques may be needed to replace the "conventional way" of doing things. For example, using the feet or mouth instead of hands has proven very efficient. Certain tools and devices can also be adapted to a person's physical disability.

Because training has to be conducted over a limited period of time, the quality of trainers becomes extremely important. Several programmes developed by government and non-governmental organizations use specialized trainers. Nevertheless, trainees prefer trainers who are successful entrepreneurs themselves and can explain from experience the "do's" and "don'ts" of establishing and running a small-scale enterprise.

3. To develop entrepreneurial skills

All aspects of a sustainable rural enterprise must be reviewed and well understood. For details see Part III.

4. To establish a network and strategic partnerships

Regular communication with trainers and all parties involved will provide trainees with timely information about existing training programmes. Trainees should fully exploit opportunities for collaboration with various agencies and organizations. This will also facilitate their acceptance as full members of their community.

The following are examples of organizations and institutions that can be contacted for future collaboration or partnership.

1. Agriculture extension offices

2. Local disability training centres

3. Technical colleges

4. Universities

5. Private companies

6. Local community small enterprises

7. Organizations for persons with disabilities (local, national and international levels)

8. Non-government organizations (local, national and international levels)

9. Central government agencies (e.g. Ministry of Invalids, Ministry of Social Welfare, Ministry of Labour, Ministry of Health)

10. Local government agencies

11. UN agencies such as FAO, ILO, UNDP, UNICEF, UNIDO, WHO.

These days, it is very difficult for an ordinary person to get a good job, so it could be easily realized, how difficult it would be for physically challenged people to get a good job. The Organization has taken an initiative in this regard by creating facilities for the training of the disabled people in various professions and trades. The Organization conducts VOCATIONAL TRAINING CENTERS for physically challenged person.

‘Narayan Seva Sansthan’ is a NGO providing rehabilitation services to physically challenged. The Organization provides various equipments and vocational training which turns out to be of great help.

The mission of ‘Narayan Seva Sansthan’ is to the life standered of physically challenged person through vocational training and other support. The training programme makes the physically challenged self sufficient after being trained in the field of their choice, as the training programme helps them to start their own business or get jobs elsewhere.

For the disabled people residing in the villages, the Organization has provided various facilities for their training in wood craft, carpentry, black-smith trade, leather work, and also provide necessary tools and raw material required in this connection.

The Organization also helps poor and physically challenged women providing them with lorries containing vegetables so, as to encourage them to become financially self-depended.

Assistive TechnologyIn order to access print information, students with visual impairments must be trained in the use of a

number of adaptive devices, methods, and equipment that are collectively referred to as assistive

technology. Some of this technology allows access to information presented on a computer while

others are devices to be used independently. Computer hardware and software are continuously

advancing, allowing for more access to information than ever before. Some examples:

Computer adaptations:

Braille translation software and equipment: converts print into braille and braille into print.

Braille printer: connects to a computer and embosses braille on paper. Screen reader: converts text on a computer screen to audible speech. Screen enlargement software: increases the size of text and images on a computer

screen. Refreshable Bbraille display: converts text on computer to braille by an output device

connected to the computer.

Adaptive devices:

Braille notetakers: lightweight electronic note-taking device that can be connected to a printer or a braille embosser to produce a printed or brailled copy.

Optical character reader: converts printed text into files on a computer that can be translated into audible speech or Braille with appropriate equipment and software.

Electronic braillewriter: produces braille, translates braille into text or synthetic speech.

Talking calculators: calculates with voice output.

Optical devices:

Closed Circuit Television (CCTV): enlarges an image to a larger size and projects it on a screen

Magnifiers: enlarges images Telescopes: used to view distant objects

A specially trained teacher of students with visual impairments can help supply many of these devices

and can provide training for the student to become independent and proficient in using assistive

technology.

Curriculum for visually impaired

Educators define core curriculum as the knowledge and skills, generally those related to academic subjects, a student should have learned by high school graduation. Each state in the United States establishes minimum standards for high school graduation, and this core curriculum becomes the foundation for almost all learning, from kindergarten through high school.

Educators of visually impaired students can use their expertise in curriculum adaptation to adapt any curriculum and make it readily available for visually impaired learners. If accessibility to learning materials is the only problem the visual impairment presents, then educating visually impaired students can be solved by adaptation of the existing core curriculum.

But most professionals firmly believe that visually impaired students need an expanded core curriculum that requires additional areas of learning. Experiences and concepts casually and incidentally learned by sighted students must be systematically and sequentially taught to the visually impaired student.

Professionals and parents have discussed the concept of a core curriculum for visually impaired learners for many years. It has had many names; the specialized curriculum, specialized needs, the unique curriculum, unique needs, nonacademic curriculum, the dual curriculum, and most recently, the disability-specific curriculum.

These terms sometimes distract from the important issue. Using the term core curriculum for blind and visually impaired students to define the basic educational needs for those young people conveys the same message as the original core curriculum. Words like specialized, unique and disability-specific are not needed and, indeed, may give an erroneous connotation to basic educational needs. Those terms imply two separate lists of educational needs for visually impaired students: one list that contains the elements of a traditional core curriculum; the second a list of disability-specific needs. Two lists might provide educators with options, such as a list of requirements and one of electives. There should be only one list—the required curriculum for visually impaired students.

The expanded core curriculum now being promoted is not new. Elements of it have been known for years. References to grooming skills date back to 1891. The need for social interaction skills appeared in the literature in 1929 and again in 1948. Between 1953 and 1975, more than two dozen books and articles were written about daily living skills and visually impaired students. Much more has been written about orientation and mobility and career education.

The Expanded Core Curriculum for Blind and Visually Impaired Children and Youths

The lists below incorporate the basic subject competencies now required by states and the competencies of the expanded core curriculum for visually impaired students. Some of the skills—compensatory or functional academic skills, including communication modes; orientation and mobility; social interaction skills, visual efficiency skills—are either not in the regular core curriculum or not in it with sufficient specificity to meet the needs of visually impaired students. Others—independent living skills, recreation and leisure skills, career education, and technology—although addressed in the regular core curriculum, are done so inadequately for the needs of visually impaired students.

Existing Core Curriculum

Expanded Core Curriculum

English language arts

Other languages to the extent possible

Compensatory academic skills, including communication modes

Orientation and mobility

Mathematics Science Social interaction skills Independent

living skills

Health Physical education Recreation and leisure skills Career education

Social studies History Use of assistive technology Visual efficiency skills

Economics Business education

Fine arts Vocational education

Narrative description

Compensatory or Functional Academic Skills, Including Communication Modes

In this area, a distinction must be made between compensatory skills and functional skills. Compensatory skills are those that blind and visually impaired students need to access all areas of core curriculum. Mastery of compensatory skills will usually mean that the visually impaired student has access to learning in a manner equal to that of sighted peers. Functional skills refers to the skills that students with multiple disabilities learn that provide them with the opportunity to work, play, socialize, and take care of personal needs to the highest level possible.

These academic skills include learning experiences such as concept development, spatial understanding, study and organizational skills, speaking and listening skills, and the adaptations necessary for accessing all areas of the existing core curriculum. Communication needs will vary, depending on the degree of functional vision, the

effects of additional disabilities, and the task to be done. Children may communicate through Braille, large print, print with the use of optical devices, regular print, tactile symbols, a calendar system, sign language, recorded materials, or combinations of these means. Whatever the choice of materials, each student with a visual impairment will need instruction from a teacher with professional preparation in each of the compensatory and functional skills they need to master. These compensatory and functional needs of the visually impaired child are significant.

Orientation and Mobility

This is a vital area of learning, which requires delivery by teachers with specific preparation. It emphasizes the fundamental need and basic right of visually impaired people to travel as independently as possible, enjoying and learning to the greatest extent possible from the environment through which they are passing. Students will need to learn about themselves and the environment in which they move—from basic body image to independent travel in rural areas and busy cities.

Social Interaction Skills

Sighted children and adults have learned almost all their social skills by visually observing other people and behaving in socially appropriate ways based on that information. Blind and visually impaired individuals cannot learn skills of social interaction in this casual and incidental fashion. They learn then through careful, conscious, and sequential teaching. Instruction in these skills is such a fundamental need that it can often mean the difference between social isolation and a satisfying and fulfilling life as an adult.

Independent Living Skills

This area, often referred to as daily living skills, consists of all the tasks and functions people perform, according to their abilities, in order to live as independently as possible. These curricular needs are varied and include among others skills in personal hygiene, food preparation, money management, time monitoring, and organization. The existing core curriculum addresses some independent living skills, but they often are introduced as "splinter skills," appearing in learning material, disappearing, and then re-appearing. This approach will not adequately prepare blind and visually impaired students for adult life. Traditional classes in home economics and family life are not enough to meet the learning needs of most visually impaired students because they assume a basic level of knowledge, acquired incidentally through vision. As with the skills of social interaction, blind and visually impaired students cannot learn these skills without direct, sequential instruction by knowledgeable people.

Recreation and Leisure Skills

The existing core curriculum usually addresses the needs of sighted students for physical fitness through physical education in the form of team games and athletics. Many activities in physical education are excellent and appropriate for visually impaired students, but these students also need to develop recreational and leisure activities that they can enjoy throughout their lives. Sighted people usually select such activities by visually observing them and choosing those in which they wish to participate. Recreation and leisure skills must be deliberately planned and taught to blind and visually impaired students and should focus on the development of life-long skills.

Career Education

Many of the skills and knowledge offered to all students through vocational education will not be sufficient to prepare blind and visually impaired students for adult life. They will also need career education offered for them specifically because here, too, general instruction assumes a basic knowledge of the world of work based on prior visual experiences. Career education in an expanded core curriculum should begin in the earliest grades to give the visually impaired learner of all ages the opportunity to learn firsthand about the variety of work people do. It will give the student chances to explore strengths and interests in a systematic, well-planned manner. Unemployment and underemployment are leading problems facing visually impaired people in the United States, making this portion of the expanded core curriculum vital to students.

Technology

Technology is a tool to unlock learning and expand the horizons of students. It is not, in reality, a curriculum area, but it is added to the expanded core curriculum because of the special place it occupies in the education of blind and visually impaired students. Technology can be a great equalizer. For the Braille user, it will produce material in Braille for personal use and then in print for the teacher, classmates, and parents. Technology enables blind people to store and retrieve information and brings a library under the fingertips of the visually impaired person. It enhances communication and learning and expands the world of blind and visually impaired persons in many significant ways.

Visual Efficiency Skills

The visual acuity of children diagnosed as visually impaired varies greatly. With thorough, systematic training, most students with functional vision can learn to use their remaining vision better and more efficiently. Educational responsibility for performing a functional vision assessment, planning appropriate learning activities for effective visual use, and teaching students to use their functional vision effectively and efficiently falls to the professionally prepared teacher of visually impaired learners.

It is difficult to imagine that a congenitally blind or visually impaired person could be entirely at ease within the social, recreational, and vocational structure of the general community without mastering the elements of the expanded core curriculum. We know that unless congenitally blind and visually impaired students learn skills such as orientation and mobility, social interaction, and independent living they are at high risk for lonely, isolated, unproductive lives. For blind and visually impaired people, accomplishments and joys such as shopping, dining, attending and participating in recreational activities are a right, not a privilege. Responsibilities such as banking, taking care of health needs, and using public and private services are a part of a full life for every one, including those who are blind or visually impaired. Adopting and implementing a core curriculum for blind and visually impaired students, including those with additional disabilities, will assure students of the opportunity to function well and completely in the general community.

This expanded core curriculum emphasizes the "right" of the visually impaired student "to be different." It is the heart of the responsibility of educators serving visually impaired students.

Children With Additional Disabilities

The components of the expanded core curriculum give educators the means to address the needs of visually impaired children with additional disabilities. The educational requirements of these

children are often not met because their lack of vision is considered "minor," especially if the child has severe cognitive and physical disabilities. Appropriate professionals can further define each area in the expanded core curriculum to address the educational issues facing these children and assist parents and educators to fulfill their needs.

POA 03

EARLY IDENTIFICATION AND INTERVENTION

Early identification of development delays and/or disabilities Some health conditions associated with disability may be detected during pregnancy where there is access to prenatal screening, while other impairments may be identified during or after birth. Screening or surveillance of children’s development may take place during visits to general child health-care or ECD services; there may be targeted early identification procedures in place, such as screening for visual and hearing impairments in health-care or education settings; and public health activities, such as immunization campaigns, may also provide opportunities for early identification. Some families may also become concerned about their child’s development if there are delays in the achievement of key developmental milestones such as sitting, walking or talking.

Unfortunately many children with disabilities in developing countries, particularly those with “mild to moderate “ disabilities, are not identified until they reach school age (61). Systems for early identification are required in order to facilitate timely access to services to support the development of children at significant risk for developmental delays, and to prevent potential issues, such as a loss of confidence in parenting skills (62).

It is important to ensure that early identification does not contribute to further discrimination and exclusion from mainstream services such as education. Ethical issues may also arise unless screening leads to: comprehensive assessment; the design of appropriate intervention plans; and timely and appropriate management and care (63,31). Decisions to undertake identification and screening should take into account the availability of services or resources to provide interventions as well as the effectiveness of these interventions (64). However, caution should be exercised against “inactivity” based on the assumption that ideal services are not fully available. Comprehensive tracking and follow-up systems can ensure that children who are identified through screening subsequently receive assessments and appropriate services (22).

Assessment and planning for early interventionAccurate assessment is an important starting point for better understanding and anticipating the needs of children with disabilities and their families. Assessment is not an end in itself, rather its goals are to obtain useful and accurate information about a child’s sensory-motor, cognitive, communication and social-emotional skills, and functioning and surrounding environment in order to assist parents, health-care providers, teachers and others to better understand, plan for and support the development and inclusion of a child with a disability. Assessment should be linked to intervention and should be an ongoing process of systematic observation and analysis. Parents are key partners in the early intervention assessment and planning process, and may require counselling and support on how to address the needs of their child following an assessment (see Family services below).

During the assessment process, a diagnosis may be made for some children while for others it may not be made until later or at all. Diagnosis depends on a number of factors including the nature and severity of the child’s problems as well as the availability of clinics or mobile units where diagnostic services are normally provided. Diagnosis can be clinically significant, particularly where interventions exist to treat or address health conditions, and can also be important from a social perspective, for example in terms of obtaining access to welfare benefits or services. Paradoxically, diagnosis can be beneficial for parents in providing certainty and validation and can help them seek out appropriate services and better advocate for their child. However, there are dangers in “labelling” children according to their diagnosis as it can lead to lower expectations and denial of needed services, and overshadow the child’s individuality and evolving capacities.

While identification and assessment of children with disabilities in high-income countries often involves teams of highly trained professionals, in LMICs such comprehensive expertise is often unavailable. In some countries, community-based workers are trained and supported by professionals where possible (such as through the use of outreach or mobile teams) to strengthen capacity and improve the quality of interventions. CBR programmes can also be key players in early detection and assessment efforts (60).

Service provision

Mainstream service provision

Inclusive health care

Historically international development and global health communities have focused on preventing health conditions associated with disability (5). Some health conditions that arise during pregnancy and childbirth can be avoided by good preconception, prenatal and perinatal care. Public health initiatives play a major role in preventive efforts (65). Such initiatives include: childhood vaccinations; child health, nutrition and education campaigns; and decreasing the exposure of young children to diseases that may lead to impairments such as malaria and trachoma, as well as to childhood injury.

The priority for children who have disabilities is to ensure that they remain as healthy as possible so they can grow, thrive and develop. While children with disabilities often have specialized health-care needs related to their disability, they are also at risk of the same

childhood illnesses as other children such as influenza, diarrhoea, and pneumonia for which they require access to mainstream health-care services. Children with disabilities are also at an increased risk of secondary conditions related to their disability. Children who are wheelchair users, for example, are vulnerable to pressure ulcers. Many of these conditions can be addressed by mainstream health-care services.

Primary health care is a natural starting point for identifying and addressing the needs of children with disabilities (22,5), with appropriate referral for more specialized needs where required (5). Primary health-care workers can assist in the identification of children with disabilities, who are often hidden in their communities and denied access to health care, and support their inclusion in health-care activities such as immunizations (31). Where possible all centre-based health services should incorporate early identification, intervention and family support components as part of existing services. Food and nutrition programmes should also include children with disabilities and should be designed with consideration given to any specific digestive problems and nutritional requirements that may be associated with their disability.

Inclusive early childhood education

Inclusive education is a process of strengthening the capacity of the education system to reach out to all learners—including those with disabilities—and can thus be understood as a key strategy to achieve EFA (66). As stated in Article 24 of the CRPD, children with disabilities should not be excluded from the general education system on the basis of disability and should have access to inclusive, quality and free primary and secondary education on an equal basis with others in the community in which they live (7).

Inclusive pre-school and early primary schooling offers children with disabilities a vital space in which to ensure optimal development by providing opportunities for child-focused learning, play, participation, peer interaction and the development of friendships. Children with disabilities are often denied early years of primary schooling, and when enrolled—due to a lack of inclusive approaches and rigid systems—they often fail, need to repeat and/or are encouraged to dropout during this critical developmental period.

The CRPD and EFA initiatives promote inclusive education for all children, including those with disabilities (7) and call for the provision of assistance to ensure full and meaningful learning and participation. In many countries separate schools exist for children with certain types of impairments, for example schools for deaf or blind children. However, these schools usually accommodate a limited number of children, often lead to separation from the family at an early age, and fail to promote inclusion in the wider community. In some countries children with disabilities attend mainstream pre- and primary schools, however, they are segregated into special classrooms or resource centres which are staffed by teachers trained in special education (67,68,69,32).

Education for children with disabilities should focus on inclusion in mainstream settings. While inclusion is consistent with the rights of children with disabilities and is generally more cost effective than special or separate schools, it cannot happen without appropriate levels of support. While additional investments are required, such as progressive national and local policy, trained staff, accessible facilities, flexible curricula and teaching methods, and educational resources, these investments will benefit all children.

For all inclusive early childhood education and learning interventions, positive attitudes and responses from and interactions with peers, teachers, school administrators, other school staff, parents and community members are critical (5,31,32). Assessing and monitoring ECD and school environments for promoting inclusion is an important part of guaranteeing appropriate educational opportunities for children with disabilities. Multisectoral approaches with effective coordinating mechanisms between such sectors as education, health and social welfare are required to ensure early identification efforts, promote holistic responses and link school-based learning with home and community interventions.

Inclusive social services and child protection

Parents/caregivers of children with disabilities, particularly mothers, need to have an adequate degree of economic security, access to resources and to basic services including health, nutrition and education, and protection from violence in order to be able to act on behalf of themselves and their children (1).

Children with disabilities and their family members require access to social services such as: child protection systems; support and assistance services; and social welfare services and benefits. Inclusive social protection1 recognizes how the social dimensions of exclusion, including disability, can be barriers to security and essential social services. In this sense, social protection programmes may support families of children with disabilities allowing them to overcome financial and social barriers to access basic and essential services (70,71). Such programs include: the utilization of existing social transfers such as conditional cash transfers; anti-discriminatory legislation; and policy reform. It is important that conditional cash transfers do not exclude children with disabilities due to conditions that families cannot fulfil.

Guaranteeing the systematic support and protection for children with disabilities and their families requires on-going coordination between health, education, child protection, ECD and other social services. This should include the incorporation of specific early intervention actions as part of the regular delivery system as opposed to structuring separate or parallel services for children with disabilities.

Box 2: Supporting children with disabilities during humanitarian situations

Children with disabilities are particularly vulnerable during humanitarian situations such as armed conflict, natural disaster and famine. Article 11 of the CRPD highlights the importance of ensuring their protection and safety in all humanitarian action (7). Stakeholders across many different areas including: health; nutrition; water, sanitation and hygiene; emergency shelter and non-food items; education; and protection need to ensure the inclusion of children with disabilities in their activities during humanitarian situations and, where necessary, adopt targeted approaches to ensure all their needs are met.

Stakeholders can (60,72,73):

Prepare children with disabilities, their families and other relevant stakeholders for humanitarian situations by:1 Inclusive social protection entails using instruments that explicitly promote social inclusion and equity, and ensuring that programme design and implementation are sensitive to the added vulnerabilities that stem from social exclusion. This implies moving away from targeting particular groups and looking at the underlying causes of exclusion and vulnerabilities these groups share: discrimination and stigma; traditional social norms preventing use of services; limited assets and visibility, etc (70).

identifying and registering children with disabilities and their families, noting where they live, their needs during humanitarian situations, and a plan for addressing these needs;

including children with disabilities and their families in planning and preparedness activities which take place in their communities;

ensuring that transport, emergency shelters, and alert and warning systems are accessible for children with different types of impairments, such as visual, hearing and mobility impairments;

providing training for people involved in preparedness and response so they are aware of the needs of children with disabilities and their families, and can address these needs.

Ensure emergency response includes children with disabilities and their families by: providing equal access to essential supplies, which may require specific strategies such as “fast

track” queues and delivery of goods directly to children and their families; organizing for replacement of lost or damaged assistive devices and providing new ones for

children who have newly acquired injuries or impairments; ensuring that temporary shelters, water distribution points, and latrine and toilet facilities are

physically accessible to children with disabilities and their families; identifying child-friendly spaces and other child protection measures, and facilitate the inclusion of

children with disabilities; including children with disabilities in education programmes.

Support children with disabilities and their families during the recovery phase by: providing access to appropriate health and rehabilitation services including assistive devices; including accessibility considerations in the reconstruction phase to promote participation for

children with disabilities. For example ensuring that schools and housing are accessible in the long-term.

Targeted service provision

Early childhood intervention (ECI) (see Box 1 above for definition) should be an integral part of existing health, education and social system actions for all children. The provision of intervention programmes as early as possible can result in positive outcomes for children with disabilities and their families and can address the multiple factors of exclusion (74,75). There is growing evidence that children who receive ECI and other services show gains in a wide range of skills, greatly enhancing their abilities to flourish when they begin formal education and thus justifying the greater costs that such targeted interventions might entail (60,5,36). In addition to enhancing children’s developmental competencies and minimizing secondary complications, ECI programmes can help to build effective support networks for parents, promoting confidence and competence. ECI programmes that coordinate services across different sectors, such as health, education, and social protection/support, are sustainable over time, and support children and families as they move from early childhood into successful primary school experiences are particularly desirable (36).

Therapy services, including assistive devicesTherapy services aim to optimize a child’s development and ability to participate in family and community life by providing structured opportunities to practice skills appropriate to the child’s current developmental level (76). Service provision should include a combination of centre- and home-based interventions with the active involvement of parents and/or other family members. Where available, CBR programmes can assist in establishing a bridge between centre-based services and the home environment. Therapy interventions for young children include: therapeutic activities based around play and other activities; functional training to work on skills required for independence in everyday activities; education for parents to help them better understand their child’s disability and their role; prescription and

provision of assistive devices2 including user training; and modifications to the home and school environments. Interventions that allow the acquisition of even basic skills, such as helping a child with a disability learn to feed or dress himself or herself, can lead to a growing sense of independence and competency and reduce the burden on other family members.

Family servicesFamilies are critical to the development and protection of their children and a close child-caregiver bond is important for both children with and without disabilities. Inclusion begins in the home environment during the early years and later broadens to school and community settings. Family services should aim to provide families with the knowledge, skills and support to meet and advocate for the needs and rights of their child in all settings (1). Service providers must work closely with families to design and implement interventions that are culturally appropriate and meet their needs (19,38,77).

Following early identification and assessment, many parents/caregivers of children with disabilities will require information about their child’s disability and development progress, what steps they can and should take, and the resources available for support and treatment (4). Recognizing that formal assessment processes are often delayed or not available, the provision of information for parents is critical during the early stages of support and intervention. Information should be furnished in ways that educates parents and other family members and that promotes constructive dialogue within the family and community.

Fathers, siblings and other extended family members often play a significant role in caring for and supporting children with disabilities. Overlooking this potential support often places additional burdens on mothers. An approach which encourages father/male involvement and promotes competency building would significantly enhance families’ abilities to care for children with disabilities.

Group discussions, one-on-one listening, support groups for parents of children with similar disabilities and other potential interventions can provide opportunities to share experiences and encourage peer support and guidance. The use of stories that feature children with disabilities as protagonists is one way to demonstrate to all family members, including the child with a disability, that many capabilities are present and should be cultivated (39). Promoting appropriate activities that caregivers and children with disabilities can do together to improve developmental outcomes in children with disabilities is essential. Home visits by community workers combined with centre-based support can be an effective way to increase the confidence and competencies of parents and engage significant others in supporting the development of children with disabilities (78,32). Providing literacy and educational opportunities for adolescent girls and mothers can also have a direct impact on improving their care-giving competencies.

Organizations of and for families with children with disabilities can be an important resource for parents and other family members, allowing them to learn from others in similar situations and providing them with relevant information and support. Links with disabled people’s organizations (DPOs) can: provide a network of support; provide information, guidance and

2Assistive devices that children with disabilities might require include mobility devices (e.g. crutches, wheelchairs, orthoses and prostheses); visual devices (e.g. white canes, eyeglasses, Braille systems and talking books); hearing devices (e.g. hearing aids); communication devices (e.g. communication boards and electronic speech output devices); cognitive devices (e.g. diaries, calendars and schedules); and daily living devices (e.g. adapted cutlery and cups, shower seats and commodes) (60).

advice; expand collective advocacy and public demand efforts; and connect parents and children with other people with disabilities who may serve as role models.

5. Conclusion and next steps: Implications for policy

Introduction:

Education is the basic requirement for success of democracy and progress of country. Universalization of primary education is a provision to provide free educational opportunities to all children of the society irrespective of caste, creed and sex.

Article 45 of the Indian Constitution directed that "The state shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten years from - the commencement of this constitution for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years."

Since independence many steps have been taken and different commissions and committees have given suggestions to achieve universalization of Primary Education. But it is still far from the hope and the national target.

Background:

Compulsory provision of Universal Primary Education is an extremely modern concept. No solid efforts were made till the beginning of the 20th century. The earliest attempt during British Rule for enforcing compulsory primary education was undertaken by William Adam in 1838.

In 1852, Captain Wingate, the Revenue Survey Commissioner in Bombay proposed to impart compulsory education to the children of agriculturists after realizing a less of 5 per cent for it. Later on a similar proposal was also followed in Gujurat.

A strong consciousness for the need of compulsory Primary Education in India was effected by enactment of the Compulsory Education Act in 1870 in England. A number of Indian leaders began to stress the need for primary education. In 1906 a Committee was appointed in Bombay Province and it arrived at a conclusion that Compulsory Education was not proper and people were not prepared for it.

The great son of India Gopal Krishni Gokhale was the ablest advocate of compulsory primary education. He moved a Resolution in 1910 in the Central Legislature and again introduced a non- official Bill in 1919. The Bill had wide and popular support, but it was defeated.

Vithal Bhai Patel being inspired by Gokhale's efforts brought a bill in the Provincial Legislature of Bombay and it became Bomaby Primary Education Act. 1918. India Act of 1919 (Mont-Fort Reforms) introduced diarchy and Education became a Transferred subject under control of a Minister responsible to the Legislature.

With Provincial Autonomy in 1937 Congress Ministries were formed in six out of eleven provinces-. These Governments expanded compulsory primary education in their provinces. Primary Schools were established in Schoolless village/habitations, which had no facilities to send their children to nearby schools at an easy walking distance of one mile (now 1km.).

Still, prior to Independence Primary Education received insufficient attention and inadequate public funds.

With the advent of complete independence in 1947, the advocate of Universal Primary Education had to speak to their Indian administrators and officers. The education of the school going children of the country now became the responsibility of the people.

In 1950 the provision of Universal Primary Education was incorporated in the Article 45 of the Constitution of India. "The state shall endeavour to provide within a period of 10 years from the commencement of the Constitution free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of 14 years."

The provision of Universalization of Primary education was scheduled to be achieved by 1960. But a view of the immense difficulties such as lack of adequate resources, tremendous increases in population, resistance to the education of girls, large number of children of the of the backward classes in very low literacy regions, general poverty of the people, apathy of illiterate Parents etc. it was not possible to make adequate progress and as such, the constitutional Directive has remained unfulfilled.

And so, the universalization of primary education remains a national problem. The problem from the surface over a period of more than 3 decades and with planned schemes under six Five Year Plans looks modest but it really poses to be formidable.

An insistent demand was made that Government should fix an early deadline for its fulfilment and should prepare a concrete programme of action for the purpose. Government decided to achieve the goal of universalization of all children on a time-bound programme as recommended by the Conference of State Education Ministers in 1977.

Accordingly, a Working Group on Universalization of Elementary Education was set up by the Ministry of Education in collaboration with the Planning Commission to prepare a time-bound programme during the medium term plan (1978-83). The gist of the recommendations of the Working Group is as follows:

(i) "90 per cent of coverage of school-going children under the age-group 6-14 before the end of medium term plan (1978- 83) may be kept as national target to be achieved with an investment of Rs.900 crores in the plan.

(ii) More stress and attention would be paid to the problem of the weaker sections such as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Landless Labourers and girls, providing special incentives such as midday meals, free uniform etc. wherever necessary.

(iii) A massive programme of non-formal education should be provided to ensure that students who are unable to make use of the facilities of formal education and also who drop out of the formal system have again access to education. The approach behind the proposal being that every child in the age-group 6-14 will continue to learn on a full-time basis, if possible, and on a part-time basis, if necessary."

Even in the eighties, there is a loud cry for Universalization of Elementary Education all over India. This big aspect of education in India has found a place as point 16 in the Prime Minister's New Revised 20 point Programme.

In the middle of the Sixth Five Year Plan, the Central Government had directed all the State Governments and Administrations of Union Territories to have prospective planning with bold and solid steps to control hundred per cent children in the age-group 6-11 and 50 per cent enrolment of the 11-14 age-group children by 1990. This may be achieved in the existing formal Primary Schools and non- formal centre and in such institutions yet to be newly opened and by shift system in the existing formal schools, wherever possible.

At the direction of the Central Government, an enrolment drive has been launched 11 over the country from the Teachers' Day (5.9.82) to the Children's day (14.11.82). All this speak the gravity of the problem of Universalization of Elementary Education in the Country.

Despite serious attempts the primary education was not universalized. So the national government wanted to launch a massive campaign to universalize it before 1995 which has been assured in the NPE, 1986. Later on achievement of VEE through Education for All (EFA) by 2000 AD has been fixed.

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