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Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 1331e1337

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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Provenance of marble sculptures and artifacts from the so-calledCanopus and other buildings of “Villa Adriana” (Hadrian’s villa e Tivoli, Italy)

P. Pensabene a, F. Antonelli b,*, L. Lazzarini b, S. Cancelliere b

aDip. Scienze dell’Antichità, La Sapienza-Università di Roma, P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italyb Laboratorio di Analisi dei Materiali Antichi e Università IUAV di Venezia, San Polo 2468, 30125 Venezia, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 30 June 2011Received in revised form11 January 2012Accepted 12 January 2012

Keywords:Villa Adriana (Hadrian’s villa)EuripusCanopusPeschieraSerapeumSala dei Pilastri DoriciWhite marblesProvenanceArchaeometry

* Corresponding author.E-mail address: fabrizio.antonelli@iuav.it (F. Anton

0305-4403/$ e see front matter � 2012 Elsevier Ltd.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.01.015

a b s t r a c t

The results of a minero-petrographic and isotopic study carried out on the marbles of statues and archi-tectural elements belonging to several buildings on the “Hadrian’s Villa” site (the so-called Canopus, thePeschiera, the Sala dei Pilastri Dorici and the Serapeum) are presentedhere aspartof anongoingarchaeometricproject which considers the determination of the provenance of all the marble decorations of the Villacomplex. Analytical data indicate the prevailing presence of marmor lunense and the use of Pentelic andThasian marbles for architectural elements in a few parts of the Sala dei Pilastri Dorici, the Peschiera and theSerapeum; no significant use is made of Proconnesian marble, probably the most inexpensive of the time.Analysis of sculptures from the Canopus showed that those of the Tiber and Nile gods were made of Parianmarble, the Caryatids and Telamons of Pentelic marble and the Amazons of the precious white Dokymaeanmarble.

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1. Introduction

The Hadrian Villa (Villa Adriana) was constructed at Tibur (todayTivoli) as a retreat from Rome (which is 29 km far) for emperorHadrian in the second and third decades of the 2nd century AD.During the later years of his reign Hadrian governed the empire fromthe villa and a large court so lived there permanently. After Hadrian,the villawas used by his various successors. During the decline of theRoman Empire the villa fell into disuse and was partially ruined. Inthe 16th century Cardinal Ippolito II d’Este had much of the marbleand statues inHadrian’s villa removed todecorate his ownVilla d’Estelocated nearby, but spoliation activity went on for a long time.

Hadrian’s villawas a complexof over 30 buildings, covering a verylarge area of which much is still unexcavated. The villa was thegreatest Roman example of an Alexandrian garden, recreatinga sacred landscape. The complex included palaces, several thermae,theatre, temples, libraries, state rooms and quarters for courtiers,praetorians and slaves.

elli).

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The Villa shows echoes of many different architectural orders,mostly Greek and some Egyptian. Hadrian borrowed these designsfrom the most famous monuments of antiquity, without copyingthem, just taking inspiration from their celebrated motives such asthe caryatids by the Erechtheion of the acropolis of Athens, thegranite obelisks and the Egyptian statues by the Antinoeion, recentlydiscovered along with other statues depicting Bes, the Egyptiandwarf and fertility god (Raeder, 1983; Mari, 2005).

One of the most striking and best preserved parts of the Villa isa long pool e the Euripus e with broken arcades and statuary ofGreek heroes, which terminates in an artificial grotto/dining roomwhose front “wall” was a thin sheet of water, fed by an aqueductabove, that cooled the air. For a long time the Euripus complex wasidentified in the Canopus, a canal intended to suggest the Alexan-drian town of Canopus, while the artificial grotto was considered asa Serapeum, a temple dedicated to the god Serapis; afterward, theEgyptianizing sculptural décor found nearby was considered asa part of it. The recent new discovery of the Antinoeion (Mari, 2005,Mari and Sgalambro, 2007) has completely changed our knowledgeon the ancient topography of the Villa: now we know that theEgyptianizing décor comes from the Antinoeion, not from theEuripus and the artificial grotto. These have to be seen as a part of thesame project, where the long pool, with its statues and architecture,

P. Pensabene et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 1331e13371332

was positioned to be appreciated from the grotto by emperor and hisfriends during the dinner. From the stamped bricks found on the sitewe know that this new project was completed in 134e138 AD.

Hadrian’s biography (in the Historia Augusta; Roncoroni, 1972)states that areas in the Villa were named after places Hadrian sawduring his travels. Only a few places mentioned in the biographycan be accurately correlated with the present-day ruins. Never-theless, at the Villa the architecture is Greek influenced (as it istypical in Roman imperial architecture) as seen in the Corinthiancolumns and the copies of famous Greek statues that surround theEuripus, in the Ionic style of the so called “Maritime Theatre”, and inthe Doric order of the round Temple of Venus (inspired by thefamous temple of Cnidus where the Venus of Praxiteles wasexposed).

Two interesting structures in the Villa are the so-called Sala deiPilastri Dorici (hall with Doric pillars) and Peschiera (fishpond) thatwere part of the Imperial palace. The former is a large rectangular hall(32 m� 23m) used as Basilica. The modern name is derived from itsstructure having porticos with pilasters and Doric bases. The centralportion of this hall has a second floor with open windows, whichwere covered by pavilion vaults. A small path connects the Sala deiPilastri Dorici to the only entrance to the upper floor of the “WinterPalace”, a door located in the south-east corner of the porchsurrounding the Peschiera. This is actually the large water basin(handy for seafood dinners this far inland) embellishing the easternpart of the upper floor of the “Winter Palace”, but it gave the Italianname to the whole building.

The Villa shows numerous architectural styles and innovations.The area has an extensive network of underground tunnels. Thetunnels were mostly used by servants to transport goods from onearea to another. The paths and roads above ground were reservedfor more high-ranking residents of the Villa. Domes and barrelvaults are used extensively. The domes of the steam baths havecircular holes on the apex to allow steam to escape. This is on thesame architectonical level of the Pantheon, also built by Hadrian.

Among the different marble artifacts found at the Villa there arestatues of Antinous, mosaics from the theatre and baths, manycopies of Greek statues, and also Egyptian-style interpretations ofRoman gods and vice versa.

For the purpose of this articlewewant to highlight the discovery,made during the 1951e55 excavations, of the head of a portrait ofHadrian as a young man, two wounded Amazons, two Greek nudemale statues interpreted asHermes andTheseus (the so calledAres),four caryatids, and two Silenus figures. They were unearthed on thewestern side of the Euripus and are now are in the local Museum ofVilla Adriana for preservation and restoration. There is no doubt thattheir original position along the canal was chosen by the view theyoffered to the dining room. They followed a program of imagessuggesting mythical and religious messages functional at theideology that Adrianwanted to express with his imperial role (canalof the Canopus) (Boatwright, 1987; Cordovana and Galli, 2007;Opper, 2008).

The discovery of these statues, all lying in their original places,allows to conclude that four of them were placed between thecolumns of the short semi-circular side of the Euripus, while thetrabeation of the central part of the colonnade on the long side wasnot supported by columns but by at least six statues: four of cary-atids and two of Silenus. The caryatids (identified with the Arre-phoroi) are copies of those in the Erechtheion e not the four in thefront but rather the C and D types at the sides e and of the replicasof the same statues made for the Forum of Augustus (Raeder, 1983;Moesch, 2000); the Silenus figures were once considered to derivefrom an early Alexandrian Hellenistic type but they are nowthought to be an expression of Hadrian’s classicist taste and as suchreplicas of late Hellenistic models (Raeder, 1983).

2. Historical and archaeological background

The marbles of statues and architectural elements belonging tothe so-called Canopus and subordinately to the Peschiera and the Saladei Pilastri Dorici of Hadrian’s Villa were subjected to petrographicand isotopic analyses for identification within an ongoing archaeo-metric project that considers the provenance of all the marble usedfor the decorations of the Villa. This project is particularly importantfor the insights it should provide into the overall organization andclients of one of the few well-preserved Imperial complexes ofRoman antiquity. Inparticular, this paper focusesmainly on thewhitemarbles and theworkshops set up to produce the statues discoveredat Hadrian’s Villa (Fig. 1) around the edges of the Euripus; as we said,this is the great pond in front of themonumental building comprisinga large tricliniumwhich overlooked a stretch of water surrounded bycolonnades andmixtilineararchitectural elements containing statuesinspired by mythological figures and imperial portraits.

The intention is to improve our knowledge of the cultural pro-gramme underlying the choice of the statuary types used by identi-fying the white marbles employed and the workshop where thestatues themselves were made: information about the commis-sioningprocess andhowtheworkwasorganized canhelp towards anunderstanding of the importance attributed to the project and to therole the statueswere intended to performwithin it. At this regard it iscentral to establish ife as it seems to thenakedeyee thefine-grainedwhite marble used was the same for all the statues, or if, notwith-standing the similarity, marbles of different provenance wereworked. In the first case we would get data for a relation betweenmarble and workshop and the possibility to point out a specificartistic formation for the sculptors; in the second casewewouldhavethe proof of one main workshop who worked with similar marbles,provided they were of the same grain and quality of white. Thisworkshop had his sculptural activity directly in the Villa, was dividedin smaller groups of sculptors and was directed by the most experi-mented copyists of the period. The chief-workshop kept theresponsibility to uniform the style, maintain the artistic standard ofthe statues and in the same time adapt them to the wanted ideo-logical program and, in consequence, to transform the model orintroduce variations in order to express it. To be able to distinguishthe employed marbles gives invaluable information on the organi-zation of sculptural activity at the Villa.

Along the short, semi-circular side of the basin five statues werediscovered, each lying between two columns (Aurigemma, 1955,1956). These statues, because of the subjects they depict and theposition they occupied, are believed to be the central focus of thestatuary programme designed to decorate the Euripus. They stoodat the opposite end of the basin from the triclinium, which thereforeprovided a frontal, though somewhat distant view of them. Two ofthe statues were heroic male nudes, the so-called “Ares” (whichmay have been based on the hero Theseus in the Marathon groupby Pheidias at Delphi) and “Hermes”; two more were woundedAmazons, and the fifth was the head of a statue of Hadrian asa young man. The first two sculptures derive from the same earlyclassical model of the mid-V century even although has undergoneeclectic transformation (the position of the arms is differentbecause of the adoption of another type of head and their differentattributes). The two Amazons are copies of the types created byPheidias and Kresilas for the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: theHadrian’s Villa copy of the Pheidias “Amazon” is the most completeone so it is possible to visualize the original as an Amazon standingand leaning on her spear because of a wound in her leg; for theother, an example of the Sciarra-type (the Ephesian “Amazon”), theRoman copiers emphasize the bleeding wound in her right breast,a feature which is extraneous to Kresilas’s original and whichprobably derives from the Sosikles type, for which Pliny provides

Fig. 1. Some of the sculptures from the Canopus at Hadrian’s Villa that were subjected to analysis.

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authority (34,75) that she was wounded below the right breast(Moesch, 2000).

3. Material and methods

All determinations for the twenty-four samples were made ona single fragment of ca. 1 � 1 � 0.5 cm taken, using a small chisel,either from the hidden back side or the outer bottom part of theobjects; this is a quite harmless samplingprocess for the items. Part ofeach samples was finely ground and analyzed by powder X-raydiffraction (XRD) and by mass spectrometry for isotopic analyses.Thin sections were made from the remaining part for themineralogical-petrographic study of the marble. One further sample

(VAMX2: statue of “Ares”), was small and deteriorated so it was onlythin-sectioned and studied microscopically.

3.1. Minero-petrographic analyses

The purpose of the microscopic examination in thin section wasto determine the fabric, accessory and secondary minerals, inaddition to the calcite and/or dolomite characteristics which are theprincipal constituents of all types of marble. More specifically, theexamination was designed to determine parameters such as themaximum grain size (MGS) of the calcite or dolomite crystals, theirboundary shapes, and the type of fabric. As shown by previousspecific studies of ancient marbles (Lazzarini et al., 1980; Moens

Table 1Mineralogical-petrographic features of the white marbles worked for sculptures and architectural elements from Hadrian’s Villa. n.d. ¼ not determined; * ¼ determined by XRD.

Object Sample Qtz Ms Gr Ore min. Fe oxides Ap Pl Ep Dol* MGS Calcite crystalsboundaries

Texture Fabric d13C(PDB)

d18O(PDB)

Origin

Museum: 1st caryatid (base) VAM7 þþ þ 1.35 embayed/curved HE Mosaic, slightly lineated 2.81 �5.26 PenteliMuseum: 2nd caryatid (base) VAM8 þþþ þ þ � 0.75 embayed/curved HE Mosaic 2.50 �7.84 PenteliMuseum: statue of the

Tiber god (base)VAM12a � � 2.50 embayed/curved HE Mosaic 2.23 �3.84 Paros

(Lakkoi)Museum: statue of the

Nile god (base)VAM12b þþ 2.40 curved/sutured HE Mosaic 3.65 �2.83 Paros

(Stephani)Museum: head of Hadrian VAMX1 � 0.35 curved/straight HE Mosaic 2.74 �1.96 CarraraMuseum: statue of Telamon

(right arm)VAM10 � þþ � (py) x 1.25 embayed HE Mosaic, with some strained

crystals4.11 �2.81 Penteli

Museum: statue of Telamon (base) VAM11 þþþ þþ 1.50 embayed HE Mosaic, very strained cystals 2.63 �5.52 PenteliMuseum: male statue (Hermes) VAM4 � � 0.90 curved/embayed HE Mosaic, slightly strained 1.66 �4.40 DocimiumMuseum: 1st statue of horsewoman VAM5 þ 1.25 embayed/curved HE Mosaic, slightly strained 0.94 �4.53 DocimiumMuseum: 2nd statue of horsewoman VAM6 þ 0.62 curved/straight HE Mosaic 1.22 �4.53 DocimiumMuseum: statue of “Ares” VAM9 � 0.95 curved/embayed HE Mosaic, slightly strained n.d. n.d. DocimiumColumn VATI30 � � þþ þ 0.65 curved/straight HO Mosaic, with rare triple points 2.60 �1.43 CarraraColumn of the mausoleum VAMA23 þþþ þþ þ 1.25 embayed/curved HE Mosaic, slightly lineated 2.77 �6.94 PenteliColumn VASPD24 � � þþþ 4.16 embayed HE Mosaic, strained 2.68 �0.70 Thasos

(Aliki)Capital in the nymphaeum VASPD27 þþ � þ þ þ 0.75 straight/curved HO Mosaic, with rare triple points 2.18 �2.04 CarraraCorinthian capital VATI29 þ þ � � þ 0.60 curved/straight HO Mosaic, with rare triple points 2.28 �1.61 CarraraCorinthian capital of pilaster VAS21 þ þ þþ � x 1.05 curved/embayed HE Mosaic, slightly lineated with

interstitial white mica2.58 �3.66 Penteli

Carved capital from thedeposit of the museum

VAPO18 þþ 0.95 curved/embayed HE Mosaic, strained and withrare triple points

2.03 �1.57 Carrara

Base of a column VATI31 þ þþ þ 0.95 straight HO Mosaic tending to polygonal,with triple points

2.24 �2.09 Carrara

Pillar VATI32 þþ � þ 0.65 curved/straight HO Mosaic 2.24 �2.09 CarraraCarved lintel VAPO17 � � � 0.65 curved HE Mosaic 2.19 �1.65 CarraraFrame from the deposit

of the museumVATI33 � � þ þ 0.55 straight/curved HO Mosaic tending to polygonal,

with triple points2.38 �1.79 Carrara

Base of a statue VAM16 þ 0.70 curved/straight HO/HE Mosaic, with rare triple points 2.72 �2.18 CarraraCapital from the deposit

of the museumVAPN19 � � þþ � 0.78 straight/curved HO Mosaic, tending to polygonal,

with triple points2.10 �1.72 Carrara

Slab with relief of a young rider(deposit of the museum)

VAPO20 � þ þþþ � 0.82 straight/curved HO Mosaic, tending to polygonal,with triple points

2.16 �1.74 Carrara

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et al., 1988; Gorgoni et al., 2002 and references therein; Lazzariniand Antonelli, 2003), as well as by classical treatises on petro-tectonics (Spry, 1986), these are significant features in identifyingand distinguishing marbles, due to the close relationship with theirmetamorphic history.

The presence of a possible dolomitic component in themarbles was evaluated by means of XRD analysis conducted witha PANalytical EMPYREAN diffractometer (CuKa/Ni: 40 Kv &40 mA).

3.2. Isotopic analyses

The isotopic analyses were carried out on the carbon dioxidederived from small portions (20e30 mg) of the powdered samplesubjected to a chemical attack with 100% phosphoric acid at 25 �C ina special vacuum line, according to the procedure suggested byMcCrea (1950) and Craig (1957). The resulting CO2was then analysedby mass spectrometry. The instrument used (FINNIGAN Mat Delta Emass spectrometer) is equipped with a triple collector and permitsthe measurement of both isotopic ratios (13C/12C and 18O/16O) at thesame time. The analytical results are conventionally expressed ind units, in parts per thousand. The international reference standardadopted is PDB for both oxygen and carbon (Craig, 1957). Isotopiccharacterisation has proved to be very useful in the identification ofmarble in ancient artefacts (Gorgoni et al., 2002 and referencestherein). Its use is becoming increasingly widespread owing to itsremarkable sensitivity, to the small quantity ofmaterial necessary forthe analysis, and to the availability of a rapidly growing data-base(Barbin et al., 1991; Gorgoni et al., 2002) that permits increasinglytrustworthy comparisons, especially if the isotopic data are evaluatedtogether with the minero-petrographic results from the samesamples, as in the present study.

Fig. 2. Isotopic signatures of whitemarbles used both for sculptures and architectural elementsCape Vathy; Pr1-2 ¼ Proconnesos; Aph ¼ Aphrodisias; Pa2 ¼ Paros Lakkoi; Pa3 ¼ Paros Karav

4. Analytical results

The essential mineralogical-petrographic features and theisotopic signatures of marble artifacts fromHadrian’s Villa and theirprobable quarry sources are listed in Table 1. The isotope ratios ofd13C and d18O of these samples are shown in the diagrams of Fig. 2.Data indicate the prevailing use of fine-grained marbles (MGSgenerally lower than or around 1 mm) both with a non-homogeneous (i.e. heteroblastic) and a quite homogeneous (i.e.homeoblastic) grain-size distribution (Fig. 3aed). Only two samples(VASPD24 and VAM12a, a column and the statue of the Tiber god,respectively) are medium-size grained marbles (MGS above 2 mm;Table 1) with a heteroblastic mosaic fabric (Fig. 3eef).

As regards the architectural elements, the results point to thedominant presence of marmor lunense from the quarries of Carrara(Dolci, 1980) (Fig. 2b and Fig. 3a) and the use of Pentelic (Korres,1995) (Fig. 2b) and, to a lesser extent (one case: Fig. 2a), Thasianmarbles (Herrmann, 1990; Herrmann and Newman, 1995, 1999) ina few areas of the Sala dei Pilastri Dorici, the Peschiera and the socalled Serapeum (Fig. 3f). The results show that the Proconnesianmarble, probably the cheapest of the time, was not used.

In the case of the sculptures from the so called Canopus that wereanalyzed, the Tiber and Nile gods (Fig. 3b and e), are made of Parianmarble (Schilardi and Katsonopoulou, 2000); the Caryatids andTelamons (Fig. 3c) of Pentelic; the head of Hadrian of Lunense; andthe “Amazons”, “Hermes” and most likely the statue of “Ares”(Fig. 3d) of preciouswhiteDokymaean (Monna andPensabene,1977).

5. Discussion

From a visual examination of the four sculptures of “Theseus”,“Hermes” and two “Amazons” e characterized by an organic

; isotopic fields fromGorgoni et al., 2002. (a) N¼Naxos; T1(2)¼ Thasos Aliki; T3¼ Thasosos; (b) Pa1 ¼ Paros Stefani; D ¼ Dokimeion; Pe1-2 ¼ Mount Pentelikon; C ¼ Carrara.

Fig. 3. Crossed polarized light photomicrographs of the thin sections of some of the objects studied: (a) sample VATI29 (Corinthian capital) e typical homeoblastic mosaic of lunensemarble; (b) sample VAM12b (Nile god) e heteroblastic mosaic with curved boundaries of the calcite crystals representative of Parian marble (Stephani quarry); (c) sample VAM7(Caryatid) e typical heteroblastic lineated texture of Pentelic marble; (d) sample VAM4 (Hermes) e slightly strained heteroblastic mosaic of the fine-grained white Docimianmarble; (e) sample VAM12a (Tiber god) e heteroblastic fabric made of calcite crystals with embayed and curved boundaries: Parian marble from Lakkoi; (f) sample VASPD24(column) heteroblastic strained mosaic made of calcite crystals with embayed boundaries: Thasian marble from Aliki. The long side of the pictures is 1.03 mm.

P. Pensabene et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 1331e13371336

rendering of the body, but by a tendentially schematic and “calli-graphic” musculature, the planes lacking in chiaroscuro effect e theorigin of the marble was not clear. Despite a small grain size, theyfeature a uniform whiteness without the greenish micaceous-chloritic veining which is characteristic of the other sculptures ofthe Canopus, all resulted to be made of Pentelic marble. In fact, thearchaeometric analyses (both petrographic and isotopic in the case ofAmazons and Hermes, just petrographic as regards the statue of theso called Ares) prove they are all made of Dokymaeanmarble, whoseMicroasiatic provenance represents the other important line ofsupply of materials for the marble statuary of the Villa.

The portrait of Hadrian as a young man, of which only the headand neck survive, comes from the channel that bisects the curvednorthern endof the Euripus: it is oneof the fewknownportraits of the

youngHadrian and is of theDiomedes type (Vierneisel-Schlörb,1979,p. 79ff.; Raeder, 1983, pp. 91e92; Maderna, 1988, p. 56ff.), frequentlyused for imperial statues, not least those of Hadrian, since Diomedeswas the hero credited with conserving the Palladium, on whichRomanpower depended. The portrait head of the Canopus is the onlycertain replica of this type: the set of the face and the shape of theeyes andmouth closely resemble the style of the caryatids even if themarbles used have a different origin (Pentelic for the caryatids,Carrara for the portrait). The fact that it can be fairly safely dated tothe time of Hadrian (because the hair appears not to have beencompletely drilled, as in subsequent portraits of Antoninus andothers of the Antonine period)may provide the key to understandingthe reasons for the choicesmade as regards the sculptural decorationof the Euripus. The statue of Hadrian depicted as a hero must have

P. Pensabene et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 1331e1337 1337

been at the centre of a series of associated figures of heroes anddivinities, such as Hermes, an arrangement that expresses Hadrian’smarkedly philosophical-religious cultural approach, coloured by theinfluences of the Second Sophistic, inwhich reappraisal of the Greekmyths, but also of the origins of Rome (reinterpreted in theperspective of “eternity”) came to express the ideology and thearchitectural programmes and the images through which Hadrianwished to project his role as emperor: a return to the ancient religioustraditions as they were expressed in the Augustan Age and a re-reading of the myths with a view to enhancing his image and legit-imizing imperial authority.

6. Conclusions

The crucial issue must now be addressed as to whether there aresufficiently marked stylistic similarities between the sculptures inPentelic and Docimian marbles. What has to be decided is if, despitethe different materials, they were all made in the sameworkshop, orwhether the on-site workshop had the task of sculpting a roughblock of imported marble or finishing off sculptures that had beenbrought in, semi-completed, directly from oriental artistic centres. Itshould be mentioned that historians have generally associated thestyle of these sculptures with a workshop operating in the imperialresidence in Rome and at the Villa (Raeder, 1983; Moesch, 2000).

Given the analogies linking the statues of the warrior (so calledAres) and Hermes at Hadrian’s Villa, together with the head of theLudovisi discus thrower, now in store of the Villa, with statuesfeaturing austere period types from a number of important monu-ments in Ephesus, Perge and Side (Slavazzi, 2007), which are knownnot to have been made in the Aphrodisian workshops, an importantquestion arises about the austere style types. Considering that thesetypes remain a fairly isolated phenomenon in Asia Minor, limited tothe HadrianiceAntonine period (Slavazzi, 2007), they should not beassociated with workshops that produced statues to order for theemperor and for Microasiatic patrons. Both commissions areinspired by the same religious-philosophical conviction as theathletic ideal intrinsic to myth (Rausa, 1994), but at the same timeattributing considerable importance to the images of the imperialcult and of local heroes. The presence of classical sculptures repro-duced in Dokymaean sarcophagi, like the discovery of semi-finishedsculptures in the Dokymaean quarries (Pensabene, 2010) allows usto suggest that one of these workshops was located in Phrygia, closeto the quarries, and that along with Athens (and perhaps Aphro-disias) it was engaged in the production of semi-finished sculpturesbased on classical types and destined for export.

In any case a large sculpture workshop likely was operative inHadrian’s Villa (or, as we said, several workshops under the samedirector), a hypothesis supported by the fact that the statues aroundthe Euripus are linked not only by stylistic elements but also bysimilarities in the way details such as eyes, noses, mouths and thefolds of draped clothing are rendered. Theworkshop(s)mayalsohavefinished off semi-completed statues imported directly from theschools of sculpture located in Attica and Asia Minor, but it does notnecessarily follow that all the statues inHadrian’sVillawereproducedin thisway. This study is a further demonstration of the importance ofarchaeometric analysis ofmarbles and how such reliable informationabout their provenance may help to distinguish between importedsculptures and statues fashioned entirely on the spot.

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