viewing architectural design as an impetus to spur outer space development

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Volume 5

Viewing Architectural Design as an Impetus to SpurOuter Space Development

Tracy S. Harris and Edythe E. Weeks

DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL http://www.Design-Journal.com First published in 2011 in Champaign, Illinois, USA by Common Ground Publishing LLC www.CommonGroundPublishing.com ISSN: 1833-1874 © 2011 (individual papers), the author(s) © 2011 (selection and editorial matter) Common Ground All rights reserved. Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review as permitted under the applicable copyright legislation, no part of this work may be reproduced by any process without written permission from the publisher. For permissions and other inquiries, please contact <[email protected]>. DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL is peer-reviewed, supported by rigorous processes of criterion-referenced article ranking and qualitative commentary, ensuring that only intellectual work of the greatest substance and highest significance is published. Typeset in Common Ground Markup Language using CGPublisher multichannel typesetting system http://www.commongroundpublishing.com/software/

Viewing Architectural Design as an Impetus to SpurOuter Space DevelopmentTracy S. Harris, American Institute of Architects, USAEdythe E. Weeks, Webster University Worldwide, Missouri, USA

Abstract: The international space station has been deemed a success by space scientists, engineers,policymakers, elected officials, and others knowledgeable about outer space activities. After more than10 years of experiments, humankind now possesses sufficient knowledge about sustaining human lifein outer space. Thus, decisions have been made recently to take the next steps to develop the finalfrontier. Attracting innovative talent from all disciplines will be crucial for the successful developmentof outer space. This paper will provide research highlighting space laws and space policies whichhave initiated economic incentives for the newly emerging industries including space tourism, privatespaceship development, commercial spaceports, space mining and orbital and other space hotels. Thispaper suggests that architectural design can serve as a creative impetus for outer space development.Challenges and opportunities for teaching online and virtual outer space development and space lawcourses to architectural design students will be discussed.

Keywords: Outer Space Development, Future Cities, Space Law, Teaching Online

A Discursive Analysis and Pictorial Description of the Images Appearing in this Paper wereAccessed in Compliance with FAIR Use Provisions of the Copyright Act. Image of space

colony architecture. Source: http://desktop.freewallpaper4.me/download/4401/space-colony-construction (accessed on April 2, 2011)

This idea of space settlement seems odd to people; it doesn’t seem inviting. When I suggestedsuch an idea in an article I wrote a few years ago, I received a number of letters arguing

Design Principles and Practices: An International JournalVolume 5, 2011, http://www.Design-Journal.com, ISSN 1833-1874© Common Ground, Tracy S. Harris, Edythe E. Weeks, All Rights Reserved, Permissions:[email protected]

against the possibility of space settlements. The arguments weren’t based on economics; themain argument was that nobody would want to live in space.

Isaac Asimov

Introducing Outer Space Development

NASA Photo of 951 Gaspra, and Mars Two Moons, Phobos and Deimos

There exists a wealth of knowledge out outer space resources. Space missions, probes andtelescopes have enabled people to know what’s out there. For example, in 1996 the Nearspacecraft launched the Shoemaker probe to send back information regarding Eros, an asteroidin Near Earth Orbit. Many space explorations have taken place since the beginning of thespace age in 1957. We have reached a point in time when outer space has been placed onthe agenda for serious development.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

NASA Photo of Eros as Seen by the NEAR Spacecraft, 1996. Source http://en.wikipe-dia.org/wiki/NEAR_Shoemaker (accessed April 1, 2011).

NASA Photo Taken by the Near Spacecraft of Eros Asteroid from Approximately 1,150Meters as the Spacecraft Descended upon the Asteroid in 1996 Source http://en.wikipe-

dia.org/wiki/NEAR_Shoemaker (accessed April 1, 2011).

TRACY S. HARRIS, EDYTHE E. WEEKS

NASA Photo of the NEAR Spacecraft Prior to Launch. Source http://en.wikipe-dia.org/wiki/NEAR_Shoemaker (accessed April 1, 2011)

Outer space is being developed for various reasons. One important reason is that platinumgroup metals such as iridium and osmium, and various other valuable untapped natural re-sources have been discovered in abundant quantities in outer space, and are likely to bemined by companies1. The discovery of natural resources has sparked development projectsin the past. These historical patterns of human behavior seem to be occurring today, ascompanies speed up the process of private spaceship development, now that the NASA SpaceShuttle fleet is retiring. This is turn should spark and fund projects and create build the spaceinfrastructure2. Key decision makers within the executive and legislative branches of theU.S. government have determined that the U.S. must maintain its leadership in space. Thisis clear from various hearings, laws and policies, consistently been put forth since 19573. A

1 For further reading see http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/back3.html and http://members.shaw.ca/andrewlowe/PHA-SOON.HTM#Earth (Accessed October 26, 2010).2 Small Bodies Assessment Group (SBAG), “SBAG Community Decadal White Papers” athttp://www.lpi.usra.edu/sbag/reports/ (Accessed October 26, 2010).3 Examples include National Space Policy Directives under President George H.W. Bush (1989-1992) include thefollowing: National Space Policy Directives and Charter, NSPD-1; Commercial Space Launch Policy, NSPD-2;U.S. Commercial Space Launch Policy Guidelines, NSPD-3; National Space Launch Strategy, NSPD-4; LandsatRemote Sensing Strategy, NSPD-5; Space Exploration Initiative, NSPD-6; and Space-Based Global Change Obser-vation, NSPD-7. Executive Branch Directives under President William Jefferson Clinton (1992-2000) include:


myriad of space laws and policies have been active in space commercialization and the in-ternational community has tended to view U.S. law as a model for industry development.Recently, the 2010 NASA Authorization Act and various other laws and policies initiatedwithin the U.S. government have placed on the agenda plans to build advanced space trans-portation systems, privatize spacecraft development, commercial space habitats, space stationsand space settlements, commercial space mining, spacecraft trajectory optimization forlanding on near Earth asteroids, commercial spaceport construction, interstellar-interplanetary-international telecommunications and space exploration missions to near Earth asteroids,the Moon, Mars and Mars’ two moons – Phobos and Deimos. Once the new missions becomemore common, agendas for new designation throughout the solar system are also likely tobe explored more frequently.

Thalassa and Neptune, Credit: Image by NASA, Source: http://www.nasa.gov (accessedMarch 25, 2011)

National Space Technology Council Presidential Decision Directives, 1993-1995; Establishment of PresidentialReview and Decision Series/NSTC, NSTC-1; Convergence of U.S.-Polar Operational Environmental SatelliteSystems, NSTC-2; Landsat Report Sensing Strategy, NSTC-3 National Space Transportation Policy, NSTC-4,August 5, 1994; 19 Sep 96 National Space Policy Fact Sheet, NSTC-8; Fact Sheet on Presidential Decision Directive(PDD) 23; Foreign Access To Remote Sensing Space Capabilities, March 10, 1994; DoD Space Policy, July 1999;and the U.S. Decision to Stop Degrading Global Positioning System Accuracy, May 1, 2000.For a complete analysis of U.S. and International laws and regulations structuring the commercialization of remotesensing images see Michel Bourbonniere (1997) Commercialization of Remote Sensing. United States and Interna-tional Law: Towards a Liberalization of Economic Regulations, L.L.M. thesis, McGill University, Canada. In thisanalysis he argues that "a contextual evolution of the global geopolitical climate is forcing a regulatory retoolingfor commercial space endeavors", and has "created new paradigms based upon international economic marketvalues". Therefore, "the initial international treaties and institutions must evolve to reflect these criteria". Regardingthe impact of high resolution satellite technology on new policy directives in the U.S. and internationally in thePost-Détente international structure see Cornelia Christa Jarica (1996) Commercialization of High Resolution EarthObservation Satellite Remote Sensing, M.A. thesis, Florida Atlantic University. Also see The Politics of Space Lawin a Post Cold War Era: Understanding Regime Change, Edythe E. Weeks, Esq. Northern Arizona University,December, 2006.


Skyscrapers and a Moment in TimeWe anticipate counterviews to our paper, rooted in the belief that it can be dangerous todream; it may lead to disappointments. Under normal circumstances, an architect would notneed to research laws, interpret economic policy and be concerned with outer space. However,in these times of economic uncertainty, a prolonged recession and high rates of unemployment,it is dangerous not to dream. It is careless not to enable students to understand how to forecastnewly emerging industry trends. For these reasons, architects are being asked to dream andto activate multiple cognitive skill-sets, including legal research, economic policy analysisand an awareness of key activities happening regarding space technology, and to incorporatethis into practice areas and teach these critical skills to architectural design students.

Although skyscrapers were once seen as unrealistic fantasy structures, they soon becamethe meat and potatoes for construction firms and architects for many decades. In today’seconomy, building projects have slowed down and many architects are bracing themselvesduring the prolonged global economic recession. Architects can research, learn about, interpretand discover for themselves, the implications of new economic policy. They can use thisknowledge to figure out how to develop their own special expertise and ready themselvesto compete in newly emerging markets being created by new outer space developmentmovers and shakers.

Identifying Outer Space Development as a Worthwhile ProjectWe are aware of perspectives suggesting that outer space does not need to be developedbecause the enterprise is too expensive or impractical. However, the process of outer spacedevelopment has already been put into place and is scheduled to happen, despite the expense.The expertise, knowledge and funding for the erection of space structures is not somethingwild or new (Boning & Dubowsky, 2009). Trillions of dollars have been spent of variousspace activities by the global community. This large investment of funds and resources haslargely gone unchallenged.

Margolin (1998: 86) informs that “the primary question for the design professions thusbecomes not what new products to make, but how to reinvent design culture so that worth-while projects are more clearly identified and likely to be realized”. We are asserting theperspective that outer space development is a worthwhile project that should be taken up bythe architectural design profession. Margolin indicates that many design professionals arebeginning to argue that design is “shaped by an ideal” (Margolin citing Manu), what design“can and must do is the proposal of a new life images and lifestyle that is compatible withthe environment in daily life, home life, global life, and life in the workplace” and that “thehistoric model of industrial design practice is inadequate”, since it is coupled with the dom-inance of design’s “past identity” (Margolin citing Ekuan).

On October 11, 2010 President Obama signed the NASA Authorization Act, giving thego-ahead for $58.4 billion dollars to be allocated for NASA programs and outer space ex-ploration and development, over the course of the next three years. This law complementsthe New Vision for U.S. Space Exploration Policy. It is clear that entrepreneurs and privatesector companies such as SpaceX, Virgin Galactic, Orbital Sciences Corporation and othershave responded to the economic initiatives provided by the new policy, and are rapidlyplanning and developing space transportation vehicles. Blueprints and designs for space


structures are likely to be next on the agenda for space entrepreneurs. Meanwhile, the fieldof architecture in the developed world has been severely hit by the prolonged economic re-cession. Career anxiety is high because of the lack of commercial and government fundingfor development projects, high unemployment rates in the profession and related fields, andthe freeze of the financial markets for financing construction projects.

Architects who are able to embrace an understanding of the demands accompanying outerspace development will lead cutting-edge building projects of tomorrow, while establishingthe design approaches, practices and applications for the development of outer spaces. Thesefirms stand to benefit from the global explosion of spending that will occur over the nextdecade.

Design Matters: Using Art to Inspire Societal InterestStudents can begin to envision creative architectural design concepts being applied to spacestructures, they can create new opportunities for themselves, by partnering with space com-panies and governments make this become reality as humankind prepares to design the in-frastructure for outer space.

Photo of “Droplet Architecture” Source: thedesignblog.org, Deurrutia. Blogspot (accessedApril 2, 1011).


Photo of “Iceberg Architecture” Source: Blue-crystal.de, behance.net) (accessed April 1,2011)

Photo of “Diamond Glow Architecture” Source: dagli.lu, insidefeeders) (accessed April 1,2011).

The future of outer space development will be strengthened by “growing efforts to interestthe general public” (Hunt & Coates, 2003: 217). With this in mind, one way to spark societalinterest in outer space development is to create space structures capable of inspiring people.


NASA Photo of the International Space Station

Functionality and safety have made the International Space Station a success. However,design matters. Imagine the international space station if architecture had been the lead cre-ative impulse and designed by artists and architects. Although it has been a success in allrespects, it lacks passionate design, creative vision and elegance. The psychological and in-spirational aspects of structural design should, and will, become a mandatory component ofthe space infrastructure.

After many years of slow but steady government projects, space scientists understand keyprinciples necessary for sustaining life, while living in outer space. However, more innovationand creativity and excitement are going to be required in order to jumpstart a qualitativeshift towards the rapid development of the final frontier. To get the masses interested, weneed passion, innovation and art. These are the attributes that keep thousands of visitors inthe Pantheon and Coliseum daily. It is sorely needed to keep the public passionate about thefuture and the success of outer space development activities.

Connecting the DotsHoward Gardner’s (2006) analysis in Multiple Intelligences lends credence to our argumentthat architects and design students can increase their level of competency by embracingvarious forms of intelligences. Furthermore, Gardner (1999) in Intelligence Reframed suggeststhat leadership, creativity and morality can work together to enhance people’s abilities.Similarly, we assert that architects who can straddle disciplines and understand how toconnect the dots between social and behavioral sciences, policy, industry creation and thebuilding of the space infrastructure can design their own future. These are the individualswho will make history. By capturing the attention of a wider audience, visionary architectscan help humankind overcome the challenges of our times related to the development ofouter space – thereby enabling equality, equity, health and environmental sustainability andreduction of global poverty. If things continue as they are going, the likely social impactswill include widening inequality gaps, missed opportunity, and public resources transformedinto wealth for only a few, which historically has proven to produce economic uncertainty,


conflict and civil unrest. To see the full picture, a person needs to realize that there exists amyriad of laws, policies and actions which have already been taken to develop the finalfrontier.

The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 mandates equality and sharing of outer space resourcesby all people. To achieve equality in outer space for future generations, the readers of thispaper must begin to think about everyday ways of formulating a contagious desire forknowledge regarding future blueprints. We have a once in a lifetime chance to achieve thesethings before institutions, social networks, economic institutions, investments, political ex-ercises of power, representations, ideology and psychological mechanisms are cemented.The time to effectively factor in systematic assurances of equality of opportunity and socialand intellectual justice is now. We have the power in our everyday activities to find waysto inspire people to know about these future trends.

Purpose of the Paper: Outer Space Development Design Ambassadors4

The purpose of this paper is to introduce artists and architects to a new phenomenon occurringin our lifetime – outer space development. This is an invitation for visionaries, people curiousabout newly emerging trends, and those who are concerned about dwindling opportunitiesduring the dismal global economic recession, to understand and be exposed to what is hap-pening today. The paper relies on several assumptions. First, outer space is in the processof being developed by companies who are responding to the NASA Authorization Act of2010. Second, the future belongs to creative forces, artists, and architects, they can inspirepeople to create and achieve great ideas. Third, creative societies can solve problems, andcause exciting, positive things happen. Fourth, well designed and high performance devel-opment projects will be the key to spur people’s interest in the continued development andsettlement of outer space communities. Fifth, architects can use this knowledge as an intel-lectual experience in order to come up with new ways to address sustainability efforts hereon Earth. Six, artist-architectural community involvement is critical for the success of outerspace development. And, seven, the transformation of outer space infrastructure can be donein a way that includes everyone and allows all people to benefit. It is only through this sharedand communicated vision that we can be assured of reaching our destination for the bettermentof mankind.

Economic Policy Stated GoalsThe NASA Authorization Act of 2010 sets aside funds for a broad range of objectives. Eachgoal stated in the law provides a dollar amount allocated for the achievement of specifiedgoals. The manner and method for their achievement is left up to the skills of those boldenough to submit proposals. For example, section 101, paragraph 5 of the NASA Authoriz-ation Act provides $4,594,300,000 for the fiscal year of 2011, for “space operations”, ofwhich $3,271,900,000 “shall be for the ISS”. The wording assigned to various budget amountssuggests that opportunities exist for a wide range of skilled professionals who are bold enoughto actively engage in the process of firming up plans regarding how to develop the outer

4 David Stairs in “Altruism as Design Methodology” Vol. 21, No. 2, Design Issues (Spring, 2005) pp. 3-12 quotingHOWDesign, April 2002: 180-185, uses the phrase “design ambassadors”.


space infrastructure. Section 202(b) discusses the restructured exploration program shall beimplemented in a manner that in paragraph 8 indicates “allows the systems developed underthe restructured exploration program to serve as potential test beds for the demonstration ofkey enabling exploration technologies and operational capabilities”; and paragraph 9 indicatesthe manner “prepares for and enables human missions to a variety of destinations in the innersolar system, including cislunar space, the Moon, Lagrangian points, near-Earth objects, andultimately Mars and its moons”. What is not included in the language here is the need forarchitectural design, as an important element for the human psychological dimension involvedin extended travel throughout outer space. This necessary aspect of human survival in outerspace for extended periods of time was not omitted intentionally. The specifics of how todo outer space development are to be detailed by people with vision and talent. This shouldinclude artists and architects. Another example, Section 217(a) provides for “ExplorationTechnology Development Using the ISS” (International Space Station). It reads “The Ad-ministrator shall develop priorities for technology development, testing, and demonstrationactivities that enable and support NASA’s long-term plans for exploration beyond low-Earthorbit…”

To reiterate, architectural design advocates can make sure their profession gets includedin the process of outer space development. Especially, since the NASA Authorization Actplaces an emphasis on the need for developing a relevant workforce through education.Section 601 provides that “…to create the diverse, skilled scientific and technical workforceessential to meeting the challenges facing NASA and the Nation in the 21st century, theAdministrator shall develop, conduct, support, promote, and coordinate formal and informaleducational and training activities…” which make good use of NASA’s “unique contentexpertise and facilities”. The architectural design community has at its fingertips access toNASA technology and funding for educational and workforce training programs for its stu-dents. Architects need to understand how to connect all of these dots to see the opportunitiesemerging. Architects can use these insights to increase their level of confidence when dis-cussing and teaching about the new agenda including destinations to asteroids, Mars, Phobosand Deimos – the moons of Mars, as well as asteroids orbiting Mars. The lesson to be learnedhere is that it is possible use policies and laws to support assumptions about newly emergingindustry trends. Architects don’t have to wait until after development bids are published inthe Commerce Business Daily. They can prepare themselves earlier to take advantage ofnew trends, since it takes a while to create knowledge about new issues.

Other economic initiatives, laws and policies have been put into place to foster the devel-opment of the final frontier. From 2004 to 2010, companies have been given a green lightto develop newer, faster, more efficient spaceships. It is clear from recent policy initiativesthat the private sector has caught NASA’s torch, and is running with it. Over the last 10years, Space Adventures, headquartered in Vienna, Va., has organized flights for well-heeledclients to the International Space Station. Then there were the first private suborbital spacetreks via SpaceShipOne, bankrolled by the Microsoft-made billionaire, Paul Allen. Aerospacemaverick, Burt Rutan and his Scaled Composites squad pushed the frontiers of private spacetravel. In 2004, they won the $10 million Ansari X Prize for commercial spaceflight. Nowwe are in a new expansive phase of development. The development of advanced spacetransportation vehicles and structures to sustain life as people embark on NASA-like missionsto the Moon, Mars, asteroids and Mars two moons, other destinations, and build more spaceinfrastructure, including space mining and habitat construction. Architects can plan on seeing


bids for the design of advanced space transportation systems with life support and interplan-etary or interstellar telecommunications capabilities. Science fiction has gradually becomereality and golden opportunities exist for people who are knowledgeable, capable and willingto develop a new skill-set necessary to meet emerging demands. This includes architects,artists, design professionals and students.

Newly emerging industries are likely to include private space travel, space tourism, spa-ceport development, commercial space mining and space habitats. By understanding this,the architectural design community can begin discussions and awareness campaigns withinthe profession. This has the potential to put d esign and a rchitecture at the fore front of thisfield and to ignite the imaginations of millions.

Methodology for Blending IntelligencesArchitects can establish a leadership position in future emerging industries by learning todetect new trends sponsored by economic policies. Students can learn to blend insights fromthe architectural design discipline with insights from the social and behavioral sciences. Thiswould need to include an understanding of political lobbying, business innovation, legal re-search and economic policy analysis. Papanek (1988: 4) in “The Future Isn’t What It Usedto Be”, Design Issues, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Autumn 1988) pp. 4-17 explains that there is “anenormous amount of data available about how people related to their environment estheticallyand psychophysiologically” and that much of this data is “still unknown to designers, archi-tects, and planners as data come from such diverse fields as ergonomics, ecology, archeology,psychiatry, cultural history, anthropology, biology, ethology, and human geography”. Wewould like to suggest adding insights from space studies fields, including space structuresand spacecraft design. By teaching themselves how to research laws and economic policies,students of architectural design can position themselves on the cutting edge of future trends.Miles (2001: 41) also speaks to the need to change “the mutual lack of understanding betweenprofessionals with a social science background and those with a technical or design orienta-tion”, and he expresses the need for increased use of social research and perception research,in order to better meet the needs of those who will inhabit the structures. Architects and ar-chitectural design students can “re-imagine” their “expertise”5 in order to meet the demandsof future society.

Through a Lens of One “Regime”Policies and laws have been enacted, hearings had been held, and decisions have been madeto develop outer space, largely outside of the media spotlight given to national politics. Inaddition, historical, legal, ideological, institutional, political, economic, psychological andstructural factors are all operating together in the post Cold War era during a time of generalacceptance of globalization and free market ideology. Opening up space transportation, spacemining and space habitats for private sector competition is projected to make outer spacedevelopment happen fast. It appears that outer space development has a green light. Fewpeople may see or understand that all of these events are happening in a linear fashion thatis more easily understood by those already invested in this community. This is why we want

5 Peter Schneider, “Perfect Masters of Their Art: Re-Imagining Expertise”, Journal of Architectural Education,53, Issue 3 (February 2000): 141-145.


to open the discussion to the co-creative talents of architects, and why our analysis introducesarchitects to terms such as “key actors” and “regime”, which were borrowed from the fieldof international relations-political science, the field of study specializing in uncoveringemerging social and behavioral patterns.

Space Law Politics & Potential ConflictIn addition to economic policies, understanding the passage and implications of law is alsoimportant for architects to see what is coming in the future. International space law, in anutshell, provides three key principles regarding the outer space territory: 1) all people havefreedom to use outer space 2) no nation can own outer space 3) uses of outer space shouldbe for the benefit of all humankind.

Architects need to understand the importance of locating laws and understanding them.For example, there is a potential political problem likely to arise from this law. The termswhich are set forth in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 (the Constitution for outer space) arevague and subject to varying interpretations. This is likely to mean that key actors with thewherewithal and the means to purchase equipment and bid for NASA contracts will be theonly ones to benefit from the trillion dollar frontier. This poses a problem since the OuterSpace Treaty declares that outer space belongs to the international community - to the“province of mankind”. Similar to the legal designation of heirs in common, people havelegal rights to share in the benefits deriving from the development of outer space, includingthe natural resources abundant in outer space. However, rights mean little, until the personis made aware of their legal right to benefit from a particular activity.

Only a few nations, alliances of nations, companies, and individuals know about the newlyemerging trend towards an outer space development bonanza. They are significant key actors.For example, the a new space race will undoubtedly involve Canada, China, France, Germany,the United Kingdom, as well as the European Union via the European Space Agency, India,Japan, the Russian Federation, South Africa, and the United States. International cooperativeventures are likely to become more common such as the Global Exploration Strategy: TheFramework for Coordination which consists of 14 space agencies working together on mis-sions. Companies and entrepreneurs, including Virgin Galactic, SpaceX, Lockheed Martin,Boeing, XCOR, Orbital Sciences Corporation and others are also playing key roles in theprocesses towards the development of outer space.

As more people become aware of their rights to benefit from outer space development,and as more people explore outer space as business adventurers, we can expect to see feelingsof resentment fuel international conflict again, as we have seen in the past. In a small way,architects can help prevent this from happening by increasing the level of awareness andparticipation in the profession from the very start. Architects involved or currently enteringthis practice area must be aware that the large global investments and series of events willlead to an increased demand for services related to space architecture development projects.

Historical Trend of US-led Space Commercialization PatternsThe first wave of outer space development changed the world. This process included estab-lishing a satellite telecommunications infrastructure in the geostationary orbit along withthe globalization of new high tech products and services. For example, widespread global


use of cell phones, the Internet, Facebook, Skype, and wireless financial transactions happenedvery fast. Imagine knowing beforehand about the level of investment and resources beingfunneled by the government to develop the World Wide Web. This may have changed career,business and investment choices had we the advance knowledge of the emerging internetindustries in the 1980s.

This is what is now emerging in outer space development. However, the process of spacecommercialization has been occurring since President Kennedy’s Administration andprivatization has been escalating since President Reagan’s Administration. Commercializationof satellite communications began in 1962 when the U.S. Congress passed the Communica-tions Satellite Act for this purpose. President Kennedy called for joint ownership with othernations for a communications satellite system, with non-discriminatory access for all countriesof the world. This effort is still viewed favorably by the international community. Shareswere offered to the international community when the COMSAT Corporation developedinto INTELSAT, via a U.S. - led international agreement. Many nations participated in spacecommerce associated with this bourgeoning technology. Around the world today manypeople use cell phones, the Internet, money transfer systems and enjoy increased GNP dueto these space industries. We can expect more growth in this area as well as ancillary busi-nesses developing in support of the communications infrastructure in the future under thismodel.

An even more poignant example of the power of U.S. law in shaping space industry creationinvolves two international intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), INTELSAT and IN-MARSAT. Both were privatized via the U.S. ORBIT Act of 2000. The overall legislativeintent was to restructure the two intergovernmental organizations in order to foster the creationof a satellite industry. This industry has grown into a $100 billion dollar industry in onlyfour decades.

Given the value of platinum group metals likely to be mined in outer space, it is reasonableto assume that space mining will become a multitrillion-dollar industry in this decade6. In-dustries providing satellite telecommunications, remote sensing, space transportation andlaunch systems have become prevalent in the global economy. U.S. led space commercializ-ation practices began in the 1980s and became widespread during the 1990s and dominantafter the fall of the Soviet Union. Although outer space is an international territory, freemarket ideology and the influence of U.S. space policy and law are extremely influential inthe post Cold War era. Additionally, international cooperation between nations has lead tomutually beneficial financial and economic returns for this capital intensive industry. Giventhis trend, it is reasonable to assume that the new U.S. space law and policy and resultingindustries will also ripple throughout the world.

Political Activity: Knowledge and PowerThe companies taking advantage of the new law have been working on making this happenfor many years. Organized and concerted efforts began in 2001, which resulted in the passageof the U.S. Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act of 2004 and the New Vision for

6 Augustine Committee: Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee (3 August 2009) “EnablingProfitable Asteroid Mining” athttp://www.nasa.gov/pdf/383154main_53%20%2020090803.7.toAugustineCommittee-2009-08-03.pdf (accessedDecember 26, 2010).


U.S. Space Exploration Policy under President George W. Bush, with The President’sCommission hearings, and published report entitled Journey to Inspire, Innovate and Dis-cover. Together, these policies and law provided legal permission for the private space traveland new types of partnerships that we are witnessing today. In addition, the NASA Author-ization Act of 2005 made funding available to carry out the 2004 policy. In 2009 US Plansfor SpaceFlight Committee hearings were held.

The Private Sector Response

Fast Action to Take Advantage of the New Economic PolicyIn November 2010, Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (SpaceX), a companyfounded by Elon Musk, who played a role in the dot com revolution (successfully creatingcompanies such as PayPal and Zip2), was granted an FAA license to reenter Earth’s atmo-sphere7. This was the first time in history for private spaceships to receive authorization toreturn to Earth from orbit. SpaceX in December of 2010 won a NASA contract worth approx-imately $1.6 billion dollars and is currently working on providing space transportation forNASA astronauts pursuant to NASA’s Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS)program. We can anticipate SpaceX may also be working on designs for a Mars colony8 inthe future. Sir Richard Branson’s Virgin Galactic Company is reportedly eyeing the orbitalspace transportation industry. Most people have been some publicity for Virgin’s connectionto the suborbital space tourism market9. However, in December of 2010, Virgin announcedits plans to partner with Sierra Nevada Space Systems and Orbital Sciences Corporationpursuant to NASA’s Commercial Crew Development Program (CCDEV2), to provide amore serious form of space transportation. Similar to NASA’s COTS program, this is aninitiative designed to encourage the private sector to develop privately-operated spacevehicles.

Another example, in a December press release, Boeing stated its “plans to advance thedesign of its Crew Space Transportation (CST)-100 spacecraft and Commercial CrewTransportation System and continue to demonstrate key technologies” and that “[t]he CST-100 spacecraft is designed to support NASA’s primary objective of affordable access to LowEarth Orbit. It will carry up to seven crew and passengers, is reusable up to 10 times, and iscompatible with a variety of expendable launch vehicles”10. In addition, Orbital SciencesCorporation submitted a proposal to NASA in December of 2010 for a Commercial Crew

7 Mike Wall, (22 November, 2010) “SpaceX Receives FAA License to Return Private Spaceships From Earth Orbit”SPACE.com http://www.space.com/news/spacex-faa-license-private-spaceship-reentry-101122.html (accessedDecember 26, 2010).8 “SpaceX Blasts Off”, CNN February 23, 2009 at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b5N1sNSYBKk (accessedDecember 26, 2010).9 Clara Moskowitz, (29 November 2010) “Virgin Galactic Keeps Mum On Orbital Spaceflight AmbitionsSPACE.com http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/virgin-galactic-orbital-space-travel-101129.html (accessedDecember 31, 2010).10 Boeing press release dated December 13, 2010, “Boeing Submits Proposal 2nd Round of NASA CommercialCrew Development Program” at http://boeing.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=1557 (accessed December31, 2010).


Development Program 2 contract11. Space tourism began in 2004 as a new industry and injust six years later, the private sector growth has expanded into more advanced arenas ofspace transportation.

From Suborbital Joyrides to Building the Space InfrastructureWe have witnessed companies go from providing suborbital joyrides to companies preparingto carry out missions beyond Earth’s orbit. These activities are very different from the ColdWar space race between the United States and the Soviet Union. Soon companies will beproviding space transportation from Earth to low Earth orbit, to other orbits, to asteroids andNear Earth orbits, to the Moon and to Mars. Lockheed Martin appears to be preparing theOrion spacecraft for a journey to a near Earth asteroid called Plymouth Rock12 pursuant tothe New Vision for Space Exploration policy and the NASA Authorization Act which wasenacted into law on October 11, 2010.

Google Lunar X PrizeAnother example, Google, Inc. sponsors the Google Lunar X Prize – a $30 million dollarcompetition to encourage a private sector robotic race to the Moon. Private companies fromaround the world were invited to compete to land a privately funded robotic rover on theMoon. The winner is expects to design a rover capable of completing several mission object-ives, including sending video, images and information from the Moon to Earth. Predecessorsto the Google Lunar X Prize included the Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge, XPRIZE Cup and the Ansari X PRIZE.

MarsThe new agenda includes destinations to asteroids, Mars, Phobos and Deimos – the moonsof Mars, as well as asteroids orbiting Mars. So, it is logical to assume that a Mars ExplorationPrize may soon be put into place given the successes of the Spirit and Opportunity roverswhich sent back photos and a plethora of data regarding the red planet during their trips toMars for several years. Mars presents additional learning opportunities for design students.

Space HabitatsThe International Space Station has been great for many years and its blueprint is readilyavailable for companies to mimic. Bigelow Aerospace has done this and has already launchedtwo space habitats into Low Earth Orbit in 2006. But architectural designers and plannersare needed in order to make these structures safe, sustainable and exciting for the general

11 Klaus Schmidt, (15 December 2010) “Orbital Submits Proposal for NASA's Commercial Crew DevelopmentProgram” Space Fellowship at http://spacefellowship.com/news/art24418/orbital-submits-proposal-for-nasa-s-commercial-crew-development-program.html (accessed December 31, 2010).12 Mark Carreau, (31 August, 2010) “Lockheed Proposing Early Asteroid Exploration”AviationWeek http://www.avi-ationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&id=news/asd/2010/08/30/01.xml&headline=Lock-heed%20Proposing%20Early%20Asteroid%20Exploration (accessed December 26, 2010).


public. Students, children and visionaries from all nations and all walks of life need an inter-esting focal point to engage and apply their talents to this new thing.

Building up of the space infrastructure, which will include various forms habitats, bases,stations, hotels, life support systems, spacecraft and transportation vehicles and telecommu-nications devices. Space transportation systems will need to be developed and perfected thatare capable of transporting people and materials back and forth between Earth and low Earthorbit, to near Earth objects such as asteroids and comets, to the Moon, Mars, and to themoons of Mars - Phobos and Deimos, our Moon. Spacecraft trajectory optimization willbecome a field of study that is more in demand for scholars than it is today.

The term space mining, provides architects with an additional term for further research.Gold, platinum, iridium, osmium and other natural resources found on asteroids and celestialbodies have been assessed a value of 100s or 1000s of trillions of dollars. Therefore, a shiftin the global economy of this magnitude could cause us to rethink our current internationaleconomic policies and theories. Space architecture is likely to become a thriving industrywith increased access to outer space, space-based energy resources and free building mater-ials. Key actors making these phenomena occur will most likely be a combination of com-panies, corporations, nonprofits, governmental, intergovernmental and international entities.For example, spaceships, spacecraft, stations, hotels, bases, fuel stations, Lagrange points,life support systems: food, water and oxygen production, recycling and maintenance, fuelingstations, locating Earth like planets, sustainability, interplanetary, interstellar, internationaland intercultural communications and telecommunications are topics frequently being dis-cussed at space congresses by experts.

Student Teaching and AwarenessThere is a wealth of knowledge about applying skills and knowledge of architecture to design,building and constructions of spaceports, launch systems, space transportation vehicles,space stations, settlements and habitats. Architects can easily access and absorb existingknowledge that is readily available through the internet. For example, publications, writtenor recommended by members of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,Space Architecture Technical Committee are available at http://www.spacearchitect.org/.This bibliography lists dozens of resources and references that anyone can use to create theirown expertise in this field of study.

Another example, architects can research and learn about student design competitions asyet another way to help their students, associates and emerging professionals prepare for thegrowing demand for future projects. For example, NASA’s Innovative Partnerships Programis a student competition involving an inflatable loft for space exploration habitats. The Ex-ploration Habitat (X-Hab) Academic Innovation Challenge involves having students designthe building of an inflatable space habitat.13 This should be compared to Bigelow Aerospace’sproduct - inflatable habitats which were launched into low Earth orbit in 2006. There arealso various space settlement competitions happening for students around the world, whichcan be readily research using the internet.

13 http://thelaunchpad.xprize.org/2010/06/exploration-habitat-academic-innovation.html (accessed December 30,2010).


ConclusionSpace scientists, space engineers, space lawyers and space policymakers have been meetingand making plans for space development for over 40 years. Recently, many nations havedrastically increased their spending on space programs, and many have pledged to go to theMoon and to Mars. Moreover, discoveries have been made on these two celestial bodies andon various asteroids and comets. New industries involving space stations, space tourism,space mining and space settlement are impending. Development plans and the technologicalcapability to develop outer space are very real and very concrete. Too few people are awarethat all of these things are happening, and that the implications are likely to play out in sig-nificant game changing ways for many decades. Past scenarios, including widening inequalitygaps because of lack of knowledge are also likely to continue. However, we can correctmany of the mistakes which were allowed in the past, and we can begin to blueprint feelgood components of a new society including actual equality of knowledge and opportunityand the cultivation and encouragement of people’s real talent and intellect instead of system-atically stifling them. Key actors within the government, private sector and internationalcommunity have made the decision to begin our ascent into outer space by building up thespace infrastructure within the next 10-20 years. Very few people are aware that this processhas been placed on the agenda. To achieve these lofty goals will require a shift in globalconsciousness on the part of the design world. We need a critical mass of people to becomeaware, knowledgeable and engaged about the fact that this is going on now and to believethat they can infuse this process with creativity, imagination, vision and excellent design.

All creation is considered to be an exercise of the power of mind over matter. Imaginationis the creative force in our world. It is only through our imagination, that we are able to effectany change in the material world. The architectural discipline trains the imagination, alongwith a deep knowledge of the environment. As such it has lead to the creation of the mostsignificant structures in our collective history on Earth. Now we must harness this creativeenergy and focus our imaginations on outer space development. With this transformationwithin our own consciousness, we can help others see it too. It is possible to inspire peopleto build future societies together in space, which are centered on principles of justice, fairness,equality and opportunity.

“The future is not some place we are going, but one we are creating. The paths are not tobe found, but made. And the activity of making them changes both the maker and theirdestination.” -- John Schaar

ReferencesBell, Larry. “On Earth and In Space”, Civil Engineering, (October 2009): 72-77.Bizony, Piers. How to Build Your Own Spaceship: The Science of Personal Space Travel (Penguin

Group, 2009).Boning, Peggy and Steven Dubowsky. “Coordinated Control of Space Robot Teams for the On-Orbit

Construction of Large Flexible Space Structures” Advanced Robotics 24 (2010): 303-323.Doordan, Dennis P. “Designing the Modern Experience”, Design Issues, 13, no. 1 (Spring 1997): 1-

4.Ekuan, Kenji. “Organizational Creativity at a Turning Point in Time”, ICSID News 3: 97 (June 1997):

7.Ekuan, Kenji. “A New Age, New Design Values”, ICSIC News 2: 97 (April 1997): 4.Gardner, Howard. Multiple Intelligences (Basic Books, 2006).


Gardner, Howard. Intelligence Reframed (Basic Books, 1999).Harrison, Albert A. Spacefaring: The Human Dimension (University of California Press, 2002).Howe, A Scott and Brent Sherwood (eds.). Out of This World: The New Field of Space Architecture

(American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009).Hidgins, Edward L. Space: The Free Market Frontier (CATO Institute, 2002).Hunt, J.C.R. and A.J. Coates. “Developments in Space Engineering and Space Science”, Philosophical

Tran sactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 361, no. 1802 (January15, 2003): 205-218.

Kemp, Kenny. Destination Space: How Space Tourism is Making Science Fiction a Reality (MPGBook. Ltd., 2007).

Lewis, John S. Mining the Sky: Untold Riches from the Asteroids, Comets, and Planets (Helix Books,Addison-Wesley, 2000).

Margolin, Victor. “Design for a Sustainable World”, Design Issues 14, no. 1 (Summer, 1998): 83-92.Miles, Malcolm. “Picking Up Stones: Design Research and Urban Settlement”, Design Issues 17, no.

2 (Spring 2001): 32-52.Papanek, Victor. “The Future Isn’t What It Used to Be” Design Issues 5, no. 1 (Autumn 1988): 4-17.Papanek, Victor. Design for the Real World: Human Ecology and Social Change (Chicago: Academy

of Chicago, 1985).Pinar, William F. and William M. Reynolds (eds.) Understanding Curriculum as Phenomenological

and Deconstructed Text (New York: Teachers College Press, 1992).Russell, Colin and Gunnar Tibert. “Deployment Simulations of Inflatable Tensegrity Structures”, In-

ternational Journal of Space Structures 23, no. 2 (2008): 63-77.Sanoff, Henry. DesignShare: Designing for the Future of Learning (2010);

http://www.designshare.com/index.php/articles/educational-specifications-forum/4/ (accessedJanuary 29, 2011).

Schmidt, Stanley and Robert Zubrin (eds). Islands in the Sky: Bold New Ideas for Colonizing Space(John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1996).

Stairs, David. “Altruism as Design Methodology”, Design Issues, 21 (Spring 2005) No. 21: 3-12.Walden, Rotraut (ed.). Schools for the Future: Design Proposals fromArchitectural Psychology (Hogrefe

Publishing, 2008).Zubrin, Robert. Entering Space: Creating a Spacefaring Civilization (Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam,

2000).

Endnotes

1. The NASA Authorization Act of 2010, H.R. II, 111 Congress, 2nd Session at (accessedDecember 25, 2010). By reviewing this 99 page law, architects can see how specificdollar amounts have been allocated to achieve targeted goals.

2. The New Vision for U.S. Exploration Policy,United States National Space Policy, June28, 2010 available at (accessed December 28, 2010).

3. Summary Report of the Review of U.S. Human Space Flight Plans Committee (2009)at and Review of US Human Spaceflight PlansCommittee Seeking a Human SpaceflightPlan Worthy of a Great Nation (2009) at (accessed December 26, 2010).

4. Small Bodies Assessment Group (SBAG), “SBAG Community Decadal White Papers”2) at (accessed December 26, 2010).


5. “President Obama Signs New Vision for U.S. Space Exploration into Law”, Space.com,October 11, 2010 at http://www.space.com/news/president-obama-signs-nasa-space-plan-101011.html (accessed December 26, 2010).

6. See the Report of the President’s Commission on Implementation of U.S. Space Explor-ation Policy: A Journey to Inspire, Innovate and Discover, ISBN 0-16-073075-9, (U.S.Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.) (June 16, 2004). In February 2004,President George W. Bush announced a New Vision for U.S. Space Exploration Policy.He also created a commission, the President’s Commission on Implementation of UnitedStates Space Exploration Policy to advise him on matters of space travel including theMoon, Mars and other celestial bodies, and mandating the holding of a series of publichearings regarding the future of the U.S. space program in addition to creating a newU.S. Space Transportation Policy in January 2005. President’s Commission publichearings took place on: May 3-4, 2004, The Asia Society, 725 Park Avenue, New York,NY 10021; April 15-16, 2004, Galileo Academy of Science and Technology, 1150Francisco Street, San Francisco, CA 94109; March 24-25, 2004, Georgia Centers forAdvanced Telecommunications Technology, 250 14th Street, NW, Atlanta, GA 30318;March 3-4, 2004, US Air Force Museum, 1100 Spaatz St., Wright-Patterson AFB, OH45433 (near Dayton); and February 11, 2004, National Transportation Safety BoardConference Center 429 L’ Enfant Plaza, SW, Washington, D.C. Transcripts of eachtestimony at available at http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/moontomars/news/events.asp(accessed December 26, 2010).

7. Weeks, Edythe The Politics of Space Law in a Post Cold War Era: UnderstandingRegime Change, doctoral dissertation, Northern Arizona University, December, 2006.It sets forth support for the proposition that outer space will seen be “developed” bymapping emerging patterns regarding space exploration, astronautics, space technology,space law, space mining commercial space settlements, private space travel and spacetourism, new types of spaceships, establishing space colonies, the rapid rise in commer-cial spaceports, private space travel. In addition to the political and international relationsimplications, this dissertation also examines the legal, economic, ideological, institu-tional and cultural developments. This includes key actors and actions and recent do-mestic space laws and policies in light of post Cold War era power, the privatizationof space missions and space exploration and current events.

About the AuthorsTracy S. HarrisAs Vice President for Administration and the Chief Financial Officer, Tracy Harris is a partof the executive management team, responsible for providing direction, management andleadership to The American Institute of Architects (AIA) and its affiliates in the areas offinance, accounting, risk management, asset management, budgeting, continuing education,contract documents, business strategy and development, facilities management and adminis-tration. Founded in 1857, the AIA is the United States’ leading professional membershipassociation for licensed architects, emerging professionals and allied partners. The AIA hasgrown from 13 members to 85,000 members located throughout the U.S. and internationally.In addition to over 20 years of career experience in finance, economic development and in-


ternational development, Harris is a lifelong learner earning various advanced degrees in-cluding an MPA, MBA in Finance, MA in Government and was the 2010 Ralph and JaniceJames Fellowship recipient of the General >Management, Executive Education Program atHarvard Business School. Harris hosts a radio show on WPFW, is a jazz enthusiast, and acommunity fundraiser for various charities and political campaigns who serves on severalboards for arts and culture related nonprofit corporations.

Dr. Edythe E. WeeksDr. Weeks teaches courses on Space Law online to students in various countries, via WebsterUniversity’s online M.A. in International Relations program. Weeks has presented paperson a variety of topics to experts within the space community. Weeks has published severalpapers in the Colloquium Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law, as wellas with the American Institute on Aeronautics and Astronautics. Her research and dissertationentitled “The Politics of Space Law in a Post Cold War Era: Understanding InternationalRegime Change”, helped to prompt the issuance of an important policy statement clarifyingwhether or not private property rights are permitted regarding outer space resources.


Editors Bill Cope, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA. Mary Kalantzis, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA.

Editorial Advisory Board Genevieve Bell – Intel Corporation, Santa Clara, USA. Michael Biggs – University of Hertfordshire, Hertfordshire, UK. Thomas Binder – Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Copenhagen, Denmark. Jeanette Blomberg – IBM Almaden Research Center, San Jose, USA. Eva Brandt – Danmark Designskole, Copenhagen, Denmark. Peter Burrows – RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. Monika Büscher – Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK. Patrick Dillon – Exeter University, Exeter, UK. Michael Gibson, University of North Texas, Denton, USA. Loredana Di Lucchio, Sapienza Universita di Roma, Rome, Italy. Judith Gregory – IIT Institute of Design, Chicago, USA; University of Oslo, Norway. Clive Holtham – City of London University, London, UK. Lorenzo Imbesi, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada. Hiroshi Ishii – MIT Media Lab, Cambridge, USA. Gianni Jacucci – University of Trento, Trento, Italy. Klaus Krippendorff – University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA. Terence Love – Curtin University, Perth, Australia. Bill Lucas, MAYA Fellow, MAYA Design, Inc., Pittsburgh, USA. Ezio Manzini – Politecnico of Milano, Milan, Italy. Mario Minichiello, Birmingham Institute of Art and Design, Birmingham, UK. Julian Orr – Work Practice & Technology Associates, Pescadero, USA. Mahendra Patel – Leaf Design, Mumbai, India. Toni Robertson – University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia. Terry Rosenberg – Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK. Keith Russell – University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia. Liz Sanders – Make Tools, USA. Maria Cecilia Loschiavo dos Santos – University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. Lucy Suchman – Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK. Ina Wagner – Technical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.

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viewing architectural design as an impetus to spur outer space development

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