introduction

Since 1982, an international team of archaeologists has conducted 10 seasons of excavations at the major Neolithic site of ‘Ayn Ghazal, Jordan.2 Founded in ca. 8250 BC (calibrated) as a very small village, it grew rapidly and continuously until reaching its climax around 7000 BC. At its peak the village spread over approximately 14 hectares, but contracted in size during the seventh millennium until its eventual abandonment around 5500 BC.3 Architecture and cultural material indicate that the nature of life and settling changed dramatically during the latest phase of occupation, when it was inhabited by a group of semi-villagers/semi-nomads rather than being settled by a complexly organized society.

The Neolithic village of ‘Ayn Ghazal is singular among others in the Near East for the most stunning achievement of its inhabitants in the realm of ritual.4 It has been assumed that magic played an important role in the lives of the people of ‘Ayn Ghazal, as is indicated by the excavated plastered skulls,5 masks6 and small clay human and animal figurines.7 Most spectacular of all, two caches of human statues and busts (more than 30 pieces), measuring 30 to 90 cm in height

* Faculty of Archaeology and Anthropology, Yarmouk University, Irbid (Jordan).

1. Ayn Ghazal Excavations is a joint project co-directed by Gary O. Rollefson of Willamate University/USA and Zeidan A. Kafafi of Yarmouk University/Jordan. Alan Simmons served as a co-director for the project from 1983 to 1989.

2. Rollefson and Kafafi 2007.

3. Rollefson et al. 1992.

4. Rollefson 2000.

5. Simmons et al. 1990; Rollefson et al. 1998.

6. Schmandt-Besserat 2003; Griffen et al. 1998.

7. Rollefson 1983, 1986, 1998; Schmandt-Besserat 1997.

uPRigHT SToneS of THe neoLiTHic viLLAge ‘Ayn gHAzAL: LocATion AnD funcTion (joRDAn)1

and dated to the MPPNB8 (ca. 8250-7500 BC) were found in the 1983 and 1985 seasons.9 These human statues may represent mythical ancestors.

During the following period, the Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (ca. 7500-7000 BC), the people of ‘Ayn Ghazal constructed buildings which have been interpreted as ritual in function.10 Most scholars agree that to identify structures associated with ritual practices is not an easy task. Nevertheless, based on the floor plans and structural features, some of the Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B buildings appear to be non-domestic and probably served ritual purposes.11 Those structures are characterized by having upright standing stones built in the middle of their long wall. These standing stones will be studied below.

Location of upright Stones at ‘Ayn ghazal

During the MPPNB the settlers of ‘Ayn Ghazal focused on inward-looking kinship rituality by burying their dead under the floors of houses, plastering the skulls of their ancestors and by making life-sized human statues.

By the beginning of the LPPNB the village witnessed a sudden change of ritual habits and practices. This may have happened as a result of a population increase. During this period the village became a locus for different groups of people and a socio-political realignment developed rapidly.12 As a result, family-oriented rituals began and non-domestic buildings were constructed to serve this purpose.

8. MPPNB: Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B.

9. Schmandt-Besserat 1998.

10. Rollefson 2000, 1997; Kafafi and Rollefson 1995, 1994.

11. Kafafi and Rollefson 1995.

12. Kafafi 2004; Rollefson and Kafafi 2007, p. 216.

Zeidan A. KaFaFi *

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Three different structures with upright stones built-into their walls were uncovered at the site of ‘Ayn Ghazal. One such structure is in the Central Field (once considered to be a Yarmoukian public building)13 and two are in the East Field.14 These were described as ritual buildings.

The excavations in the Central Field, Squares 3481-3482, produced an apsidal building, which has an upright stone built into the apse contour at the southern wall (Fig. 1). This construction was first built during the LPPNB but reused during the Pottery Neolithic (Yarmoukian Phase).15 An upright standing stone was intentionally built in the centre of the apse. The excavated Yarmoukian pottery sherds from inside the building showed that they were made of medium and fine wares. The recognized pottery forms consisted mostly of small and medium vessels, which were decorated with incised and red painted decorations.

This building had been abandoned sometime during the last phase of the Pottery Neolithic, and the southern part was filled with small and medium sized limestone cobbles forming a tower shape (Fig. 2).

The excavations conducted in the East Field indicated that this part of ‘Ayn Ghazal grew rapidly by the beginning of the Late PPNB. Near the top of the eastern slope a medium sized building (4 x 5 m) was uncovered, which may have played a major ritual role in the life of the people of ‘Ayn Ghazal.16

The building was constructed using dressed stones. However, the western side of the building was eroded. Five main features have been recognized in this building (Fig. 3a and b):

– In the centre of the room are three standing stones with a north-south alignment, each about 70 cm high (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4a and b).

– In the centre of the eastern wall is a large, white chalky limestone orthostat more than 1 m high and about 50 cm thick (Fig. 4b). This standing stone has a knob-like projection at the centre-top; whether or not it was intentionally carved is unclear (Fig. 4b).

– A circular hearth of red painted plaster measures ca. 50 cm in diametre and was built midway between the upright stones and the eastern wall. Seven flat limestone slabs were constructed around the hearth, whose surface showed evidence of fire.

– A floor-level platform made of two rectangular stone blocks (ca. 75 x 50 cm) and aligned east-west was

13. Kafafi 1993; Rollefson et al. 1990.

14. Rollefson 2005, 2000, 1997; Kafafi 2005; Kafafi and Rollefson 1995.

15. Rollefson 2000; Kafafi 1993.

16. Rollefson and Kafafi 1997.

built at the southwestern edge of the room (Fig. 3b).– In a later phase of the use of this building, the space

between the northernmost standing stone and the north wall was closed off with a single-leaf wall.17

The other ritual building (Fig. 5) which was excavated in the East Field is located approximately 75 m to the south. The rectangular building was built of undressed field stones in irregular courses. Initially the nature of the structures were thought to date to the PPNC period,18 but further studies of the excavated archaeological data found inside the building and a radiocarbon date (uncalibrated 8080±65 BP or calibrated 7016±135 BC) placed it in the LPPNB.19

The building consists of two interior rooms connec-ted by a doorway. The western room was damaged and almost nothing remained of the floor of this area. The eastern room was undamaged and provided most of the information about the function and use of the building. Measuring 6.5 m north-south by 3.5 m east-west direc-tions, the floor of this room was made of sterile yellowish clay and kept clean of trash and artefacts.

An elliptical shaped semi-subterranean construction was built against the outer face of the eastern wall. Construction techniques and the stones used for building this feature are completely different to the rest of the building (Fig. 6). It has been assumed that this space was used for storing purposes.

Two large, flat limestone slabs put directly on top of three pairs of standing stones that vary in height from 45 to 70 cm formed an altar which was built into the centre of the eastern wall. This feature measures 2 m long by 60 cm wide. Directly in front of the three upright stones was a lime plaster hearth, almost 1 m in diametre, and surrounded by seven flat limestone slabs (Fig. 6).

function

All excavated upright stones at ‘Ayn Ghazal were built into the walls of buildings which were thought by the excavators to be spaces for ritual practice. Gary O. Rollefson20 proposed that the relationship between religion/rituality and social structure should be studied in order to understand why these types of buildings make their appearance in the southern Levant

17. Rollfeson and Kafafi 1997, p. 33-34.

18. Rollefson 2000, p. 179-181; 1997, p. 294-297.

19. Rollefson 2005, p. 8; Rollefson and Kafafi 2007, p. 216-217.

20. Rollefson 2005, p. 8.

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Fig. 1 – Upright stone built into the apse of the LPPNB apsidal building/re-used in the pottery Neolithic (photo by Hisahiko Wada).

Fig. 2 – The apsidal building after abandonment(photo by Hisahiko Wada).

Fig. 3, a and b – LPPNB temple excavated on top of the east field slope.

Fig. 4, a and b – Late PPNB temple with an orthostat found at the east field of ‘Ayn Ghazal

(photo by Yousef Zu’bi).

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Fig. 5 – LPPNB ritual building, view from the East.

Note the three standing stones and altar in the centre

(photo by Yousef Zu’bi).

Fig. 6 – LPPNB ritual building with three standing stones built into the eastern wall (drawing by Muwwafaq Bataineh).

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during the LPPNB. Although upright stones integrated into the walls of ritual buildings were first used during the 10th and 9th millennium BC in the region of southeast modern Turkey/Upper Mesopotamia,21 the examples from Turkey differ because they differ in shape and were decorated with carved animal figures (Fig. 7). The only similarity between both groups of standing stones is that they were built into walls of ritual buildings.

At ‘Ayn Ghazal, the only example uncovered in the Central Field was a single upright stone built into an apse of an apsidal building; it was unconnected to any rounded hearth (fireplace) as in the East Field. Nevertheless, it is probable that a hearth was there during the LPPNB period, and was then damaged during the last phase of the Pottery Neolithic period. This destruction probably resulted from the in-filling of the area located in front of the upright stone with limestone boulders (Fig. 2).

At the East Field – ‘Ayn Ghazal, two examples were excavated and consisted of more than one upright stone. In the first case, an orthostat was incorporated in the eastern wall of the building and three others were visible in the western wall. At the mid-way point between both walls where the upright stones were incorporated, a hearth surrounded by seven flat limestone slabs was constructed. In the second case, an altar consisting of three upright stones topped by two flat stones and a hearth was built in front of them.

21. Schmandt-Besserat and Schmidt 2005.

Despite the fact that the upright stones found at ‘Ayn Ghazal are different in shape and style than those uncovered at other sites in the Ancient Near East, they may have the same or similar function in that all were built into ritual buildings. Thus, the excavated upright stones may play an important role in our understanding of the ritual practices of the ‘Ayn Ghazal farming community. The inhabitants of the site may have placed offerings in front of those stones and burned them, as indicated by the hearths.

conclusions

The ‘Ayn Ghazal buildings are interpreted here as family ritual centres.22 In addition to ‘Ayn Ghazal, the site of Tell es-Sultan – ancient Jericho produced one example of a standing stone recovered in a Pre-Pottery Neolithic B level.23

Standing stones, sometimes known as menhirs, were found at sites dating to periods following the Neolithic. For example, several upright stones were encoun-tered at several sites dated to the Early Bronze Age (ca. 3500-2000 BC) in various places in the Ancient Near East, such as Zerqa’ Ma‘in and Adir in Jordan24 and al-Rajajil

22. Rollefson 2005, p. 8.

23. Kenyon 1957.

24. Kafafi and Scheltema 2005, p. 15-19.

Fig. 7 – A ritual building excavated at Göbekli Tepe (Southeast Turkey) (after Schmidt 2005, fig. 2).

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in northern Saudi Arabia.25 Dating the menhirs is problematic and we have only meagre information from surveys. As a result, scholars often correlate the menhirs with masseboth based on Biblical sources (gen. 28:18 and 31; 46-5526).

In addition, excavated upright stones found in Jordan, dated either to the Neolithic or to later periods were intentionally erected and usually undecorated. However, a few of these show carving such as the one orthostat found at ‘Ayn Ghazal (Neolithic) and the so-called al-Hajr al-Mansoub (perhaps Early Bronze Age) (dans ce volume, Scheltema, Fig. 2, p. 50).

It is evident that some of the upright stone (menhirs) complexes that were dated to the Early Bronze Age were

25. Zarins 1977.

26. Manor 1992, p. 602.

found in groups such as those in the Lejjun in Jordan and al-Rajajil in Saudi Arabia. These groupings are also reminiscent of the three standing stone group excavated in the East Field at ‘Ayn Ghazal.

Acknowledgments

Thanks are due to Tara Steimer for inviting me to contribute to the Proceedings of the Megalithic conference, to Yorke Rowan for reading the manuscript and making the necessary remarks, and for Ali Omari, Muwaffaq Bataineh and Yousef Zu’bi for providing the line drawings and the photos included in the text.

GriFFin P. S., GriSSom C. A., RolleFSon G. O. 1998, “Three Late Eight Millennium Plastered Faces from ‘Ain Ghazal, Jordan”, Paléorient 24/1, p 59-71.

KaFaFi Z. A. 1993, “The Yarmoukians in Jordan”, Paléorient 19/1, p. 101-115.

KaFaFi Z. A. 2004, “The ‘Collapse’ of the LPPNB Settlement Organization: The Case of ‘Ain Ghazal”, in H.-D. Bienert, H.-G. K. Gebel and R. Neef (eds.) 1998, Central Settlements in Neolithic Jordan. Studies in Early Near Eastern Production, Subsistence, and Environment 5, Berlin, p. 113-119.

KaFaFi Z. A. 2005, “Stones, Walls and Rituals”, Neo-Lithics 2/05, p. 32-34.

KaFaFi Z. A., RolleFSon G. O. 1994, “ ‘Ain Ghazal 1993-1994”, Biblical Archaeologist 57/4, p. 239-241.

KaFaFi Z. A., RolleFSon G. O. 1995, “The 1994 Season at ‘Ayn Ghazal: Preliminary Report”, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 39, p. 13-29.

KaFaFi Z. A., ScHeltema H. G. 2005, “Megalithic Structures in Jordan”, Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry 5/2, p. 5-22.

Kenyon K. 1957, Digging Up Jericho, London.

Manor D. W. 1992, “Massebah”, in D. N. Freedman, G. A. Herion, D. F. Graf, J. D. Pleins (eds.), The Anchor Bible Dictionary 4, New York, p. 602.

RolleFSon G. O. 1983, “Ritual and Ceremony at Neolithic ‘Ain Ghazal (Jordan)”, Paléorient 9/2, p. 29-38.

RolleFSon G. O. 1986, “Neolithic ‘Ain Ghazal (Jordan): Ritual and Ceremony II”, Paléorient 12/1, p. 45-52.

RolleFSon G. O. 1997, “Changes in Architecture and Social Organization at ‘Ain Ghazal”, in H. G. K. Gebel, Z. A. Kafafi and G. O. Rollefson (eds) 1997, The Prehistory of Jordan II. Perspectives from 1997, Berlin, p. 287-308.

RolleFSon G. O. 1998, “ ‘Ain Ghazal: Ritual and Ceremony III”, Paléorient 24/1, p. 43-58.

RolleFSon G. O. 2000, “Ritual and Social Structure at Neolithic ‘Ain Ghazal”, in I. Kuijt (ed.), Life in Neolithic farming Communities. Social Organization, Identity, and Differentiation. Fundamental Issues in Archaeology, New York, p. 165-190.

RolleFSon G. O. 2005, “Early Neolithic Ritual Centers in the Southern Levant”, Neo-Lithics 2/05, p. 3-12.

RolleFSon G. O., KaFaFi Z. A. 1997, “The 1996 Season at ‘Ayn Ghazal: Preliminary Report”, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 41, p. 27-49.

RolleFSon G. O., KaFaFi Z. A. 2007, “The rediscovery of the Neoli thic Period in Jordan”, in T. E. Levy, P. M. M. Daviau, R. W. Younker and M. Shaer (eds.), Crossing Jordan. North American Contributions to the Archaeology of Jordan, London, p. 211-218.

RolleFSon G. O., ScHmandt-BeSSerat D., RoSe J. C. 1998, “A Decorated Skull from MPPNB ‘Ain Ghazal”, Paléorient 24/2, p 99-105.

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