to be deleted
TRANSCRIPT
論文 ID （記入不要）
とう
1. Introduction(1) Identifying issues
Many Japanese gardens have been built as products of an attraction to things oriental, government public relations in form of expositions, friendship sister city relationship, showing of wealth of individuals and others over the years in the North America as describe by Takeo Uesugi1). He states “even though these initial roles still exist, today the role of public and private Japanese gardens, especially in the North America have expanded beyond landscaping and recreation; they are used in commercial settings, for weddings and events, and for cultural programs for professional medical therapy and more.” There are over 500 Japanese Gardens existing today throughout the world mainly in North America and in Europe. Some of these date well back over a hundred years in history. There are many gardens facing extinction and major changes as it has been taking place in Japan as well due to historical, social and mainly fiscal reasons. But there are a good many Japanese Gardens abroad thriving even today's uncertain time. The author, however, has been observing recurrent problems gardens facing changes in a name of making the gardens adapting to modern requirements and sustainability some of which could be contrary to the soul of Japanese garden and problems.
Many questions as follows have to be answered in countering these problems. These may include: What is Japanese garden in Japan?, and What is Japanese garden abroad? How has Japanese Garden viewed and appreciated by people abroad? Can we define “What is Japanese Garden?” for creating a new Japanese garden in a simple and clear manner for gardens outside of Japan ?. What is an emerging value for Japanese garden in Japan and abroad? What is the future of Japanese Garden abroad?
Takeo Uesugi in 2010 notes about view of Japanese Garden
described by Garrett Eckbo as follows:He never neglected the concept of the Japanese garden either, but challenged the imitation of Japanese Gardens in America. Among many people who were influenced by the Japanese gardens, Isamu Noguchi, Sculptor and Landscape Architect, should be noted as the best person who dedicated himself to contemporary arts by bringing the east together with the west.
This author agrees with view expressed by Eckbo on appreciating and understanding Japanese garden.
Another viewpoint is offered by Makoto Nakamura and Hiromasa Amasaki in “ Creating Landscape” ( Showado Publisher ), 2001, as:
Evolution of Japanese Garden could be broken into three distinctive periods: Learning/Following Nature; Creating Nature and Returning to Nature; and Learning/Following Nature.
For people in the North America, statement or description on Japanese Garden provided by such authors as James Rose2), Garrett Eckbo3), Makoto Nakamura and Hiromasa Amasaki4) to appreciate and understand Japanese Garden, included as above is probably too abstract and symbolic. They need clearer and simpler statement . Most of the people abroad and even a large number of Japanese have a limited understanding of background of Japanese garden in history, culture religion and environment as cited by Osamu Mori5) decade ago.
(2) Objectives and Method of this thesis1) Objectives of this thesis is thus developed as follows:1. Develop definition of Japanese garden abroad based on existing literature and supplemented by a series of surveys and analysis. This definition is to state in a clear and plain manner.
1
北米における日本庭園についての研究：定義とその庭園管理計画と指針作成への適用Study on Japanese Garden in the North America: Definition and Its Application to Development of Management Plan and Guidelines
著者名（和）（採用決定まで記入しないこと） 著者名（英）（採用決定まで記入しないこと）
Abstract: This thesis is written on an ever evolving world of Japanese garden with the following objectives: (1.) To develop simple and clear definition of Japanese garden abroad based on existing works and supplemented by a series of surveys and analysis. (2.) To verify validity of the proposed definition through reviewing the existing gardens and their creation in the North America and employing common and standard criteria. (3)To explore how the definition could be applied to existing and future Japanese Garden in order to maintain or create by sustaining essence of Japanese Garden. The author produced the definition as “Japanese garden is a garden created based on attitude toward nature held by Japanese for “praying”, “healing”, “recreating” and “for pleasure” by abstracting and employing elements and composition of nature to the fullest extent adopted to the surrounding natural environment and intended uses. Exploration to apply the definition for development of garden management plan and guidelines is proposed and a number of cases are studied with a promising result.
Keywords: Japanese Garden, North America, Landscape, Definition, Future, Therapy, Managementキーワード：日本庭園，北米，景観，定義，将来，療養，管理
所属機関名 （ 2 行分を確保し採用決定まで記入しないこと）
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
2. To verify validity of the definition as developed above by reviewing and analyzing the existing gardens in the North America through employing common criteria and standard. 3. To explore how the definition could be applied to existing and future Japanese Garden in order to maintain or create by sustaining essence of Japanese Garden.2) Method of this thesis
In order to achieve the objectives stated above, the following study flow is employed as the method:
Research existing description and definition of Japanese garden; Compare images of Japanese garden; Compare degree of recognition on Japanese garden; Explore linkage between gardens and their images; and Identify or develop description and definition of Japanese garden. Validity of definition is tested on creation of existing gardens and a process of applying this definition is studied.
(3) Study on the existing literature
Literature as listed below by authors written mostly in English or translated from Japanese are reviewed and their relevance to stated objectives of this thesis is identified.
Takeo Uesugi1), James Rose2),Garrett Eckbo3), Makoto Nakamura4), Hiromasa Nakamura4), Osamu Mori5), Tsuyoshi Tamaura6), Isao Yoshikawa7), Jiro Harada8), Masao Hayakawa9), Sadao Hibi10), Stemi Horiguchi11), Kazuhiko Mizuno12), Kinsaku Nakane13), Haruzo Ohashi14), Kanto Shigemori15), Gisei Takakuwa16), Norman Carver17), Tadahiko Higuchi19), Gunter Nitschke19), Joseph Cali20), Teiji Ito21), Joe Earl22), Jiro Takei23), Seiko Goto24), David Slawson25), Marc Keane26), Makoto Suzuki27), Motomi Oguchi28), Philip Cave29), Joseph Condor30), Kiyoshi Seike32), Koichi Kobayashi33), Bruce Wiggigton34), Yukio Yashiro35). Chisato Shigemori36), Johan Kraftner37), Isoya Shinji38), Norihisa Okada39), Shunmyo Masuno40), Clair Cooper Marcus41), Molley Furgeson42), Jeff Burton43), Koichi Kobayashi44), Makoto Nakamura45)
Based on focus of respective publication and their relevance to stated objectives of this thesis, this author classified these literatures into the following categories: General Illustration, History and Design Methodology and Principles. Respective literatures are listed in the reference section for details.
General Introduction and Illustration: (Tamura,Tsuyoshi), ( Isao Yoshikawa), ( Jiro Harada), (Masao
Hayakawa ), (Sadao Hibi), (Sutemi Horiguchi and Y. Kojiro), (Katsuhiko Mizuno and John Bester), (Kinsaku Nakane), (Haruzo Ohashi), (Kanto Shigemori), (Gisei Takakuwa and Kiichi Asano ), (Norman Carver), (Tadahiko Higuchi),. (Gunter Nitschke), (Joseph Cali), (Teiji Ito), (Ralph Fiedrich & Masajiro Shimamura), (Joe Earle) (Shinmyo Masuno)
History and Theory: (Takeo Uesugi), (James Rose), (Makoto Nakamura and Amasaki,
Hiromasa), (Osamu Mori), (Jiro Takei and Marc P. Keane), (Seiko Goto), (Koichi Kobayashi), (Bruce Wiggigton), (Yukio Yashiro), Kanto Shigemeori), (Johan Kraftner), (Isoya Shinji),
(Norihisa Okada), (Jeff Burton)
Design-Methodology ( David A Slawson ), (Marc P Keane ), (Makoto Suzuki)
Design-Practice: (Motomi Oguchi), (Philip Cave,), (Josiah Gander,), (Marc P
Keane,)., (Kiyoshi Seike, Masanobu Kudo and David H. Engel), (Clair Cooper Marcus,), (Molley Furgeson), (Koichi Kobayashi),(Makoto Nakamura)
From this study on the existing literature, it is apparent that most of the publications are focused on general introduction of Japanese garden and there is a fairly limited publication in discussing on the essence of Japanese Garden, design methodology and definition in English, thus it is determined that there is a need for further exploration.
2. Overview of Japanese Garden in Japan and in the North America(1) Overview of Japanese Garden in Japan To provide an the overview of the existing literature, the following table illustrating change and garden style overtime is developed for ease of understanding and comparison. Regarding the origin of Japanese Garden, Norihisa Okada (2008) states it as follows:
But with native Japanese view on nature, Japanese explored in bringing their own ideas in garden building which is different that of Chinese and Korean. Basis for this extension rises adopting to change in architecture and in religion and thought. Together with these considerations, by condensing and symbolizing nature, Japanese Garden of complexity, density and image ability is developed.
(Table 1) Evolution of Japanese Garden
(2) Overview of Japanese Garden in the North AmericaTakeo Uesugi1) gives overview of Japanese Garden in the
North America covering the period of the late 19th century as part of an active cultural and political exchange between the two countries’ government, which continued well into the World War II era and after World War II, the political pressures of war were lifted from the American country and paved the
2
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
way for a more cultural and aesthetic appreciation of Japanese Gardens and t he Japanese Garden movement after the WWII remained strong due to the contributions of the Issei people, the efforts of the new generation (Shin Issei) allowed for continued cultural exchange and collaboration between Japan and America.
Notable omission from his overview is any reference to those Japanese gardens created at Manzanar (National Historic Site) in California. This thesis describes this group of gardens from Manzanar, California in detail in the later section.
Following table is developed to illustrate relationship among garden’s historical period, primary garden use, garden style and representative gardens specifically in the North America.
(Table 2) Relationship among garden’s
(3) Development of Japanese gardens in the North AmericaThe following describes how some of the Japanese Gardens in
the North America are created after 1940 and it also briefs on intent of design. Gardens examined include the following: Nitobe Memorial Garden, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, Osaka Garden in Chicago’s Jackson Park, Japanese Garden at Bloedel Reserve, The Kubota Garden, Seattle, Seattle Japanese Garden, Japanese Gardens at Manzanar National Historic Site.1) Nitobe Memorial Garden, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
The garden honors Inazo Nitobe (1862-1933) whose goal was “to become a bridge across the Pacific.” A place of reflection, where each step reveals a new harmony, the garden is designed to suggest a span of time – a day, a week or a lifetime – with a beginning, choice of paths, and ending. The construction of both the Nitobe Memorial Garden and the Seattle Japanese Garden occurred around the same time allowing for collaboration between the two designers, Professor Mori and Juki Iida, and it is likely that this camaraderie enhanced the final products.2) Osaka Garden in Chicago’s Jackson Park
The construction of the Osaka Garden was made possible through a cooperation with Japan and the City of Osaka. In 1893, near the garden’s present site, the Government of Japan funded the construction of a three-fifths scale replica of the Phoenix Pavilion. The pavilion was very popular and even influenced the later works of the prairie-style of Frank Lloyd Wright. The Phoenix Pavilion underwent restoration and a
formal Japanese stroll garden was added to the site to prepare for the World Industrial Exposition in 1934. Paintings from that time show construction of the present peninsula, nakashima, moon bridge, waterfall, and a path leading from the pavilion to the pond.
(Fig.1) Osaka (Phoenix Garden )3) The Kubota Garden, Seattle :The core of the present day
Kubota Garden consists of a traditional hill and pond Japanese garden, the Necklace of Ponds, and the Mountainside, and is lush and rich with mature plant specimens native to both the Pacific Northwest and Japan.4) Japanese Garden at Bloedel Reserve, Washington
The Japanese stroll garden at Bloedel Reserve is made up of various components constructed at different times by different people. The garden diverges from strict aesthetic principles to create an amalgam of different spaces that blend native Northwest culture, design, and plantings with Japanese gardening traditions. The result appeals to the Japanese sensibilities of harmony with nature, tranquility and simplicity.
The overall design reflects the concept of a stroll garden with intermittent appearing and disappearing views along the path, and with an asymmetrical balance in the placement of stones and plantings.5) Entry Rock Garden at the Kubota Garden, Seattle
Design Intent at Kubota Garden Entrance Court: 1. Function: Welcome and reception ; 2.Fusion of : Japan/Shikoku (TsurugiSan Mountain to the Inland Sea) and USA/Northwest( Cascade Mountain to the Puget Sound); Abstract and Symbolism: Paradise--- Mountain and Sea, Philosophy----Longevity, Happiness and wealth, Historical: KurumaYose at Katsura Imperial Villa, Rock Setting at Ritsurin Koen, Rock Setting at SaihoJi Temple, Cobble Beach at Sento Gosho.
(Fig 2) Kubota Garden Entrance Stone Garden
6) Seattle Japanese Garden, SeattleThere was no direct reference to any specific Japanese
garden in his statement of design intent and in articles written later by Juki Iida. However, Professor Makoto Suzuki of Tokyo Agricultural University has started looking into a connection between the Seattle Japanese Garden and the Horai
3
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
En Garden from Edo period. The Horai En Garden existed at the site of the Matsuura Clan family residence built during the Edo period. Kiyoshi Inoshita, in his capacity as director of Metro Tokyo Parks, vigorously campaigned to preserve the pond in the 1930’s: unfortunately his effort to save it was not rewarded. Only a small portion of the pond of the HouRaiEnn remains today. Fig. 3 presents history of this garden.
Intent of design as written by Kiyoshi Inoshita is stated as follows:
The flow of water, which originated in the high mountain ranges, transforms itself as it continues its way through the landscape; first turning into a waterfall, then into a stream washing the bank by a tea hut, and finally becoming a lake. There are numerous features at the lake shore, such as a rock promontory, an inlet, and steep slopes through which water continues on its way, until it reaches a village (an image of the village is symbolically represented by a cherry grove, iris paddies, and a moon viewing hill). At the village, there appears an island connected to the shore by two different bridges. At the end of the lake is a stone-paved boat launch, which symbolically represents a fishing village. There, the water disappears from one’s sight, leaving the expectation that it will be flowing into the ocean.
(Fig 3) Seattle Japanese Garden
7) Japanese Gardens at Manzanar National Historic SiteManzanar National Hitoric Site has the largest concentration
of Japanese gardens in the North America. These were constructed during World War II years (1942-45), by Japanese and Japanese Americans interned during those time. A number of these gardens have been archeologically excavated and some notable gardens have been restored. National Park Services developed “Garden Management Plan, 2015” by Jeffrey Burton 43) for guiding further excavation and restoration. Most of the gardens were created based on their memories of gardens that they visited while in Japan or seen somewhere else. A number
of these garden possesses spirit and elements frequently found in Japanese Garden. These gardens were built to please, entertain, provide space for repose and for healing to them selves.
3. Revealing characteristics of the Japanese Garden: Spirituality and Symbolism, Design with Nature and Dynamic Balance in the Japanese Garden
Asymmetric beauty, special characteristic of the Japanese Garden achieved through uneven triangle composition and spirituality and symbolism are the essence of Japanese garden. They are elaborated in order to provide deeper understanding of subjects.(1) Spirituality and Symbolism1) Writing by Brooks E.Wigginton
In describing spirituality and symbolism found in Japanese garden, Wigginton34) stated as follows:
When it comes to garden art, there is also, of course, great difference from our own. The cultural framework, with which this was developed was unique, producing something very foreign – and very precious. Its attraction and fascination are undeniable, but when we try to capture the essence of this charm, it is likely o elude us. It is to do with appreciating and understanding the older Japanese life and culture.
2) Writing by Seiko GotoIn her book “Japanese Gardens: Symbolism and Design”,
2016, she stated the following24) :Therefore it is not possible to truly appreciate the Japanese Garden without knowing its symbolic meanings. This book will introduce the various symbolisms of the Japanese garden through its themes, land form, elements and maintenance to enable readers to truly enjoy theses cultural treasures.Themes include: Shinto and nature (Ocean, River, Mountain), The influence of continental culture and Buddhism ( Idea of Pure Land, Zen Buddhism), Literature and meisho (Japanese poems and waka, Chinese poetry and Confucianism, Stories), and Tea ceremony (Wabi and Sabi, Soan Tea House, The Tea Garden).
It should be noted that there are thousands of visitors and users from Japan and from abroad who are not familiar with these symbolisms yet they are enjoying and appreciating with their own means. What are they and what are they finding in Japanese garden? Author agrees with the statement by Goto for appreciating historical gardens in Japan, but there is a significant question on how to create and appreciate Japanese gardens abroad and they should be explored..(2) Designing with Nature
Following two sections illustrate author’s view on revealing characteristics of Japanese Garden.
In contrast to the Western gardens, Japanese gardens are generally called as "Natural and Scenic Garden". However, this term does not help one when it comes to designing such a garden, since the term describes the overall effect of the design but not the steps involved in designing it, such as the designers conception and grasp of nature. One is exemplified in Furuta
4
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
Ayabe's and Kobori Enshu's design at Katsura Imperial Villa and the other described in "Sakutei-Ki" an old Japanese textbook on garden design. Katsura Imperial Villa is certainly a natural scenic garden compared to an obviously geometric garden such as Garden of Versaille. However, within the garden, Katsura has distinct instances of manmade, features…(3) Japanese Garden of Dynamic Balance
A Japanese garden always tries to achieve dynamic balance. When it is the first installed, the designer aims for his version of dynamic balance in the garden. As a viewer is engaged in contemplation and appreciation of the garden, changes needed to achieve the dynamic balance become apparent.
4. Comparison of Japanese Garden with the Western GardenThis section attempts to view the Japanese Garden from
global perspective first by raising questions and second by quoting current researcher's perspectives on the Japanese garden.(1) Key Words related to Japanese Gardens Abroad: Evolution of Japanese Garden
The following key words have been developed by the author to help facilitate an open discussion at a time of round table, forum the Fourth International Symposium on Japanese Gardens, 2004.1) Garden Styles in the World: What makes the difference? What style of gardens are there in the world? Is Japanese Garden distinctively different from other gardens of the world? In what way is it unique? As compared to: English Scenery Garden, French Garden, Italian Garden, Moorish Garden, Chinese Garden and Modern Contemporary Garden.2) Images of Japanese Garden: What is the living image? Which Japanese Garden do you remember the most? What makes them so memorable? Example of gardens include: Katsura Imperial Villa at ShokinTei Suhama, Shugakuin Imperial Villa at Zokuryu Ike and Borrowed Scenery, RyuAnJi at Stone Set and Earthen Wall, Tofukuji HoJyoTeiEn, Kyoto, Daitokuji at Tokai Ann, Murin Ann, Koutouin at Daitokuji, Suzakuno Niwa, Rikugienn, SeiFuuKaiKan, Tokyo, Ikebukuro Central Park, and Shin Umeda City, Chuu Uchuu Garden, Osaka3) Spirit of Japanese Garden: What are two distinctive principles of the Japanese Garden? They could consist of : 1. Primary Principles: Asymmetrical (dynamic) balance with natural lines, juxtaposed with geometric form, Symbolism- Naturalism, Shintoism, Buddhism and Tea Ceremony and 2. Secondary Principles: Use of Natural Materials, Use of Traditional/historical Garden Structures and Ornaments.4) Direction of Japanese Gardens Abroad*What is the future directions of Japanese Gardens Abroad? *Contemporary design direction as seen in: Shunmyo Masuno, Naoe Suzuki, Ohashi Takashi, Yoji Sasaki, Shigemori Mirei, Isamu Noguchi, and Ueji* Adoptation of Local Environment as seen in: David Slawson, Martin Mosko, Robert Murase and Hoichi Kurisu
(2) Description by Scholar of ArtThe following illustrates how Japanese garden has been
described and defined by scholar of art and garden researchers with global perspectives.
Yukio Yashiro35) compares Japanese Garden with western garden as follows:
Japanese Garden is truly in natural style while western garden presents very formal man made organization as illustrated in Italian and French Garden. Contrasting to English Scenery (natural) Garden which present a part of nature, the Japanese Garden is not just a copy of the nature but symbolization of the nature by use of plants, rocks, earth mound and water.
Chisato Shigemori36), a garden designer and researcher states that
A major feature when compared to the Japanese garden and Western garden Japanese garden is a natural sobering of stone and wood ...Irregular form of asymmetry has been expressed in the ocomposition... On the other hand in the western garden, even thogh flowers and green are frequently used as a basis for design, it is a symmetrical beauty with green inlaid into geometrical form.by processing the natural artificially...
In describing Japanese Garden in his book “The Elegant Garden: Architecture and Landscape of the world’s finest gardens”, Johann Kraftner37) stated that
If European garden is a reflection of paradise expression of an imaginary order of the next world that appears to the various cultural and societal requirements, then the garden of the Far East in China and Japan is a reflection of nature of the country's own landscapes... “Spiritual” is the term often applied to describe the real meaning of Japanese gardens.
5. Essence of Japanese Garden(1) Experiencing Japanese Garden
Author recalled two occasions when he found a sensation of experiencing Japanese Garden: one at a time entering into the forest of high country in Yosemite and the second when visiting a private residential garden designed by James Rose in Ridgewood, New Jersey. The garden did not have any trimmings of traditional Japanese Garden but there was a spirit. What were there that the author felt? Understanding of Japanese garden at that time by the author was limited as compared to today. Author must have relied mostly on his spatial and aesthetic sensitivity on landscape space as much the same way as Professor Garrett Eckbo explained his way of (2) Fourth International Symposium on Japanese Garden, Seattle 2004
In 2004, the Fourth International Japanese Garden Symposium in Seattle was held with the following statement:
Japanese Gardens in today’s Japan face many critical issues: the foremost being how to preserve and maintain historical gardens. The second is how to adapt the spirit of the Japanese gardens to the ever changing modern Japanese society: its space for gardens is diminishing and people’s beliefs, thoughts and tastes on the Japanese gardens have changed from historical times.
Prior to the symposium, a survey described in the previous section was conducted to help guiding the discussion on Japanese garden.
5
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
Following presents representative responses from this survey:Five Most Memorable Japanese Gardens and their reasons:*Katsura rikyu (the ultimate hide-and-reveal stroll garden
with features of the roji on a massive scale; excellent relation of structures to garden; great use of paths to indicate levels of formality)
*Ryoanji sekitei (the ultimate in physical reduction and metaphysical implication)
*Kiyomizudera Joju'in (great illusion of space in intimate setting)
*Adachi bijutsukan (spectacular adaptation of pre-modern elements to modern setting; great contrasts in form, color and texture; superior use of shakkei)
*Anderson Japanese Garden (creative, high-quality adaptation of traditional Japanese garden features to modern, American environment; mastery of intimate space and bold vistas).(3) Survey on Essence of Japanese Garden 2014 Author had developed the following survey in order to attempt to identify essence of Japanese Garden before the 2014 NAJGA conference and mailed them to potential Japanese respondents and other friends. Survey included the following questions: At Japanese Garden, there exists following characteristic as
contrasted to other gardens in Europe, America, and others: A. It is naturalistic in space, form and texture. B. It is curve linear in form and shape. C. It recalls natural scenery ( famous/historical location). D. It recalls religious teaching etc. E. It is symbolic/miniature. F. It has dynamic balance and asymmetry. G. When entering a garden, it does not reveal whole.. H. It contains traditional landscape furnishing such as lantern, bridge etc. I. It consists of traditional landscape elements such as earth, water and feature vegetation. J. It heals your soul and mind.
Result of the survey is included in Table 5 in the following section
6. Existing description and definition of Japanese GardenA number of new publications and studies on Japanese garden
have been published since 2004. Some of those have tried to answer questions listed in the 2004 survey.
North American Japanese garden Association (NAJGA) was established in 2010 by those for who shares an interest in the field of Japanese garden. NAJGA states its purpose is for sustainability of the Japanese garden in the North America. However no description as to what is the field of Japanese garden nor definition of Japanese garden is included.
A number of existing literature on Japanese garden by such authors as Osamu Mori5), Teiji Ito21), Isoya Shinji38) and Makoto Suzuki27) have been researched. However most of the publications have not given a clear insight to questions raised prior to the symposium and they were written for Japanese readers only and they had not been well publicized and understood by people abroad. In his book “The Gardens of Japan, 1984, Teiji Ito defined traditional Japanese garden as “a recreation of idealized nature” and “a kind of spatial art in outdoor environment”.
Shinji Isoya wrote about Japanese garden in “Gardens of Japan, 2005” as the following: Japanese Garden is a group of
gardens having Japanese style characteristics. Naturally one can find individualism in design and style depending on social characteristic of the periods needs for the garden and varying climate, culture, materials of each location. Despite of this diversity, gardens maintain to hold feeling of Japanese garden. Then he questioned why one can group these diverse gardens into one category under Japanese Garden. He concluded by saying the main reason for it exist in “appreciation of nature” and ‘acceptance of nature as is” Lately there has been diverse definition of Japanese Garden presented on internet world. For example , Wikipedia shows as follows: Japanese gardens are traditional gardens that create miniature idealized landscapes, often in a highly abstract and stylized way. The gardens of Emperors and nobles are designed for recreation, and aesthetic pleasure, while the gardens for Buddhist temples were designed for contemplation and meditation. One website (www.torapi.fc2web.com/teien.htm), summarizes it as follows: “Different from western garden, major characteristics of Japanese garden are showing creation by curbing lines and asymmetry. It is because Japanese garden bases its design on
Although Japanese gardens have been presenting many different styles over time, “Soul or Spirit of Japanese garden” exists in adoration and appreciation of the nature and innovation responding to environment and needs of period at time of creation and fostering.
Gardens in Japan could be grouped into the following:* Japanese traditional style garden: most representative gardens in Japan till the end of Edo period with Daimyou Garden as culmination of Japanese garden to that period’* Japanese Garden: including Japanese traditional style garden and all gardens expressing “Soul or spirit of Japanese garden” after Edo periods.
This definition is applicable to Japanese gardens in Japan The following questions still remain: Does this definition fit to Japanese gardens abroad? In order to find some clues to answers to the first question on soul or spirit of Japanese garden or definition for it , “The Image and View of Japanese Gardens in the minds of Westerners, 1997”, written by Makoto Suzuki 27), is reviewed. In his writing, he started with defining the word “ Japanese garden” and he studied the following: Identify how information on Japanese gardens were transmitted to westerners, Identify how their views were formed and factors in forming views and images and Conduct survey on recognition and images of Japanese gardens by
He stated his finding as westerners exhibiting more mental image and sensitivity by stating quietness, greenery, peace, quietness and nature in contrast to cognitive image of such elements of Japanese garden composition as stone and pond by domestic Japanese respondents.
7. Comparison of Image of Japanese Garden(1) Comparative study on image of Japanese Garden.
This section compares findings from Makoto Suzuki ‘s study with surveys conducted by this author in 2004 and 20014 on images of Japanese Garden. Results from these surveys are compared in table as presented below.1) “The Image and View of Japanese Gardens in the minds
6
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
8080
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
of Westerners, 1997”, Makoto Suzuki i27),Chapter Six of Suzuki’s study report covers “Study of degree
of recognition on Japanese gardens by westerners residing in Japan”. This study was based on showing a series of photos of Japanese gardens. As a summary of the study, it lists words most frequently associated with Japanese Gardens.2)“Survey conducted at the Fourth Symposium of International Japanese Garden, 2004”, by this author.
A request was sent to all 200participants of the symposium to name five most memorable Japanese gardens and cite their reasons for selection. No photographs were included in this survey. Over 30, mostly adult American professionals replied.3) “Survey conducted after the second annual conference of North American Japanese Garden Association, 2014.” by this author.
Following request was sent to more than 50 Japanese garden professionals and students in Japan. They included gardeners from Uyeya Kato and Araki landscape Companies, students from Kyoto University, Osaka Prefecture University and Kyoto Gakuin University. From reasons that respondents stated, the author treated them to be as their images and view of the gardens in the following table. A sample photograph of seven gardens were included in this survey.(2) Result of Survey on the Image of Japanese Garden
The following table illustrates and compares the result of three surveys.
(Table 3) Result of surveys compared
(3) Findings and Conclusion of this sectionWords presented in the table above in Suzuki’s study came
from westerners. Suzuki noted as a part of his study that Japanese contrary to selection by westerners, selected such words as pond, lantern, etc. which describe elements of gardens more. Words selected by westerners cover more mental image they hold from Japanese garden. Respondents of this author’s survey were all Japanese, but most of them had some level of familiarity and understanding of Japanese garden prior to the surveys.
Following is a conclusion based on these surveys and comparison:
There are two levels of words most closely associated with Japanese garden; Level 1: words presenting mental images: serenity, simplicity, intimacy, naturalness, spirituality and healing soul.and Level 2: words describing composition of garden: borrowed scenery, building and garden relationship, history.
8. Survey on the Proposed Japanese Garden in Washington DC
In order to expand and supplement surveys on image of Japanese garden, the following survey is conducted in 2016. This survey is intended to capture image on Japanese garden by members of the “Japanese Garden Committee for Washington DC”. Mission of the committee is to develop an authentic Japanese Garden in Washington DC, without any commitment to location and design at this writing.(1) Survey distributed includes:
Survey of Garden Images; Even though we do not a site and preconceived image for our future Japanese Garden in Washington DC, this is the first step toward our goal; Following lists 57 images of various Japanese Gardens. Could you please select 10 images that you feel most appropriate for a future Japanese Garden in Washington DC? Please send me numbers attached to images. You could also send three other images of your favorite , please send me images, name and location of your gardens.(2) Result and Analysis of Survey
Based on this request, members responded with the following result as shown in table and figure.
(Table 4) Result of Survey
(3) Establishing Image of our Japanese Garden for Washington DC.
(Fig 4) Images for Washington DC(4) Conclusion of this section
7
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
Fifty seven images of wide range of Japanese Gardens are included in this survey. As representing tea garden style is difficult in a photo, no stand alone tea garden is included in this survey. Because of this respondents voted most favorably on water/hill/pond and kare sansui style garden as their choice for their image of Japanese Garden.
9. Comparison of Degree of Recognition on Japanese GardenThis section compares degree of how people recognizes
Japanese garden : as exhibited in the following publications and a survey this author conducted:(1) Research on the existing literature
The following existing notable literature and source are reviewed and compared:A. “The Image and View of Japanese Gardens in the minds of
Westerners, 1997” Makoto Suzuki (Most of the respondents are not garden professionals and some are not familiar with the Japanese Garden.)
B. “Gardens of Japan: Beginning, 2008Kazuhisa Okada 39), (Author listed gardens with deep personal association and affection)
C. “Gardens of Japan: Skill and craftsmanship and spirit” 2010, Shinji Isoya38), (Author tries to present the most representative Japanese Gardens historically and geographically.)
D. “Survey conducted at the second annual conference of North American Japanese Garden Association, 2014.” Koichi Kobayashi (Most of the respondents are Japanese Garden Professionals from the western parts of Japan) .
E. “Listing of Japanese Gardens” 2014, Internet website www.Japan-Guide.com (This site is oriented toward tourism.)
(2) Result of the survey and comparisonFollowing gardens are cited as top 10-30 gardens by literature
and source as listed above :
(Table 5) Highly rated Gardens
Following gardens of fame are also cited . High lighted gardens
are cited more than twice in respective survey.
(Table 6) Gardens cited secondary
(3) Findings and Conclusion of this sectionThis comparison is made to identify if there is any common
threads among those cited by different individuals and agency. Common thread may exist in: Most frequently cited garden, Common garden style, Common garden design vision or composition, Common aesthetic characteristics and Common abstraction quality
The following gardens are most commonly and frequently listed.(Table 9) Most frequently listed gardens
10. Exploring linkage between gardens and their images(1) Linkage between gardens and images.
Based on gardens frequently listed in a number of publications andsurveys, and images (words) identified , the following tables were developed to attempt to seek linkages between them.
8
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
(Table 8) Linkage between gardens and image
This table indicates linkage between gardens as appeared in literature and description of image as supplemented by this author.
(Table 9) Link with Image
Table below identifies styles of garden associated with images and specific garden. From this table, it is evident that most of the gardens with distinctive image are associated with pond/hill and tea garden as their feature theme.
(Table 10) identification of garden style
(2) Conclusion of this sectionTable -10 supplements previous table by adding probable
linkages. The author revisited listed gardens and identified significant quality in the gardens and connect them with images listed. This process verifies validity of image
11. Reading the LandscapeThe "Book of Gardening-Sakutei Ki" stated that reading the
local landscape and adapting design to it is one of the design principles. This section describes how local landscape influenced the design of Japanese garden by presenting a sample from Shinshuu (Nagano) regions of Japan and then how to read landscape from two publications by the author.(1) Gardens in Shinshuu
Motomi Oguchi, 2011 in his book “Japanese Gardens in ShinnShuu”, surveyed Japanese gardens in this region and described natural and social conditions of the region and design characteristics of gardens in the respective region. The following table summarizes his findings. His finding clearly indicates a linkage between local environment and style of garden. (Table 11) Gardens in Shinshu
9
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
(Fig 5) Shinshuu Region
(2) Reading the Landscape: CaliforniaThere is a need to read the landscape-environment to adapt
the design of Japanese garden to it. Author produced a Masters thesis,1972 where he developed forest landscape analysis method based on map information and on-site survey as illustrated below.
(Fig 6) Forest Landscape
(3) Reading the Landscape: Central OhioBased on this method, the author conducted research "Visual
component: Environmental Analysis of Central Ohio", 1975 with the following objectives: Overall objective of the analysis is to provide base information to guide future study and to reveal tradeoffs and optimum choices for the environmental quality objectives in land planning.
This research identified distinguishable landscape unit areas-local landscape which could be a base for designing for parks and landscape design projects including Japanese Garden for the
Central Ohio region.
(Fig 7) Central Ohio(4) Reading the Landscape
These case studies are conducted at macro scale. Adaptation to micro scale is yet to be explored. Method described in this section should be further refined and could be applied for design process on Japanese garden.12. Modern Japanese Garden
The following are two articles providing us with some perspective into the future of Japanese Garden. The first is by Norihisa Okada39), “From garden to city and back again to garden”;
Some people begin to realize that there is something lacking in public landscape. This might have been a cause of current gardening boom for healing of soul and mind. There also is a movement to revive significance of ecological thinking in urban planning. However the resulted environment often does not have a clear form from design stand point.
The second is a statement by Shomyo Masuno40) in his book, “The Modern Japanese Garden” :
More generally, I can see Japanese gardeners and architects responding to the changing needs of people in our society. The density of urban housing and the lack of private space are special modern problems. In some ways, I’m afraid, we Japanese lead the world in this respect, which places on us a responsibility to deal with it spiritually, and that for me is the key role of a garden.
They point to direction of responding to environmental concerns and spirituality which should be reflected in drafting a proposed definition.
13. Evolution of the Japanese Garden: Emerging value of Japanese Garden for the future and in Healing and (1) Evolution of the Japanese Garden
Professor Takeo Uesugi of California Polytechnique University, Pomona stated the following regarding the future of Japanese Garden.
In the past centuries, we have experienced a marvelous propagation of Japanese Gardens outside of … Furthermore, the strong presence and influence of today’s Japanese Gardens has permeated many aspects of our contemporary society, including landscape industry, spirituality, art, and culture. …We now come to understand that while Japanese Gardens have been
10
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
shaped by a rich history grounded in Japanese culture, it is, at the same time, not bound by these time honored traditions. ..The future of Japanese Gardens must transcend our current understanding of this traditional art form as we seek to expand our perspectives of what a Japanese Garden is, and can be…
Use of Japanese Garden has been evolving over centuries. Professor Brooke E. Wiggigton34) states it as follows:
Western gardens have always been places for social gatherings, from the beginnings in the patio of Egypt and Rome to Verseilles and the “outdoor living room. There is evidence that earlier gardens were designed for entertaining. But religious involvement of 14th to 17th centuries, with emphasis on solitude, withdrawal and contemplation as purpose for the garden have been responsible for peculiar individual developments which constitute a unique contribution to Garden Art.
(2) Why is Japanese Garden valuable for healing, restoration and therapy?
Expressing majorities of images (quality and value) as identified in the previous section as serenity, spirituality, miniature, intimacy and naturalness, all resonate with what contemporary healing and therapeutic garden is looking for.
The following lists four articles on healing and therapeutic as they relates to Japanese Garden. In earlier study on healing value of gardens, Clare Cooper Marcus41) writes some aspects of Japanese Garden as it relates to healing garden. Marcus writes that “while zen garden style has not been observed or studied in a medical setting, the stillness of nature and the contemplative components of this classic design have provided a healing benefit for centuries.”
Another author Molly Furgeson42) of University of Minnesota, stated:
With the advances in medical technology in the 20th century, the use of gardens as healing elements began to diminish. Fortunately with the recent interest in complementary and alternative therapies, which emphasizes healing the whole person… the interest in garden as healer has been revived. Research has shown the therapeutic benefits of gardens.
Japanese Garden Journal (2016) cited that Recent research projects conducted at institutions such as the University of Michigan and Texas A&M prove that it is entirely possible to psychologically if not physically rejuvenate the spirit. This concept is not the new one in Japan for a garden windows and sensitive living room designs have been rejuvenating families for centuries. Heather Blum advances Hidden Gardens and the application of Japanese garden to medical facilities. …Garden indoors can accelerate recovery after injury illness or surgery.
North American Japanese Garden Association 2016 Conference states that:
Japanese gardens offer unique perspectives on the growing global movement that seeks to understand the therapeutic value of nature-based settings. How can we best utilize Japanese gardens for practical
applications in mainstream and alternative medicine…Most of the authors presented above state that there is a
strong and even evolving linkage between the Japanese Garden and healing-therapeutic garden today and tomorrow.(3) Value of Japanese Garden in creation: historical and current
There are two historical and current gardens which verify how significant healing and therapeutic value they provide even in creating Japanese Gardens. They are Japanese Gardens at Japanese Internment Camp Site at Manzanar and Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami Recovery and Prayer Japanese 1) Japanese Gardens at Japanese Internment Camp Site at Manzanar, California
Jeff Burton43) the Cultural Resource Manager, Archeologyst at Manzanar National Historic Site writes , 2015:
…historical and archaeological data have uncovered a different aspect of the internment: a resurgence of Japanese cultural traditions, including the creation of Japanese gardens.
From the facts expressed in a number of documents including Master Plan for the Site (2016), gardens illustrates significance and values in their building them, appreciating them and getting healing and still in restoring them in cultural inheritance. A number of studies has identified their healing values to those interned at the camp.
(Fig 8) Manzanar N.H.S.
2) Creating A Garden of Remembrance And Beyond In Tohoku:
Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami Recovery and Prayer Japanese Garden.
This Japanese garden has been built to commemorate those who have been affected by the 2011 Tohoku disaster and transition to recovery. Just the experience of building it together has been an inspirational and healing. (4) Healing and Therapeutic Garden and Japanese Garden
As a conclusion of this section it is not an over statement that the Japanese Garden has characteristic and qualities which are the central to contemporary healing-therapeutic garden
11
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
7070
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
which is a new and emerging field of future of Japanese Garden abroad and in Japan as well.
14. Definition of Japanese Garden (Proposed )(1) Defining Japanese Garden
The following lists a number of viewpoints expressed by different authors: James Rose told that “of course, you can hav a real Japanese garden…all you have to do is be Japanese…but you wouldn’t like that.. they see things differently and you see things they do not see…that may surprise you, but you see things they do not see and theses things keep interfering and you won’t give them up…you won’t give up anything. ..that is the way you are…and the Japanese can’t see it that way. …….” in “Garden Makes Me Laugh” (Silvermine Publisher, Inc, 1965). This thesis started initially to counter the statement above by James Rose with an assumption that a development of simplified definition of Japanese Garden and accompanying design method/process is possible. In preparing for this thesis, the author interviewed several scholars of Japanese Gardens, in Japan during 2015. Responses ranged from a very simple one to a very complex one.
Professor Seiko Goto, formerly of Rutgers University, now with University of Nagasaki, responded that the Japanese Garden is “The space to symbolize bigger nature by depicting beauty from its element”. Doctor Makoto Nakamura, Professor Emeritus of Kyoto University noted that “The Japanese garden is too complex to define it simply.” However, he previously stated “Japanese garden is symbolic miniature garden in contrast to realistic scenery garden of England44).
Because these responses represent the ends of the spectrum, it is clear that more work should be done on defining Japanese gardens, these multidimensional artistic, philosophical, historical and practical places of beauty. To that end, the author of this paper has conducted personal interviews, performed research, and gathered his own personal thoughts on the definition of a Japanese garden. Based on these, author is proposing to define a Japanese Garden abroad simply and clearly as follows:
Japanese garden is a garden created based on attitude toward nature held by Japanese, and created for “praying”, “healing” , “recreating” and “for pleasure, by scaling, abstracting and employing elements and composition of nature to the fullest extent, adopted to the surrounding natural environment and intended uses.
The author believes a Japanese garden must be a created space where people will be engulfed by nature, leading them to deep personal contemplation. Contrasted with western style gardens, the Japanese garden has characteristics which lead the visitor to appreciate nature, history and artistry.
In addition to the definition, the designer must be guided by the following principles of design:
In designing a Japanese garden, one should compose the landscape with a deep understanding of purpose of garden and respect for creative and innovative ideas. One should create this landscape composition which represents the natural coast, deep mountains and streams Natural materials as earth, water, rocks and plants which fit to local environment will be utilized. Man made structures such as stone lantern could be added as accent in
landscape. The Garden must be fostered and maintained with deep understanding of ecological basics and artistic.(2) Application of the definition in preparing Japanese Garden Management Plan and Guidelines1) Method
Author has developed the following process to apply the Japanese Garden Definition in preparing Management Plan: 1. Identify the present condition of a garden and existing garden management plan. 2. Review the existing document on describing the garden. 3. Prepare new/updated description of the garden in a simple and clear manner. 4. Prepare a management plan covering mission statement. All this process shall be executed in consultation with representatives of all stake holders.
2) Case study on ShouFuSou Japanese Garden, Pennsylvania Shofuso Japanese Garden (FJHG) in Fairmont
Park is selected as a case study garden to examine the process as proposed in this section. The following is the existing description and design intent of the garden:
Built in 1958 by Sano Tansai and installed by the city…
Momoyama era strolling garden …Most stones and statuary brought from Japan for
garden…Renovated in 1976 by Nakajima and associates…
Existing Management and Mission Statement Currently evaluating scope of renovations Friends of the Japanese House and Garden states the following in their Policy Statement (draft 2013):FJHG’s mission is “to preserve, present, and interpret Shofuso, a Japanese house and garden.” With this Preservation Policy, the board of directors establishes the standards for conserving, maintaining and preserving the house, gardens, and collections. FJHG commits to use the 1957 Tansai Sano landscape design to guide maintenance and preservation decisions in the garden…
The following is the proposed description and design intent (in Italic) :
The garden is following Momoyama era strolling garden, with its main feature of view from the Shoin building. View presently is confined within the garden with a potential for linking with outside the garden. The garden features pond, waterfall, island stone bridge and path to tea room.
Proposed Management and Mission Statement (in Italic) FJHG’s mission is “to preserve, present, and interpret Shofuso, a Japanese house and garden….. FJHG commits to use the 1957 Tansai Sano landscape design to guide maintenance and preservation decisions in the garden… Preserve and enhance the feature quality of this garden in providing quietness in sitting and viewing the garden from the building. Explore enhancing
12
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
quality of view and increase sense of better enclosure while considering opportunity to link with the surrounding park land by installing borrowed scenery.
(Fig 9) ShoFuSou Garden, Philadelphia
15. Conclusion of this thesisDefinition of Japanese Garden, particularly to be addressed in
the North America, is developed through referencing to overviews in Japan and abroad, basing on identification of characteristics of Japanese Garden by literature studies and by a series of surveys and oral interviews.
The definition is that Japanese garden is a garden created based on attitude toward nature held by Japanese and created for “praying”, “healing” , “recreating” and for pleasure” by scaling, abstracting and employing elements and composition of nature to the fullest extent, adopted to the surrounding natural. Method of applying the definition to help facilitate in preparing Japanese Garden Management Plan for ShoFuSou Garden for respective garden with mission statement and simple and clear description is produced. Applying to development of design method will be a future step.
In concluding, author wishes that respective garden review this proposal for updating management plan reference and through necessary modification, adopt it as a part of their own management plan.
Reference:1. Uesugi, Takeo, International Japanese Garden Symposium
Proceeding; View on Japanese Garden, Seattle 20012. Rose, James, Garden Makes Me Laugh, Silvermine Publisher.
New York 19653. Uesugi, Takeo, International Japanese Garden Symposium
Proceeding; View on Japanese Garden, Seattle 20014. Nakamura, Makoto and Amasaki, Hiromasa, Creating
Landscape, Showado Publisher, Kyoto, 20015. Mori, Osamu, Typical Japanese gardens, Shibata Co. 19626. Tamura, Tsuyoshi, Art of the Landscape Garden in Japan,
Tokyo: Shinkokai, 1935. 7. Yoshikawa, Isao, The World of Zen Gardens, Graphic-sha, 19918. Harada, Jiro, Japanese Gardens, Charles T. Branford Co., 1956. 9. Hayakawa, Masao (trans. Richard Gage), The Garden Art of
Japan , New York & Tokyo: Weatherhill & Heibonsha, 1973.
10. Hibi, Sadao, A Celebration of Japanese Gardens, : Graphic-sha, 1994.
11. Horiguchi, S. and Kojiro Y., Tradition of Japanese Gardens, Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai, 1962.
12. Mizuno, Katsuhiko and John Bester, Landscapes for Small Spaces: Japanese Courtyard Gardens, Kodansha International, 2002.
13. Nakane, Kinsaku, Kyoto Gardens, Osaka: Hoikusha, 1992.14 Oashi, Haruzo, Japanese Courtyard Gardens, Graphic-sha
198815. Shigemori, Kanto, The Japanese Courtyard Garden:
Landscapes for Small Spaces, New York: Weatherhill, 1981. 16. Takakuwa, Gisei and Asano Kiichi (photogra-pher),
Japanese Gardens Revisted. Rutland, VT & Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1973.
17. Carver, Norman, Form and Space in Japanese Architecture and Gardens, Kalamazoo, Maryland: Documan Press, 1991.
18. Higuchi, Tadahiko, The Visual and Spatial Structure of Landscapes, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1983.
19. Nitschke, Gunter, Japanese Gardens: Right Angle and Natural Form, Köln: Benedict Taschen Verlag, 2003.
20. Cali, Joseph, The New Zen Garden: Designing Quiet Spaces, Kodansha International, Tokyo, 2004.
.21. Ito, Teiji (trans. Ralph Fiedrich & Masajiro Shimamura), Space and Illusion in the Japanese Garden, Weatherhill & Tankosha, 1973.
22. Earle, Joe (ed.), Infinite Spaces: The Art and Wisdom of the Japanese Garden, Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2000.
23. Takei, Jiro and Marc P. Keane, Sakuteiki: Visions of the Japanese Garden, Rutland, VT & Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 2001.
24. Seiko Goto: Japanese Gardens-Symbolism and Design, Routledge-Taylor and Fransis Group, 2016
25. Slawson, David A., Secret Teachings in the Art of Japanese Gardens: Design Principles, Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1987.
26. Keane, Marc P, Japanese Garden Design, Tuttle Publishing, 1996.
27. Makoto Suzuki, The Image and View of Japanese Gardens in the Minds of Westerners, Journal of Landscape Architecture, Tokyo Agricultural University, 1997
28. Motomi Oguchi, Create your Own Japanese Garden, Kodansha Publication Co. 2012
29. Cave, Philip, Creating Japanese Gardens, Rutland, VT & Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1993.
30. Gander, Josiah, Landscape Gardening in Japan, Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2002 [1893].
31. Keane, Marc P., The Japanese Tea Garden, Stone Bridge Press, Berkeley, California, 2009.
32. Seike, Kiyoshi, Kudo Masanobu and David H. Engel, A Japanese Touch for Your Garden, Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1980
33. Kobayashi, Koichi, Legacy of Seattle Japanese Garden: Proceeding of the International Japanese Garden Symposium, 2001
34. Wiggigton, Bruce, Study of Japanese Garden, Marrietta
13
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
College, Pennsylvania, 1963
35. Yashiro, Yukio, Characteristics of Japanese Art, ( translation) Imanishi Pub. Japan, 1943
.36. Shigemeori,Kanto, On Japanese garden, Web Pub. Japan 201537. Kraftner, Johan, Architecture and Landscape of the World’s
Finest Gardens, Austrie, 201138. Shinji, Isoya, Gardens of Japan:Skilled Craftmanship and
Spirit, Chuuo Shinsho, Tokyo, 201039. Okada, Norihisa, From Garden to City and Back Again to
Garden, Japan, 199940. Masuno, Shinmyo, Modern Japanese Garden, Tuttle, Co. 2002 41. Marcus, Clair Cooper, Healing garden:Therpeutic Benefits
and Design Recommendations, Berkeley, 1999 42. Furgeson,, Molley, Therapeutic Garden, U. of Minnesota, 200143. Burton, Jeff, Japanese Garden Management Plan, US National Park Service, 201644. Kobayashi, Koichi, Central Ohio Visual Study, Journal of
Japanese Landscape Architecture, 197545. Nakamura, Makoto, Characteristics of Japanese Garden
Style, Kyoto College of Art, 1996
14
5
10
15
20
25