theory of everything
TRANSCRIPT
A ROAD MAP TO THE FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF THE
UNIVERSE
(The God’s own theorem)
Theory of Everything
BY
OHADOMA CHIDIEBERE
2013
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Introduction
Matter appears in four (4) states solid, liquid, gas and plasma. Aristottle
(about 340 BC) believed that all the matter in the universe was made up of
four basic elements
Earth,
Water,
Air and fire.
Gravity meaning the tendency for earth and water to sink and levity means
the tendency for air and fire to rise.
John Dalton (1803) pointed out that the fact that chemical compound always
combined in certain proportion could be explained by the grouping of atoms
to form unit called molecules. Now the question is- could the earth be
assumed to be an atom called the sun? These are questions in which
answered, will lead us a step closer to the fundamental law of the universe
In 1905, Neil Bohr conceived the model of electrons moving around the
nucleus in predetermined orbits he said the Systematic studies of natural
chemical, bio and other reaction as-well-as man made interactions
coupled with remarkable human ingenuity at generalization have revealed
that there are only four (4) basic interaction in nature and any phenomenon
that occurs in nature either on its own or through human interaction can be
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understood in terms of one or the other of this basic interaction or a
combination of this interaction
1. Gravitational
2. Electromagnetic
3. Weak nuclear interactional
4. Strong nuclear interaction
Scientist are hoping that someday in future, man will be able to discover one
single (instead of four) basic interaction that will embrace all this four basic
interaction. This ultimate fact would be called the theory of everything TOE
(salihu s.d, 2001).
This article explains gravity and its origin. It is important to note that no
physical theory to date is believed to be precisely accurate. Instead, physics
has proceeded by a series of successive approximations. Hence it will be a
mistake to confuse theoretical models with the true nature of reality, and
hold that the series of approximations will never terminate in the truth.
Thus, although the current standard model of particle physics “in principle”
predicts all known non-gravitational phenomena in practice only a few
quantitative result have been derived from the full theory (e.g, the masses of
some of the simplest hadrons) and these result (especially the particle
masses which are most relevant for low energy physic) are less accurate
than existing experimental measurements. It is believed that even the TOE
would almost certainly be even harder to apply for the prediction of
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experimental result and thus might be of limited use. Talk-less of that of
gravity.
It is worth knowing that obviously, in the everyday world experiment, an
object cannot be both wave and a particle at the same time; it is either one
or the other depending on the situation. Hence we shall be explaining gravity
in parts.
Gravity of the earth pulls all objects toward the center of the earth. It is
important to know that the sun’s gravity is the strongest.
Gravity is the weakest of the four (4) forces. However, it can become
extremely powerful on a cosmic scale e.g the gravity of the earth and sun,
hold earth in orbit (salihu s.d, 2001)
Hence, I believe that every particle in our body has some tiny gravitation
attraction to the ground (center of the earth). This attraction helps to keep
us on the earth surface. Hersenberg believed that reality is what can be
observed. If there are different observations, there must be different realities
which depend on the observer.
Relativity however holds that gravitational attraction depends on the energy
of an object and that mass is just one possible form of energy. (salihu
s.d,2001)
Gravity acts on two major elements namely:
Mass and energy
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The exhibition of particles differ on energy level same as the exhibition of
gravitational energy. The exhibition of gravitational energy (force) is
inversely proportional to the square distance of the two masses which are
proportional to each other on earth.G=mm/r2. While in orbit, the
gravitational energy is better when two objects with different masses are
outside the electromagnetic/weak force flux. But if all particles on the
earth/globe are subjected to the certain condition and temperature then we
will realize that gravity is actually an electromagnetic /weak force because
all objects, particle will behave alike.
Hence, the space orbit is governed by a force I call electromagnetic/weak
force (gravity).
An object moving in a circle require a force directed toward the center to
keep it from moving along the tangent path (nelson .m)
There are only two possible forces which can keep or tend to direct objects
to the center:
1. External force
2. Internal force
Every planet on the globe has either or both of the above mentioned force.
Earth being the case study, possesses both
1. The sun force [electromagnetic/weak force(gravity)] i.e the external
force and
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2. The imaginary (assumed) bar magnet in the core of the earth. i.e the
internal force
Each of these forces plays significant roles in keeping the earth in orbit, and
directing all other objects on the earth towards the center respectively.
Hence, the centripetal force on the moon as it rotates round the earth is
provided by the gravitational attraction force between the earth and the
moon ( Nelson.M) same as all object on the surface of the earth.
Going by the standard model, and the understanding that interaction in
physic are the ways by which particles influence other particles. At a
macroscopic level, electromagnetism allows particles to interact with one
another via electric and magnetic fields; while gravity allows particles with
mass to attract one another in accordance with Einstein’s theory of general
relativity.
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ELECTRICITY
Electricity is the flow of electrical power or charge. It is both a basic part of
part of nature and one of our most widely used forms of energy.
Electricity is actually a secondary energy source, also referred to as an
energy carrier. That means that we get electricity from the conversion of
other sources of energy, such as coal, nuclear, or solar energy. These are
called primary sources. The energy sources we use to make electricity can
be renewable or non-renewable, but electricity itself is neither renewable nor
nonrenewable.
Many scientist and inventors have worked to decipher the principles of
electricity since the 1600s. Some notable accomplishments were made by
Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Edison, Michael Faraday, and Nikola Tesla.
Although many people think Benjamin Franklin discovered electricity with his
famous kite-flying experiment in 1752, but electricity was not discovered all
at once. At first, electricity was associated with light.
In 1879, Thomas Edison focused on inventing a practical light bulb, one that
would last a long time before burning out. This problem was finding a strong
material for the filament, the small wire inside the bulb that conducts
electricity. Finally Edison used ordinary cotton thread that had been soaked
in carbon. This filament didn’t burn at all-it became incandescent; that is, it
glowed.
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Michael faraday was the first to realize that an electric current could be
produced by passing a magnet through a copper wire.
Electricity is a type of activity from the existence of charge. The basic unit of
charge is that on the proton or electron. The protons charge is called positive
while the electron’s is negative.
A particle of matter usually has a charge. The charge is positive or negative.
Two particles with the same charges, either positive or both negative, repel
or drive away each other, while two particles with unlike charges are
attracted.
The negative charged electrons in an atom are kept near the nucleus
because of their attraction for the positive charge protons in the nucleus.
Materials differ in their ability to allow electricity to flow through them.
Conductors allow electricity to flow through them easily. Copper wire is
a good example and makes up our housing and appliance wiring.
Insulators are materials that don’t allow electricity to pass through
them easily. Materials such as rubber are good insulator and are used
around appliance and house wires to keep the electricity from creating
a short circuit.
Semiconductors: conduct electricity under some conditions.
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MOVING ELECTRICITY
Electrodynamics is the study of charges in motion. A flow of electric charge
makes up an electric current.
There are several things needed to complete an electrical circuit. There must
be an electromotive force from batteries or generators, conductors such as
copper wire and an appliance such as a bulb to be lit. a device called a
switch can be used to stop or open the circuit or close or create the circuit.
When a circuit is not completed because the electricity is diverted to a path
of least resistance it is a short circuit.
In a simple circuit there are two types of wiring. One is a parallel circuit. This
is when all the batteries and appliances such as bulbs are wired with the
positive terminals of the batteries wired together and the negative terminals
of the wired together so there are parallel pathways for the electricity to
travel. In a parallel circuit, if one appliance such as a bulb goes out, the rest
of the circuit remains on. The force from the batteries does not increase,
however, if more batteries are added.
In a series circuit, the positive terminal or end of a battery is wired to the
negative terminal of the other battery and the positive end of one appliance
goes out, the whole flow of electricity is interrupted and the circuit goes out.
However, if more batteries are added to the circuit, the bulb will get brighter
as more force will go to that bulb.
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MAGNETISM
The ancient Greeks, originally those near the city of Magnesia, and also the
early Chinese knew about strange and rare stones (possibly chunks of iron
ore struck by lightning) with the power to attract iron. A steel needle stroked
with such a ‘’lodestone’’ became ‘’magnetic’’ as well, and around 1000 the
Chinese found that such a needle, when freely suspended, pointed north-
south.
The magnetic compass soon spread to Europe. Columbus used it when he
crossed the Atlantic ocean, noting not only that the needle deviated slightly
from exact north (as indicated by the stars) but also that the deviation
changed during the voyage. Around 1600 William Gilbert, physician to Queen
Elizabeth I of England, proposed an explanation: the earth itself was a giant
magnet, with its magnetic poles some distance away from its geographic
ones (i.e. near the point defining the axis around which the earth turns).
THE MAGNETOSPHERE
diagram
On earth one needs a sensitive needle to detect magnetic forces, and out in
space they are much, much weaker. But beyond the dense atmosphere, such
forces have a much bigger role, and a region exists around the earth where
they dominate the environment, regions know as the earth’s
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magnetosphere. That region contains mix of electrically charged particles,
and electric and magnetic phenomena rather than gravity determine its
structure. We call it the earth’s magnetosphere.
Only a few of the phenomena observed on the ground comes from the
magnetosphere: fluctuation of the magnetic field known as magnetic storms
and sub storms, and the polar aurora or ‘’ northern light,’’ appearing in the
night skies of places like Alaska and Norway. Satellites in space, however,
sense much more: radiation belts, magnetic structures, fast streaming
particles and processes which energize them. All these are described in the
section below.
But what is magnetism?
Until 1821, only one kind of magnetism was known, the one produced by iron
magnets. Then a Danis scientist, Hans Christian Oersted, while
demonstrating to friend the flow of an electric current in a wire, noticed that
the current caused a nearby compass needle to move. The new phenomenon
was studied in France by Andre-Marie Ampere, who concluded that the
nature of magnetism was quite different from what everyone had believed. It
was basically a force between electric currents: two parallel currents in the
same direct attract, in opposite direction repel. Iron magnets are a very
special case, which Ampere was also able explain.
Diagram
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In nature, magnetic fields are produced in the rarefied gas of space, in the
glowing heat of sunspots and the molten core of the earth. Such magnetism
must be produced by electric currents, but finding how those currents are
produced remains a major challenge.
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
Michael Faraday, credited with fundamental discoveries on electricity and
magnetism (an electric unit is named ‘’Farad’’ in his honor), also proposed a
widely used method for visualizing magnetic fields. Imagine a compass
needle freely suspended in three dimension, near a magnet or an electrical
current. We can trace in space (in our imagination, at least!) the lines one
obtains when one ‘’follows the direction of the compass needle.’’ Faraday
called them lines of force, but the term field lines is now in common use.
Diagram
Field lines of a bar magnet are commonly illustrated by iron filings sprinkled
on a sheet of paper held over a magnet. Similarly, field lines of the earth
start near the south pole of the earth, curve around in space and converge
again near the north pole.
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However, in the earth’s magnetosphere, currents also flow through space
and modify this pattern: on the side facing the sun, field lines are
compressed earthward, while on the night side they are pulled out into a
very long ‘’tail,’’ like that of a comet. Near earth, however, the lines remain
very close to the ‘’dipole pattern’’ of a bar magnet, so named because of its
two poles.
Diagram
To Faraday field lines were mainly a method of displaying the structure of
the magnetic force. In space research, however, they have a much broader
significance, because electrons and ions tend to stay attrached to them, like
beads on a wire, even becoming trapped when conditions are right. Because
of this attachment, they define an ‘’easy direction’’ in the rarefied gas of
space, like the grain in a piece of wood, a direction in which ions and
electrons, as well as electric currents (and certain radio-type waves), can
easily move; in contrast, motion from one line to another is more difficult.
A map of the magnetic field lines of the magnetosphere, like the one
displayed above (from a mathematical model of the field), tells at a glance
how different regions are linked and many other important properties.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
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Faraday not only viewed the space around a magnet as filled with field lines,
but also developed an intuitive (and perhaps mystical) notion that such
space was itself modified, even if it was a complete vacuum. His younger
contemporary, the great Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, placed this
notion on a firm mathematical footing, including in it electrical forces as well
as magnetic ones. Such a modified space is now known as an
electromagnetic field.
Today electromagnetic fields (and other types of field as well) are a
cornerstone of physics. Their basic equations, derived by Maxwell, suggested
that they could undergo wave motion, spreading with the speed of light, and
Maxwell correctly guessed that this actually was light and that light was in
fact an electromagnetic wave.
Heinrich Hertz in Germany, soon afterwards, produced such waves by
electrical means, in the first laboratory demonstrated of radio waves.
Nowadays a wide variety of such waves is known, from radio (very long
waves, relatively low frequency) to microwaves, infra-red, visible light, ultra-
violet, x-rays and gamma rays (very short waves, extremely high frequency).
Radio waves produced in our magnetosphere are often modified by their
environment and tell us about the particles trapped there. Other such waves
have been detected from the magnetosphere of distance planets, the sun
and the distance universe. X-rays, too are observed to come from such
sources and are the signatures of high-energy electron there.
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ELECTRON PAIRING AND MAGNETISM
One question that comes to mind is: since all matter is made up of atoms
and all atoms have electrons that are in motion, do all atoms have magnetic
fields?
The answer to this question is YES and NO. all the electrons do produce a
magnetic field as they spin and orbit the nucleus; however, in some
atoms,two electrons spinning and orbiting in opposite directions pair up and
the net magnetic moment of the atom is zero. Remember that the direction
of the magnetic field. Electron pairing occurs commonly in the atoms of most
materials. In the experiment you observed a helium atom showing two
electrons spinning and orbiting around the protons and neutrons of the
nucleus. The two electrons are paired, meaning that they spin and orbit in
opposite directions. Since the magnetic fields produced by the motion of the
electrons are in opposite directions, they add up to zero. The overall
magnetic field strength of atoms with all paired electrons is zero
In general, materials that have all paired electrons in the atoms and thus
have no net magnetic moment are called diamagnetic materials; yet, there
are some exceptions. When placed in the magnetic field of a magnet,
diamagnetic materials will produce a slight magnetic field that opposes the
main magnetic field. Both ends of a bar magnet will repel a diamagnetic
material. If a diamagnetic material is placed in a strong external magnetic
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field, the magnetic field strength inside the material will be less than the
magnetic field strength in the air surrounding the material. The slight
decrease in the field strength is the result of realignment in the orbit motion
of the electrons. Diamagnetic materials include Zinc, gold, mercury, and
bismuth.
Another key concept in magnetism is that diamagnetic materials will oppose
an applied magnetic field. Both ends of a magnet will repel diamagnetic
materials.
It is also worth knowing that most materials with one or more unpaired
electrons are at least slightly magnetic. Materials with a small attraction to a
magnet are called paramagnetic materials, and those with a strong
attraction are called ferromagnetic materials. Aluminum, platinum, and
manganese are some paramagnetic materials. Iron, cobalt, and nickel are
examples of ferromagnetic materials.
MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE
The lines that we have mapped out around the magnet, called the magnetic
lines of force, indicated the region in which the force of the magnet can be
detected. This region is called the magnetic field. If an iron object is near a
magnet, but is not within the magnetic field, the object will not be attracted
to the magnet. When the object enters the magnetic field, the forces of the
magnet acts, and the object is attracted. The pattern of these lines of force
tells us something about the characteristics of the forces caused by the
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magnet. The magnetic lines of force, or flux, leave the north pole and enter
the south pole.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY
When an electrical charge is in motion it produces electrical current.
Magnetism can be described as lines of force. The relationship between
magnetism and electricity was first established by physicist Hans Christian
Oersted in the early part of the nineteenth century. He observed that when a
magnetic compass needle is placed near a wire that is carrying electric
current, the needle get deflected. This showed that electric current, the
needle get deflected. This showed that electric current produces a magnetic
field in the nearby region. English physicist Michael Faraday went on to
explain the relationship between electricity and magnetism further.
According to him, if magnetic fields are changed through a loop of wire, then
electric current will be produced within the wire.
Relationship between Magnetism and Electricity at Atomic Level.
There is a relationship between magnetism and electricity as both use
positive and negative forces. Every atom consists of electrons which are
negatively charged particles, protons which are positively charged, and
neutrally charged neutrons. Just because these two different charges exist in
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the atom, the phenomena of magnetism and electricity occur. Electricity, in
its static form, is nothing but an imbalance of positive and negative charges.
When an electron is moving round the nucleus, a loop of electric current is
formed. This in turn, results in the formation of a magnetic field within the
electrical loop. It is believed that this is the basis of the magnetic properties
found in different types of materials.
Properties of electric and magnetic fields
Electric field is the area surrounding a charge particle, where if any other
charge particle makes an entry, it will experience a force. Magnetic field is
the area surrounding a magnet, where apparent magnetic influence can be
found. These two fields are interrelated. Noted Scottish physicist and
mathematician James Clerk Maxwell derived some equation to explain the
relationship between the properties of electric and magnetic fields, as well as
their geometric relations involving the circuits. The derivations of his
equations are described as follows:
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Maxwell’s equation say that electricity and magnetism are related
1. Changing electric field produces magnetic fields
2. Changing magnetic field produces electric fields
3. Changing electric and magnetic field travel out from their source as
a wave in a straight lines at the velocity c
4. Constant electric fields do not produce magnetic fields
5. Constant magnetic fields do not produce electric fields
6. Magnetic monopoles cannot exist. That is to say we can never have
a single magnetic pole either north or south.
7. When the electric current is carried in a straight wire, the magnetic
field thus produced encloses the wire in a circular manner. In this
case, the direction of electric field and magnetic field follows the
right hand rule.
Maxwell’s equations also tell us about geometric relations between electric
and magnetic fields specifically in regards to circuits:
1. A straight current carrying wire produces a magnetic field that
wraps around the wire in a circular manner according to the right
hand rule.
2. A current carrying circular wire loop produces a magnetic field
similar to that of a bar magnet with a north and south pole
3. A changing linear magnetic field will produce a circular field.
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THE SUN AS A MAGNET
We have known since 1912 that there are powerful magnetic fields in sun
spots. In fact, the sunspot cycle could just as well be described as a periodic
increase in the amount of solar magnetism. Science believes that the
magnetic fields are generated deep within the sun by a natural dynamo that
reverses itself every eleven years. This dynamo action may result from an
interaction between the sun’s 27-day rotation and the rising and falling of
huge blobs of gas in a layer below the solar surface.
When the sun was photographed from Skylab, we learned that the whole
atmosphere above the surface of the sun is structured by the presence of
changing magnetic fields. The solar corona often appears smooth when
glimpsed from the ground during total eclipse of the sun. However, Skylab X-
ray photographs proved that the corona is composed almost entirely of
individual loop structures, formed by streams of hot gas channeled along
lines of magnetic force.
The magnetic field of the sun can be probed in a rather precise and direct
manner because in the presence of a magnetic field the energy levels of
atoms are split into more than one level. This causes spectral transition line
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to be split into more than one line, with the amount of splitting proportional
to the strength of the magnetic field. This is called the Zeeman Effect, and
the corresponding increase in the number of spectral lines is called Zeeman
splitting.
The sun’s magnetic field
The sun has a very large and very complex magnetic field. The magnetic
field at an average place on the sun is around 1 gauss, about twice as strong
as the average field on the surface of earth (around 0.5 gauss). Since the
sun’s surface is more than 12000 times larger than earth’s, the overall
influence of the sun’s magnetic field is vast.
The magnetic field of the sun actually extends far out into space, beyond the
furthest planet (Pluto). This distance extension of the sun’s magnetic field is
called the interplanetary field (IMF). The solar wind, the stream of charged
particles that flows outward from the sun, carries the IMF to the planets
beyond. The solar wind and IMF interact with planetary magnetic fields in
complex ways, generating phenomena such as the aurora.
Overall, the basic shape of the sun’s magnetic field is like the shape of
earth’s field or like the shape of a simple bar magnet. However,
superimposed on this basic field (called a dipole field) is a much more
complex series of local fields that vary over time. Places where the sun‘s
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magnetic field is especially stronger are called active region, and often
produce telltale sunspots.
Sunspots and Magnetic Fields
Measurement of the light from sunspots, (obtained by masking off the light
from parts of the sun not in the sunspot) indicates significant Zeeman
splitting of the spectral lines. Thus, sunspots are associated with strong
magnetic fields. Furthermore, it is observed that
1. When sunspot come in pairs, one tends to have a magnetic field
polarity that is opposite that of the other (that is, one behaves
magnetically like the pole of a bar magnet and the other behaves
magnetically like the south pole of a bar magnet).
2. During a given sunspot cycle, the leading sunspots in groups in the
northern hemisphere of the sun all tend to have the same polarity,
while the same is true of sunspots in the southern hemisphere, except
that the common polarity is reversed from that of sunspots in the
northern hemisphere.
3. During the next sunspot cycle, the regularities noted in the previous
point reverse themselves: the polarity of the leading spots in each
hemisphere is opposite from what it was in the previous cycle.
The sun’s poles
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Like earth, the sun has a north pole, a south pole, and an equator. The poles
of the sun are different in several ways from the areas near the sun’s
equator.
According to the national earth science Teachers Association publication,
(WINDOW TO THE UNIVERSE), the sun has a magnetic field with north and
south magnetic poles. About every 11 years, the sun’s magnetic poles flip-
north becomes south and vice versa. This flip happens around the peak of
the sunspot cycle, when there are lots of sunspots. Earth’s magnetic poles
sometimes flip, too. However, it is usually many thousand or even millions of
years between flips of earth’s field-not just 11 years.
The sun is not a solid object. It is believed to be a giant ball of gas and
plasma. Some parts of the sun rotate more slowly than other parts. At the
equator, the sun spins pretty fast. It takes 25 days to turn all the way
around. It turns more slowly at the poles. The poles take 34 days to spin
around once.
The sun atmosphere at the poles is also different from the atmosphere above
the sun’s equator. The corona part of the sun’s atmosphere, sticks out
further from the sun’s surface near the equator. The corona doesn’t stick out
as far above the poles. The solar wind is also different at the poles. It
‘’blows’’ much faster above the poles than it does above the sun’s equator.
HOW SUN’S MAGNETIC FIELD WORK
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Magnetic fields are created by things that are magnetic (like iron magnets)
or by moving charged particles.
When charged particles move around really fast, they create magnetic fields.
The sun is made of positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons
in a state of matter called plasma. Since the sun is made of charged
particles, magnetic fields are created by the movement of the particles.
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