the russian orthodox church in alaska historic

THE RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH

IN ALASKA HISTORIC ECCLESIASTICAL

LANDSCAPES STUDY1840-1920

SITKA NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK

Drachman Institute | Heritage Conservation College of Architecture, Planning, and Landscape Architecture

The University of Arizona

In conjunction with: Desert Southwest Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit (DS-CESU)

January 2017

Thispageintentionallyleftblank.

HistoricEcclesiasticalLandscapesStudy–SitkaNationalHistoricalPark

TableofContents iii

TABLEOFCONTENTSListofFigures vii

ProjectInformation xxi

INTRODUCTION 1Chapter1ExecutiveSummary 3

ProjectOutline 3

ProjectHistory 3

Methodology 5

StudyArea 6

ProjectObjectives 9

ReportOrganization 9

KeyFindings 10

Chapter2Overview 13

TheStudyArea 13

GeographicSpreadoftheRussianMissionsintheNorthPacific 14

ContextualRelationships 15

TheRussianRole 16

PARTI–THEECCLESIASTICALLANDSCAPEOFALASKA 17

Chapter3HistoricContextoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchinAlaska

3.0Background 19

3.1TheOrthodoxChurch 20

3.2TheOrthodoxChurchinRussia 23

3.3TheSpiritofOrthodoxWorship 29

3.4TheParish:ChurchandChapel 32

3.5CyclesofWorship 39

3.6SanctificationofLife 41


TableofContentsiv

3.7OrthodoxyinAlaska:TheBeginnings 46

3.8OrthodoxyinAlaska:TheAgeofVeniaminov 51

3.9OrthodoxyinAlaska:AmericanRule 56

3.10.OrthodoxyintheUnitedStates 63

3.11TheVicariateofSitkaAndAlaska 66

Chapter4FieldNotes

4.00Introduction 75

4.01Eklutna/Knik 85

4.02Kwethluk 105

4.03Napaskiak 119

4.04Ninilchik 129

4.05OldHarbor 143

4.06Ouzinkie 159

4.07Seldovia 173

4.08Juneau 195

4.09Kenai 209

4.10Kodiak 235

4.11Sitka 253

4.12Unalaska 293

4.13Monk’sLagoon/SpruceIsland 319

PARTII–THERUSSIANBISHOP’SHOUSE 339

Chapter5HistoricContext

5.0Background 341

5.1BishopInnocentVeniaminovandtheBishop’sHouse 342

5.2NewProjectsinSitka 343

5.3RelationswiththeRussian-AmericanCompany 344

5.4TheBishop’sTravels 345

5.5TheConsistory 346


TableofContents v

5.6CapitalRepairsandSpatialReorganization 347

5.7TransferofAuthoritytotheRussianAmericanCompany 349

5.8TheNovo-ArkhangelskVicariate 349

5.9TheDioceseoftheAleutiansandAlaska 351

5.10ANewBishopfortheDiocese 352

5.11FromBishop’sHousetoSitkaArchpriest’sResidence 355

5.12The1887RenovationProject 356

5.13MassiveConversionoftheTlingittoOrthodoxy 358

5.14TransformationofLifeinandaroundtheBishop’sHouse 359

5.15TheBishop’sHouseandtheWiderCommunity 361

5.16ABishopReturnstotheBishop’sHouse 363

5.17SubsequentDevelopments 365

Chapter6FieldNotes

6.1Introduction 369

6.2GeographicInformationandLocation 369

6.3StatementofSignificance 371

6.4PeriodofSignificance 371

6.5Chronology 371

6.6LandscapeCharacteristics 371

6.7ExistingConditions 373

6.8EvaluationofIntegrity 393

6.9ConditionAssessment 393

6.10AnalysisofInterpretivePotential 394

6.11InterpretiveAlliance 396

6.12ManagementObjectives 397

6.13TreatmentRecommendations 399

PARTIII–APPENDICES403

Chapter7Appendices

7.01NationalRegisterListedEcclesiasticalBuildings 405


TableofContentsvi

7.02HistoricAmericanBuildingsSurveys 405

7.03OrthodoxChurchinAmericaParishesinAlaska 407

7.04ROSSIA-EcclesiasticalResources 413

7.05ChurchDedicationsinAlaska 415

7.06DraftLandscapeInventoryForm 417

7.07VideographyasanInventoryTool 433

7.08DescriptiveAnalysisToolsforHistoricLandscapes 437

7.09SamMcClainWatercolors 441

7.10Timeline 445

7.11Glossary 455

7.12Bibliography 469

Historic Ecclesiastical Landscapes Study – Sitka National Historical Park

ListofFigures vii

ListofFigures1. ExecutiveSummary

Figure1.1.Studyareacoveredbythisreportwithoutlinedareaofmoreintensivestudy(imagerybased

onGoogleEarth2016)..........................................................................................................................7Figure1.2.Geographiclocationofstudyareasindividuallyanalyzedinthisreport(imagerybasedon

GoogleEarth2016)...............................................................................................................................7Figure1.3.StudyareainSitka,Alaska(imagerybasedonGoogleEarth2016)............................................8Figure1.4.Studyarea,RussianBishop'sHouseproperty(Welzenbach2011,6).........................................8

2. OverviewFigure2.1.MapofAlaskaandSiberia(imagerybasedonGoogleEarth2016)...........................................13Figure2.2.RussianOrthodoxParishesinAlaskain1860............................................................................14Figure2.3.RussianOrthodoxparishesinAlaskaatthebeginningofthe20thcentury..............................15

3. HistoricContextoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchinAlaskaFigure3.1.Atypicalchapelofmoderatesize,inthevillageofAkutan,builtin1878.................................34Figure3.2.ThesecondchurchatRussianMission,1895-1938,illustratesthetripartitearrangementofa

typicalOrthodoxchurch:altararea(right),nave(center,surmountedbydome),narthex(surmountedbybelltower),andporch..............................................................................................36

Figure3.3.AltartablewithantimensiongiventotheteamofmissionariesfromValaamMonasterythatsetoutforKodiakin1793...................................................................................................................36

Figure3.4.Tableofoblation,withliturgicalspear,spoon,patenwithstarcover,cross,sponge,andchalice.............................................................................................................................................................37

Figure3.5.St.NicholasChurch,Juneau,iconostasiswithroyaldoorsopentorevealaltartable.Inadditiontopriestlyvestments(Lentenpurple)thepriest(Fr.AndrewKashevarov)iswearingamiter,normallywornonlybybishops,indicatinghishighposition..............................................................37

Figure3.6.Makingthesignofthecross......................................................................................................39Figure3.7.ElaborateAleut/Alutiiqpegcalendar,probablyfromtheearly20thcentury,intheAlaska

HistoricalLibraryandMuseum...........................................................................................................40Figure3.8.TypicalRussianOrthodoxweddingcrowns,Seldovia,ca.1900................................................43Figure3.9.UnangangroupposingwithChristmasstar,onUnalaska,early20th-century.........................45Figure3.10.“OurLadyofSitka,”basedontheRussian“Kazan”icon–animagepopularthroughoutAlaska.

............................................................................................................................................................46Figure3.11.ShrinemarkingtheputativesiteofthefirstbaptismintheAleutianIslands,thatofIvan

StepanovichGlotov,agodsonofRussianpromyshlennikCaptainStepanGlotov..............................47Figure3.12.Karluk,onKodiakIsland,1900-1901,showingchurchwithcemeteryandthegovernment

schoolonthehighpromontory,villagehomesalongitsslopeandintheforeground,andcanneriesalongtheshoreline(backgroundfarright).........................................................................................63

Figure3.13.ThechapelatKatmaishowingtheaftermathoffloodingthataccompaniedthe1912volcaniceruption.Thehigh-watermarkofthefloodingreachedhalfwaytothetopofthebelltower........67


ListofFiguresviii

Figure3.14.CemeteryatFunterBayfortheAleutianislanderswhodiedduringtheirforcedinternmenthereduringWorldWarII....................................................................................................................72

Figure3.15.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs..............................................................................................73

4. FieldNotes–IntroductionFigure4.00.1.Characteristiclandscapeelementsassociatedwithchurchesinsmallercommunities.......76Figure4.00.2.Characteristicorganizationofanurbanecclesiasticallandscape........................................77Figure4.00.3.Typicalcrossstyles...............................................................................................................79Figure4.00.4.TableofavailableNationalRegisterNominationFormsandHABSdocumentation............81Figure4.00.4.Rangeofaltarorientationofvisitedsites.............................................................................81Figure4.00.6.Altarorientationofvisitedsitesinorderfromnortheasttosoutheast...............................82 Eklutna/KnikFigure4.01.1.LocationofKnikandEklutna................................................................................................85Figure4.01.2.LocationofKnikcemetery....................................................................................................86Figure4.01.3.SchematicplanofspirithousesatKnikcemetery................................................................86Figure4.01.4.GeneralorientationofspirithousesatKnikcemetery.........................................................86Figure4.01.5.SchematicplanofEklutnachurchesandcemetery..............................................................87Figure4.01.6.OrientationofEklutnachurches...........................................................................................87Figure4.01.7.OldSt.Nicholaschurch,lookingnorth/northeast,1923......................................................89Figure4.01.8.OldSt.Nicholaschurch,lookingnorth,1940.......................................................................89Figure4.01.9.OldSt.Nicholaschurch,lookingnortheast,1952.................................................................90Figure4.01.10.OldSt.Nicholaschurch,lookingnorthwest,1954..............................................................90Figure4.01.11.IndiangravesatOldKnick[sic],1918.................................................................................91Figure4.01.12.Indiangraves,OldKnick[sic],1918...................................................................................92Figure4.01.13.Indiangraveyard,Eklutna,1923.........................................................................................92Figure4.01.14.RussianOrthodoxcemetery,Eklutna,1946.......................................................................93Figure4.01.15.RussianOrthodoxcemetery,Eklutna,lookingwest,1949/1950........................................93Figure4.01.16.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs.........................................................................................95Figure4.01.17.SpirithousesatKnikcemetery,lookingwest/southwest,April2015................................96Figure4.01.18.RecentburialatKnikcemetery,lookingsoutheast,April2015..........................................96Figure4.01.19,RaisedgravefencesatKnikcemetery,April2015..............................................................97Figure4.01.20.NewSt.Nicholaschurch(left)andoldSt.Nicholaschurch(right),withcemeteryinthe

background,lookingwest/northwestfromEklutnaVillageRoad,April2015....................................97Figure4.01.21.ThetwochurchesatEklutnawiththecemeteryintheforeground,lookingsoutheast,April

2015....................................................................................................................................................98Figure4.01.22.InteriorviewofoldSt.Nicholaschurchcandelabra,lookingnortheast,August2015.......99Figure4.01.23.Exteriorviewofcandelabra,lookingnortheast,April2015...............................................99Figure4.01.24.Eklutnacemetery,lookingnorthwest,April2015............................................................100Figure4.01.25.Eklutnacemetery,lookingsouthwest,April2015............................................................100Figure4.01.26.Spirithousesforchildren(leftfront)atEklutnacemetery,lookingnortheast,April2015.

..........................................................................................................................................................101Figure4.01.27.SpirithousesatEklutnacemetery,lookingwest/southwest,April2015.........................101Figure4.01.28.GraveofChiefMikeAlexatEklutnacemetery,lookingnorthwest,April2015...............102


ListofFigures ix

Figure4.01.29.Footstone,Eklutnacemetery,lookingwest/southwest,April2015................................102Figure4.01.30.Spirithouseforacarpenter,Eklutnacemetery,lookingsouthwest,April2015..............103Figure4.01.31.Fencedgravewithpick,Eklutnacemetery,lookingnorthwest,April2015.....................103Figure4.01.32.BurialsattheedgeofEklutnacemeterywithtraditionalcrossesatthefootofthegrave,

lookingnorthwest,April2015..........................................................................................................104 KwethlukFigure4.02.1.SchematicplanofKwethlukchurchesandcemetery.........................................................105Figure4.02.2.OrientationofKwethlukchurches......................................................................................105Figure4.02.3.Kwethlukcemetery,1948/50.............................................................................................107Figure4.02.4.WatercolorofKwethlukchurchbySamMcClain...............................................................107Figure4.02.5.KwethlukchurchpredatingoldSt.Nicholaschurch,n.d....................................................107Figure4.02.6.OldSt.Nicholaschurch,lookingnorthwest,before1974..................................................108Figure4.02.7.Kwethlukchurch,lookingeast,1987..................................................................................108Figure4.02.8.Kwethlukchurch,lookingnorth,1987...............................................................................109Figure4.02.9.Kwethlukchurch,lookingsouth,1987...............................................................................110Figure4.02.10.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs.......................................................................................110Figure4.02.11.Floweringcrossvariant.....................................................................................................111Figure4.02.12.Settingofthechurchonaraisedarea,facingsoutheast,August2015...........................112Figure4.02.13.Roadleadinguptothechurchfromthebeach,lookingsoutheast,August2015...........113Figure4.02.14.Roadleadingtothechurch,lookingeast,August2015....................................................113Figure4.02.15.Viewofthechurchshowingchurchyardfencing,lookingnortheast,August2015.Theblue

domeontherightsideofthechurchornamentsagrave................................................................114Figure4.02.16.Processionalwaysurroundingthechurch,facingeast,August2015..............................114Figure4.02.17.Signfoundinsidethechurchporch,August2015............................................................115Figure4.02.18.Plywoodgravesurroundssoutheastofthechurch,facingeast,August2015.................115Figure4.02.19.Southchurchyard,facingeast,August2015....................................................................115Figure4.02.20.Burialstothesouthandsoutheastofthechurch;MatushkaOlga'sgrave,withcross

outlinedinpink,isinthecenterbackground,facingeast,August2015..........................................116Figure4.02.21.GraveofMatushkaOlga,facingeast,August2015...........................................................116Figure4.02.22.Easternareaofthechurchyard,facingeast,August2015...............................................116Figure4.02.23.Raisedcrossateasternendofthechurchyard,facingeast,August2015.......................117Figure4.02.24.Churchyardfacingsouthwesttowardsthechurch,August2015.....................................117Figure4.02.25.Pathleadingsouthfromtheoldchurchtowardsthenewchurch,facingsouthsoutheast,

August2015......................................................................................................................................118 NapaskiakFigure4.03.1.SchematicplanofNapaskiakchurchesandcemetery.......................................................119Figure4.03.2.OrientationofNapaskiakchurches....................................................................................119Figure4.03.3.Oldchurch,lookingeast,ca.1960......................................................................................120Figure4.03.4.Newchurch,beforethetwodomestotherightwereremovedduringroofrepair,looking

northwest,1990...............................................................................................................................120Figure4.03.5.Westfrontandsouthsideofnewchurchwithrectorytoleft,1990.................................121Figure4.03.6.Thecemetery,lookingeast,1990......................................................................................121


ListofFiguresx

Figure4.03.7.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs.........................................................................................122Figure4.03.8.Boardwalkleadingfromthechurchtotheriver,lookingnorth,August2015...................122Figure4.03.9.Newbell,lookingwest,August2015.................................................................................123Figure4.03.10.Gravesshowingfencingandgravecoverstoavoiddisplacementofbodieswithalternate

freezingandthawing,lookingeast,August2015.Thecrossintheforegroundhasbeenmovedfromitsoriginalpositionatthefootofthegrave.....................................................................................123

Figure4.03.11.Boardwalkleadingtothechurch,lookingsouth,August2015........................................124Figure4.03.12.Boardwalkprocessionalwaysurroundingthechurch,lookingnorthwest,August2015.124Figure4.03.13.Cemeteryentrance,lookingnortheast,August2015.......................................................125Figure4.03.14.Gravesalignedalongprocessionalpathofformerchurch,lookingeast,August2015....125Figure4.03.15.Northernsectionofthecemeterywithunalignedgraves(crossatcenterrightis

traditionallyaligned),lookingeast,August2015.............................................................................126Figure4.03.16.Triangularcrossestothesouthofthechurchmarkgravesofunbaptizedbabies,looking

east,August2015.............................................................................................................................126Figure4.03.17.Well-craftedrecentgraves,lookingeastandnortheast,respectively,August2015.......127Figure4.03.18.Shrinecoveringaltarareaofformerchurch,lookingeast,August2015........................127 NinilchikFigure4.04.1.SchematicplanofNinilchikchurchandcemetery..............................................................129Figure4.04.2.OrientationofNinilchikchurch...........................................................................................129Figure4.04.3.LocationofNinilchikchurchandschoolonbluffnorthofthevillage,facingnorthwest,1952.

..........................................................................................................................................................131Figure4.04.4.VillageofNinilchikchurch,school,andaccesspathfromacrosstheNinilchikRiver,looking

northwest,1952...............................................................................................................................131Figure4.04.5.Foundationofparochialschool,withnewschoolandchurchinbackground,facing

northwest,1954.Figure4.04.6.Entrancetochurchlookingeast/northeast,1977...............................................................132Figure4.04.7.Ninilchikchurchandpathleadingdowntothevillage,facingnorthwest,July7,1978......133Figure4.04.8.Ninilchikchurchandgraveyard,facingsouthwest,1990....................................................133Figure4.04.9.LocationofNinilchikchurchonabluffnorthofthevillage,lookingnorth,1990...............134Figure4.04.10.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs........................................................................................135Figure4.04.11.Viewofchurchlookingnorthfromthevillage,July2015.................................................136Figure4.04.12.ViewofthevillageofNinilchik,lookingsouth,July2015..................................................137Figure4.04.13.SettingofthechurchaboveCookInlet,facingsouthwest,July2015...............................137Figure4.04.14.ViewacrossCookInlet,lookingwesttoMountEdgecomb,July2015.............................138Figure4.04.15.Entrancetochurchyardandcemetery,lookingeast,July2015........................................138Figure4.04.16.Churchwithunmowedcemeteryinforeground,lookingsouthwest,July2015...............139Figure4.04.17.Pathwayscreatedbyvisitorsamongthegraves,lookingsouthwest,July2015...............139Figure4.04.18.Depressionssuggestingunmarkedgravesalongthefence,lookingnorthfromchurch

entrance,July2015...........................................................................................................................140Figure4.04.19.Headstoneoutsidethefencedarea,crossatfootofgrave,lookingsouthtowardsthe

church,July2015..............................................................................................................................140Figure4.04.20.Recentclergygravesnearthenorthendofthechurchwithtraditionalorientation,facing

southeast,July2015.........................................................................................................................141


ListofFigures xi

Figure4.04.21.Eastofthechurch,showingdifferentorientationbetweenrecentclergygraves(right)andcharacteristicNinilchikorientation(background),lookingnorth,July2015....................................141

Figure4.04.22.AnorthodoxgraveintheVeteran'sCemeteryeastofthechurchyard,lookingsoutheast,July2015...........................................................................................................................................142

OldHarborFigure4.05.1.Schematicplanofchurchpropertyandharbor..................................................................143Figure4.05.2.OrientationofOldHarborchurchandshrines...................................................................143Figure4.05.3.Schematicplanofchurch,shrinesandvillagestreets........................................................143Figure4.05.4.Lookingsouthacrossthebay,1989...................................................................................144Figure4.05.5.Lookingsoutheastacrossthebay,1989.............................................................................145Figure4.05.6.Lookingeastfromthecemetery,1989...............................................................................145Figure4.05.7.Lookingnorthtowardstherectory,1989...........................................................................146Figure4.05.8.Eastendofchurch,lookingwest,1989..............................................................................146Figure4.05.9.Lookingsouthwesttowardsthecemeterygate,1989.......................................................147Figure4.05.10.Lookingwesttowardsthecemeteryentrance.................................................................147Figure4.05.11.ShrineofSt.Basilatsiteof1911church,lookingeast,1989...........................................148Figure4.05.12.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs.......................................................................................149Figure4.05.13.Pathwayfromcemeterytochurch,lookingeast,July2015.............................................151Figure4.05.14.Stepsleadingtothecemetery,lookingwest,July2015...................................................152Figure4.05.15.Stepsleadingtouppercemetery,lookingwest,July2015..............................................152Figure4.05.16.Cemetery,lookingeasttowardsvillage,July2015...........................................................153Figure4.05.17.Lookingeasttothechurchandvillagefromthecemetery,July2015.............................153Figure4.05.18.Cemetery,lookingsouthwesttothehillbeyond,July2015.............................................154Figure4.05.19.Cemetery,lookingsoutheast,July2015...........................................................................154Figure4.05.20.Cemetery,lookingsoutheast,July2015...........................................................................155Figure4.05.21.Cemetery,lookingnorthwesttowardsthehill,July2015................................................155Figure4.05.22.Cemetery,lookingsouthwesttowardshrine,July2015...................................................156Figure4.05.23.ShrineofSt.Basil,lookingsouth/southeast,July2015....................................................156Figure4.05.24.GraveofMayorSvenHaakansonwithcrossandfootstone,facingeast,July2015.........157Figure4.05.19.Cemetery,lookingsoutheast,July2015...........................................................................154Figure4.05.20.Cemetery,lookingsoutheast,July2015...........................................................................155Figure4.05.21.Cemetery,lookingnorthwesttowardsthehill,July2015................................................155Figure4.05.22.Cemetery,lookingsouthwesttowardshrine,July2015...................................................156Figure4.05.23.ShrineofSt.Basil,lookingsouth/southeast,July2015....................................................156Figure4.05.24.GraveofMayorSvenHaakansonwithcrossandfootstone,facingeast,July2015.........157 OuzinkieFigure4.06.1.Schematicplanofchurchlocation......................................................................................159Figure4.06.2.OrientationofOuzinkiechurch...........................................................................................159Figure4.06.3.SchematicplanofOuzinkiechurchandcemetery..............................................................159Figure4.06.4.Nineteenth-centurychurchontheleftand1906churchontheright................................161Figure4.06.5.Church,lookinguphilltonortheast,ca.1975.....................................................................161Figure4.06.6.Viewofchurch,lookingnorth,1989...................................................................................162


ListofFiguresxii

Figure4.06.7.Belltower/entrance,lookingeastfrombridge..................................................................162Figure4.06.8.Church,lookingnortheast,1989.........................................................................................162Figure4.06.9.Church,lookingsouth,1989................................................................................................163Figure4.06.10.Church,lookingnorth,1989..............................................................................................164Figure4.06.11.Churchandcemetery,lookingnorthwest,1989...............................................................164Figure4.06.12.Cemeterytonorthofchurch,facingnortheast,1989.......................................................165Figure4.06.13.Cemeterytonorthofchurch,facingnorth/northeast,1989............................................165Figure4.06.14.Cemeterynorthofchurch,facingnorth/northeast,1989.................................................166Figure4.06.15.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs........................................................................................167Figure4.06.16.Siteofchurchabovethewater,lookingnorth,April2015...............................................168Figure4.06.17.Bridgetothechurchacrossadrainage,lookingeast,April2015.....................................169Figure4.06.18.Churchandcemeteryonsouthside,lookingnortheast,April2015.................................169Figure4.06.19.Cemeterytothesouthofthechurch,lookingsoutheast,April2015...............................170Figure4.06.20.Cemeterytothenorthofthechurch,facingsoutheast,April2015..................................170Figure4.06.21.Cemeterytonorthofchurchwithcrossmarkingaltarofformerchurch,April2015.......171Figure4.06.22.Cemeteryfromintersectionof3rdandFStreets,lookingwest,April2015.....................171 SeldoviaFigure4.07.1.Schematicplanofchurchlocation.....................................................................................173Figure4.07.2.Schematicplanofimmediatesurroundingsofthechurch.................................................173Figure4.07.3.OrientationofSeldoviachurch...........................................................................................174Figure4.07.4.LookingsouthoverSeldoviawithchurchincenter,July6,1906.......................................175Figure4.07.5.Seldoviachurch,lookingnortheast,before1913...............................................................176Figure4.07.6.Seldoviachurch,lookingnortheast,1900(?).....................................................................177Figure4.07.7.ViewoftheSeldoviachurchfromthewater,lookingsoutheast,before1913..................178Figure4.07.8.LookingsouthovertheSeldoviachurch,before1939.......................................................179Figure4.07.9.LookingnortheasttowardstheSeldoviachurch,mid-20thcentury(before1964earthquake).

..........................................................................................................................................................180Figure4.07.10.Seldoviachurchlookinguphilltosoutheast,April1964(justaftertheearthquakeofMarch

27).....................................................................................................................................................181Figure4.07.11.Lookingeastfrombelowthebluff,1990..........................................................................181Figure4.07.12.Seldoviachurch,lookingnortheast,1990........................................................................182Figure4.07.13.Seldoviachurch,lookingnorth,1990...............................................................................182Figure4.07.14.Seldoviachurch,lookingsouthwest,1990.......................................................................183Figure4.07.15.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs.......................................................................................184Figure4.07.16.LookingsoutheasttowardtheSeldoviachurch,July2015...............................................185Figure4.07.17.LookingsouthtowardstheSeldoviachurchfromthereinforcedbeach,July2015.........186Figure4.07.18.ViewoftheSeldoviachurchfromMainStreet,lookingeast,July2015..........................186Figure4.07.19.ViewfromthedooroftheSeldoviachurch,lookingwest,July2015..............................187Figure4.07.20.Seldoviachurch,lookingnortheast,July2015.................................................................187Figure4.07.21.Seldoviachurch,lookingnorthwest,July2015................................................................188Figure4.07.22.Seldoviachurchbells,lookingnorthwest,July2015........................................................188Figure4.07.23.Candelabraatthewindowprovidedlightforprocessionsaroundthechurch,frominterior

lookingnorthwest,July2015............................................................................................................189


ListofFigures xiii

Figure4.07.24.Outlineofformerprocessionalroutearoundchurch,southwestcorner,facingsoutheast,July2015...........................................................................................................................................190

Figure4.07.25.PathwaytoSeldoviachurchfromMainStreet,fromthenorth,lookingeast,July2015.190Figure4.07.26.CemeteryBeach,lookingnorth,July2015.......................................................................191Figure4.07.27.CemeteryBeach,lookingsouth,July2015.......................................................................191Figure4.07.28.Processionalstar,northsideofSeldoviachurch,July2015.............................................192Figure4.07.29.StarfoundinnortheastcornerofinteriorofSeldoviachurch,July2015.........................193Figure4.07.11.Lookingeastfrombelowthebluff,1990..........................................................................181Figure4.07.12.Seldoviachurch,lookingnortheast,1990........................................................................182Figure4.07.13.Seldoviachurch,lookingnorth,1990...............................................................................182Figure4.07.14.Seldoviachurch,lookingsouthwest,1990.......................................................................183Figure4.07.15.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs.......................................................................................184Figure4.07.16.LookingsoutheasttowardtheSeldoviachurch,July2015...............................................185Figure4.07.17.LookingsouthtowardstheSeldoviachurchfromthereinforcedbeach,July2015.........186Figure4.07.18.ViewoftheSeldoviachurchfromMainStreet,lookingeast,July2015..........................186Figure4.07.19.ViewfromthedooroftheSeldoviachurch,lookingwest,July2015..............................187Figure4.07.20.Seldoviachurch,lookingnortheast,July2015.................................................................187Figure4.07.21.Seldoviachurch,lookingnorthwest,July2015................................................................188Figure4.07.22.Seldoviachurchbells,lookingnorthwest,July2015........................................................188Figure4.07.23.Candelabraatthewindowprovidedlightforprocessionsaroundthechurch,frominterior

lookingnorthwest,July2015............................................................................................................189Figure4.07.24.Outlineofformerprocessionalroutearoundchurch,southwestcorner,facingsoutheast,

July2015...........................................................................................................................................190Figure4.07.25.PathwaytoSeldoviachurchfromMainStreet,fromthenorth,lookingeast,July2015.190Figure4.07.26.CemeteryBeach,lookingnorth,July2015.......................................................................191Figure4.07.27.CemeteryBeach,lookingsouth,July2015.......................................................................191Figure4.07.28.Processionalstar,northsideofSeldoviachurch,July2015.............................................192Figure4.07.29.StarfoundinnortheastcornerofinteriorofSeldoviachurch,July2015.........................193 JuneauFigure4.08.1.OrientationofJuneauchurch..............................................................................................195Figure4.08.2.LocationofecclesiasticallandscapeelementsinJuneau,AK..............................................196Figure4.08.3.SchematicplanofJuneauchurchcomplex.........................................................................196Figure4.08.4.LocationofRussianandSerbianOrthodoxCemeterieswithinEvergreenCemetery

(City/BuroughofJuneauGIS)...........................................................................................................197Figure4.08.5.3-DmodelofJuneauchurchcreatedfortheHistoricAmericanBuildingsSurvey(Mauroand

Schara2013).....................................................................................................................................197Figure4.08.6.IllustrationofJuneauchurchfromRussianOrthodoxChurchPlanBookatSt.Herman’s

Seminary,Kodiak,Archives...............................................................................................................198Figure4.08.7.Juneauchurchandschool(right),lookingsoutheastoverGastineauChannel,before

1905/06............................................................................................................................................199Figure4.08.8.Juneauschool(left),church,andrectory(right),lookingwestacrossFifthStreet,probably

early20thcentury.............................................................................................................................199Figure4.08.9.Juneauchurchwithbelltower,lookingsoutheast,after1905/06......................................200Figure4.08.10.St.SavaSerbianOrthodoxChurchonDouglasIsland,locationunidentified,before1937.

..........................................................................................................................................................201


ListofFiguresxiv

Figure4.08.11.Churchandrectory,lookingnorthwest,1989...................................................................201Figure4.08.12.SourcesofHistoricPhotographs.......................................................................................202Figure4.08.13.Viewofthechurch,lookingnortheast,September2014..................................................203Figure4.08.14.Therectory,lookingsouthwestalongFifthStreet,September2014................................204Figure4.08.15.TherectoryfromFifthStreet,lookingsouthwest,September2014.................................204Figure4.08.16.Viewofthechurchwiththerectoryinleftbackground,lookingsoutheast,September2014.

..........................................................................................................................................................205Figure4.08.17.Pathwayalongthenorthsideofthechurchleadingtotherectoryandstreet,facingeast,

September2014...............................................................................................................................205Figure4.08.18.Northsideofthechurchandpathwayleadingtotheentrancefromthestreet,looking

southwest,September2014.............................................................................................................206Figure4.08.19.Remnantofanearlierprocessionalpathalongthesouthwallofthechurch,lookingeast,

September2014...............................................................................................................................207Figure4.08.20.SerbiansectionofEvergreenCemetery,lookingeast,September2014..........................208Figure4.08.21.SmallmemorialchapelbehindgravealongDouglasHighway,lookingnorth,September

2014..................................................................................................................................................208 KenaiFigure4.09.1.SchematicplanofKenaichurchcomplex............................................................................209Figure4.09.2.OrientationofAssumptionChurch......................................................................................209Figure4.09.3.ArialoverviewofKenaichurchcomplex,lookingsouth,1919............................................211Figure4.09.4.Assumptionchurch(left)andschool(right)withrectorybehind,facingwest,1949.........211Figure4.09.5.Assumptionchurch,facingeast,beforetheadditionofthebelltowerin1900.................212Figure4.09.6.Assumptionchurchwithbelltower,lookingnorthacrossaplowedfield,1896-1913.......212Figure4.09.7.Therectory(left)andAssumptionchurch,lookingnortheast,1939-1959.........................213Figure4.09.8.TheSt.Nicholaschapel,lookingsouthwest,1949..............................................................213Figure4.09.9.Therectory,lookingnorthwest,May2,1963.....................................................................214Figure4.09.10.Cemetery,lookingsouth,May21,1940............................................................................214Figure4.09.11.Singlegrave,lookingnortheast,1867-1913......................................................................215Figure4.09.12.Kenaichurch,lookingsouthwest,after1959....................................................................215Figure4.09.13.St.Nicholaschapel,lookingnorthwest,1952...................................................................217Figure4.09.14.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs........................................................................................217Figure4.09.15.AerialviewofKenaichurchcomplex,facingeast,August2015.......................................220Figure4.09.16.BluffwheretheearliestKenaichurchandcemeterywerebuilt,lookingnorthwest,

September2016...............................................................................................................................220Figure4.09.17.ViewofCookInletfromtheSt.Nicholaschapelsite,lookingsouthtowardsMt.Iliamna,

August2015......................................................................................................................................221Figure4.09.18.Thesiteofthefirstchurchandoldcemetery,lookingsouthfromtheSt.Nicholaschapel,

August2015......................................................................................................................................221Figure4.09.19.TheSt.Nicholaschapel,lookingnorthwestfromthesiteoftheRussianfort,August2016.

..........................................................................................................................................................222Figure4.09.20.AssumptionChurchinbackground,lookingacrossfencedlotsandparkinglotfromthe

southeastcorneroftheSt.Nicholaschapel,August2015...............................................................222


ListofFigures xv

Figure4.09.21.St.NicholasChapel,lookingsouthwestacrossfencedlot,August2015...........................223Figure4.09.22.LandlockedrestaurantnorthofSt.Nicholaschapel,lookingnorthwest,August2015....223Figure4.09.23.Assumptionchurchwithrectory(left)andreconstructedFortKenayatformerschoolsite

(right),lookingnortheast,August2015............................................................................................224Figure4.09.24.PavedpathtorectoryfromAssumptionchurch,lookingnorth,August2015..................224Figure4.09.25.ADApathfromgiftshoptoAssumptionchurch,lookingnorth,August2015..................225Figure4.09.26.Archwithsignabovewestgateintochurchyard,lookingsoutheast,August2015..........225Figure4.09.27.ViewthroughwestgateofchurchyardtoSt.Nicholaschapel,lookingsouthwest,

September2016...............................................................................................................................226Figure4.09.28.Rectorywithovergrownroadtocemeteryinbackground,lookingnorthwest,August2015.

..........................................................................................................................................................227Figure4.09.29.ViewofAssumptionchurchalongovergrownpathtocemetery,facingsouth,August2015.

..........................................................................................................................................................227Figure4.09.30.ViewofAssumptionchurchfromovergrownpathtonewcemetery,lookingsoutheast,

August2015......................................................................................................................................228Figure4.09.31.Signidentifyingthenewcemetery,facingnorth,August2015........................................228Figure4.09.32.Gravecrosseswithunmownmeadowinforegroundandsprucetreesinbackground,

facingwest,August2015..................................................................................................................229Figure4.09.33.Gravemarkerswithunmownmeadowinforegroundandsprucesinbackground,August

2015..................................................................................................................................................230Figure4.09.34.Pathwaytrodthroughunmownmeadowbyvisitorstograves,facingeast,September2016.

..........................................................................................................................................................230Figure4.09.35.Pathwaymowninmeadowfollowingpathwaystograves,lookingsoutheast,August2015.

..........................................................................................................................................................231Figure4.09.36.Singleanddoublegravessurroundedbyfences,lookingeast,August2015....................231Figure4.09.37.Militaryareaofcemeterywithheadstonesandfootcrossses,lookingnorthwest,August

2015..................................................................................................................................................232Figure4.09.38.Recentgravesornamentedwithflowers,lookingsouthwest,August2015.....................232Figure4.09.39.Gravefenceinneedofrepair,lookingsouthwest,August2015......................................232Figure4.09.10.Cemetery,lookingsouth,May21,1940............................................................................214Figure4.09.11.Singlegrave,lookingnortheast,1867-1913......................................................................215Figure4.09.12.Kenaichurch,lookingsouthwest,after1959....................................................................215Figure4.09.13.St.Nicholaschapel,lookingnorthwest,1952...................................................................217Figure4.09.14.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs........................................................................................217Figure4.09.15.AerialviewofKenaichurchcomplex,facingeast,August2015.......................................220Figure4.09.16.BluffwheretheearliestKenaichurchandcemeterywerebuilt,lookingnorthwest,

September2016...............................................................................................................................220Figure4.09.17.ViewofCookInletfromtheSt.Nicholaschapelsite,lookingsouthtowardsMt.Iliamna,

August2015......................................................................................................................................221Figure4.09.18.Thesiteofthefirstchurchandoldcemetery,lookingsouthfromtheSt.Nicholaschapel,

August2015......................................................................................................................................221Figure4.09.19.TheSt.Nicholaschapel,lookingnorthwestfromthesiteoftheRussianfort,August2016.

..........................................................................................................................................................222Figure4.09.20.AssumptionChurchinbackground,lookingacrossfencedlotsandparkinglotfromthe

southeastcorneroftheSt.Nicholaschapel,August2015...............................................................222Figure4.09.21.St.NicholasChapel,lookingsouthwestacrossfencedlot,August2015...........................223


ListofFiguresxvi

Figure4.09.22.LandlockedrestaurantnorthofSt.Nicholaschapel,lookingnorthwest,August2015....223Figure4.09.23.Assumptionchurchwithrectory(left)andreconstructedFortKenayatformerschoolsite

(right),lookingnortheast,August2015............................................................................................224Figure4.09.24.PavedpathtorectoryfromAssumptionchurch,lookingnorth,August2015..................224Figure4.09.25.ADApathfromgiftshoptoAssumptionchurch,lookingnorth,August2015..................225Figure4.09.26.Archwithsignabovewestgateintochurchyard,lookingsoutheast,August2015..........225Figure4.09.27.ViewthroughwestgateofchurchyardtoSt.Nicholaschapel,lookingsouthwest,

September2016...............................................................................................................................226Figure4.09.28.Rectorywithovergrownroadtocemeteryinbackground,lookingnorthwest,August2015.

..........................................................................................................................................................227Figure4.09.29.ViewofAssumptionchurchalongovergrownpathtocemetery,facingsouth,August2015.

..........................................................................................................................................................227Figure4.09.30.ViewofAssumptionchurchfromovergrownpathtonewcemetery,lookingsoutheast,

August2015......................................................................................................................................228Figure4.09.31.Signidentifyingthenewcemetery,facingnorth,August2015........................................228Figure4.09.32.Gravecrosseswithunmownmeadowinforegroundandsprucetreesinbackground,

facingwest,August2015..................................................................................................................229Figure4.09.33.Gravemarkerswithunmownmeadowinforegroundandsprucesinbackground,August

2015..................................................................................................................................................230Figure4.09.34.Pathwaytrodthroughunmownmeadowbyvisitorstograves,facingeast,September2016.

..........................................................................................................................................................230Figure4.09.35.Pathwaymowninmeadowfollowingpathwaystograves,lookingsoutheast,August2015.

..........................................................................................................................................................231Figure4.09.36.Singleanddoublegravessurroundedbyfences,lookingeast,August2015....................231Figure4.09.37.Militaryareaofcemeterywithheadstonesandfootcrossses,lookingnorthwest,August

2015..................................................................................................................................................232Figure4.09.38.Recentgravesornamentedwithflowers,lookingsouthwest,August2015.....................232Figure4.09.39.Gravefenceinneedofrepair,lookingsouthwest,August2015......................................232 KodiakFigure4.10.1.SchematicplanofthelocationoftheSitkachurchcomplex..............................................235Figure4.10.2.SchematicdiagramofecclesiasticalresourcesinSitka......................................................235Figure4.10.3.OrientationofSitkachurch................................................................................................236Figure4.10.4.AerialviewofKodiak,lookingsoutheast,April1913.........................................................237Figure4.10.5.Detailofaerialviewwithorphanageatleft,churchincenterandrectoryatright...........237Figure4.10.6.Theschooner"Hunter"atdockintheNearIslandChannelwithrectory,churchand

orphanageinthebackground,lookingsouth,1912.........................................................................238Figure4.10.7.Roadwithrectoryonleftandchurchonright,lookingeast,before1913........................238Figure4.10.8.HolyFridayprocessionenteringthechurch,lookingsoutheast,earlytwentiethcentury.239Figure4.10.9.Churchwithbellsintower,lookingeast,1917..................................................................240Figure4.10.10.Churchwithseparatebelltowertoright,lookingeast,after1945.................................240Figure4.10.11.Churchwithoiltankstoleft,lookingwest,duringWorldWarII.....................................241Figure4.10.12.Themissionhouseororphanage,lookingsouth,1919....................................................242Figure4.10.13.Oldcemetery,lookingsoutheastacrossKodiak,likelybefore1912................................242Figure4.10.14.ThenewcemeteryaftertheKatmaieruption,lookingeast,1913...................................243


ListofFigures xvii

Figure4.10.15.Thenewcemetery,lookingwest,1915............................................................................243Figure4.10.16.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs.......................................................................................245Figure4.10.17.SchematicplanofKodiakcemeterylocations..................................................................246Figure4.10.18.HolyResurrectionChurch,lookingsoutheast,April2015................................................247Figure4.10.19.Northsideofprocessionalpath,lookingeast,April2015................................................247Figure4.10.21.GraveofFatherandMatushkaKing,lookingeast,April2015.........................................248Figure4.10.20.Nineteenthcenturygraveeastofchurch,lookingeast,April2015.................................248Figure4.10.22.Newcemetery,lookingeast,April2015...........................................................................249Figure4.10.23.Fencedfamilyplotwithstonemonumentsinnewcemetery,lookingeast,April2015..249Figure4.10.24.Erosionofthenorthernslopeofthenewcemetery,lookingwest,April2015...............250Figure4.10.25.AsmallcemeteryonMadsenStreetoffMapleStreet,containingbothmarkedand

unmarkedgraves,lookingeast,April2015.......................................................................................250Figure4.10.26.ThechapelatSt.Herman'sSeminary,lookingnortheastfromtheadministrationbuilding,

April2015.........................................................................................................................................251 SitkaFigure4.11.1.LocationofSitkaintheAlexanderArchipelago...................................................................253Figure4.11.2.LocationofRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalsitesinSitka...................................................253Figure4.11.3.PropertyownershipatsiteofthefirstandsecondSt.Michael’sChurches(City&Boroughof

Sitka,Alaska,WebGISMaps)...........................................................................................................254Figure4.11.4.PropertyownershipofhistoricresourcesinSitka(City&BoroughofSitka,Alaska,WebGIS

Maps)................................................................................................................................................254Figure4.11.5.OrientationofSt.Michael'sCathedral................................................................................255Figure4.11.6.1867Cessionmap...............................................................................................................256Figure4.11.7.ChronologyofsignificantdatesinRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalhistoryinSitka...........257Figure4.11.8.ProcessionalroutesinSitka.................................................................................................258Figure4.11.9.Sitka,lookingeast,ca.1890................................................................................................259Figure4.11.10.SitkafromCastleHill,lookingeast,September2016........................................................259Figure4.11.11.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingeast,1890.......................................................................260Figure4.11.12.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingeast,September2016....................................................260Figure4.11.13.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingsouth,1886....................................................................261Figure4.11.14.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingsouth,1897....................................................................261Figure4.11.15.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingsouthwest,before1896..................................................262Figure4.11.16.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingsouthwest,September2016...........................................262Figure4.11.17.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingwest,1898......................................................................263Figure4.11.18.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingwest,September2016...................................................263Figure4.11.19.AnnunciationDayprocession,facingwest,ca.1890s.......................................................264Figure4.11.20.Religiousprocession,ca.1886-1890.................................................................................264Figure4.11.21.ProcessionalbannerofSt.Nicholas,locatedintheRussianBishop'sHouse,September

2014..................................................................................................................................................265Figure4.11.22.St.Michael'sCathedralbells,September2016..................................................................265Figure4.11.23.St.Michael'sCathedralbells,September2016..................................................................265Figure4.11.24.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs(St.Michael’sCathedral)...............................................267Figure4.11.25.LocationoftheformersiteoftheSt.Michael’sChurches................................................267


ListofFiguresxviii

Figure4.11.26.ViewofthesiteoftheSt.Michael’sChurchesfromCastleHill,lookingeast,September2016..................................................................................................................................................268

Figure4.11.27.ViewofthesiteoftheSt.Michael’sChurches,fromHarborDrive,lookingeast,September2016..................................................................................................................................................268

Figure4.11.28.SketchofthefirstSt.Michael’sChurch,probablylookingeast,JuneorJuly1827...........269Figure4.11.29.PlanofSitka,ca.1836.......................................................................................................269Figure4.11.30.ViewofSitkawithCastleatleftandSt.Michael’sChurchatright,lookingnorthwest,

between1833and1835...................................................................................................................270Figure4.11.31.ViewofSitka,withSt.Michael’sChurchmiddlerightandCastlefarright,lookingsouth,

between1843and1845...................................................................................................................270Figure4.11.32.ViewofSitkawithemptyareawheresecondSt.Michael’sChurchstood,Cathedralin

background,lookingnorth,noearlierthan1850.............................................................................271Figure4.11.33.ShrineatsiteofearlySt.Michael’sChurches,lookingwest/southwesttowardstheCastle,

before1894......................................................................................................................................271Figure4.11.34.St.Michael'sCathedralfromthelocationofearlierSt.Michael’sChurches,lookingnorth,

September2016...............................................................................................................................272Figure4.11.35.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs(St.Michael’sChurchsite).............................................273Figure4.11.36.SchematicplanoftheTrinityChurchsitetoday................................................................273Figure4.11.37.FacadedesignapprovedfortheTrinityChurch,lookingnorth,1846...............................275Figure4.11.38.Voznesenski'sdrawingoftheTrinityChurch,lookingnortheast,1843-45.......................276Figure4.11.39.TheTrinityChurchandpalisade,lookingnorth,1868.......................................................276Figure4.11.40.TheTrinityChurchin1855reproducedaccordingtothememoriesoflong-timeresidents

(showingholesonthesouthsidefromRussiancannonballs),facingnorth,1855..........................277Figure4.11.41.OnlyknownphotoofTrinityChurch,fromBLMsignageatBlockhousesite,facingnorth,

1868..................................................................................................................................................277Figure4.11.42.WoodencrossattestingtotherestorationoftheTrinityChurchin1857........................278Figure4.11.43.ShrinemarkingthealtarlocationofTrinityChurch,putinplacebytheSt.Nikolai

Brotherhood,lookingsoutheastwithCathedralinbackground,1907.............................................278Figure4.11.44.ViewofthegraveofNadezhdaVinokouroff(+1862)attheTrinityChurchsitewithshrine

atupperleft,lookingnorthwest,ca.1950s......................................................................................279Figure4.11.45.ViewdownMarineStreet,pastthesiteofNadezhdaVinokouroff'sgrave,lookingnorth,

September2016...............................................................................................................................279Figure4.11.46.ViewofTrinityChurchsitefromMarineStreet,lookingnorthwest,September2016.....280Figure4.11.47.ViewofTrinityChurchsite,lookingnorthfromCastleHill,April2015.............................280Figure4.11.48.ViewofTrinityChurchsite,reconstructedblockhouseatupperleft,lookingnorthfrom

SewardStreet,April2015.................................................................................................................281Figure4.11.49.ViewfromTrinityChurchsitetoharbor,reconstructedblockhouseonright,looking

southwest,September2016.............................................................................................................281Figure4.11.50.TrinityChurchsitewithshrineincenter,Cathedralinbackgroundright,looking

east/southeast,September2016.....................................................................................................282Figure4.11.51.ShrineatTrinityChurchsite,lookingnorthwest,April2015.............................................283Figure4.11.52.DamagedgravemarkeratTrinityChurchsite,lookingwest,April2015..........................283Figure4.11.53.GraveofAleksandrGavrilov(+1848)attheTrinityChurchsite,lookingwest,April2015.283Figure4.11.54.FencesurroundingAleksandrGavrilov'sgraveattheTrinityChurchsite,facingsouthwest,

April2015.........................................................................................................................................283


ListofFigures xix

Figure4.11.55.GraveofNadezhdaVinokouroff(+1862),withTrinitysiteshrineinbackground,lookingwest,September2016......................................................................................................................284

Figure4.11.56.GraveofAnnaNetsvetov(+1836)inoldcemeteryareanorthoftheTrinityChurchsite,lookingeast,September2016..........................................................................................................284

Figure4.11.57.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs(TrinityChurchsite).......................................................286Figure4.11.58.Schematicplanoftoday’scemeteriesinSika...................................................................286Figure4.11.59.ViewofTlingitvillagewithwoodedcemeteryandRussianblockhouseinthehillsbehind

(right),lookingnorth,ca.1880.........................................................................................................287Figure4.11.60.GraveofPrincessMaksutov(+1881),lookingwesttoblockhousereconstructionacross

MarineStreet,September2016.......................................................................................................288Figure4.11.61.Cemeterywithcentralpathtoright,facingnorth,September2016................................288Figure4.11.62.Cemetery,lookingnorthwest,September2016...............................................................289Figure4.11.63.Russiancrossmarkinggrave,September2014.................................................................289Figure4.11.64.GravemarkerofapresidentoftheSt.NicolasBrotherhood,Sitka,September2014......289Figure4.11.65.Conditionofoldergravesincemetery,September2014.................................................290Figure4.11.66.Shellsongrave,suggestingaclanassociation,September2014......................................290Figure4.11.67.Figurinesoffrogsongrave,suggestingaclanassociation,September2014...................290Figure4.11.68.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs(Cemeteries)..................................................................291 UnalaskaFigure4.12.1.SchematicplanoftheUnalaskachurchcomplex...............................................................293Figure4.12.2.OrientationofUnalaskachurch..........................................................................................293Figure4.12.3.DetailfromU.S.SurveyMap,1908....................................................................................295Figure4.12.4.Overviewofsite,lookingnorth,1983................................................................................296Figure4.12.5.Overviewofsite(detail),lookingnorth,1983....................................................................296Figure4.12.6.Shiashnikovchurch,lookingsoutheast,ca.1885...............................................................297Figure4.12.7.Shiashnikovchurch(left)andcustomshouse(right),facingsouth,1894..........................297Figure4.12.8.Cathedral,lookingsoutheast,ca.1910..............................................................................298Figure4.12.9.Churchcomplex,lookingeast,ca.1910.............................................................................298Figure4.12.10.Cathedral,lookingnortheast,ca.1910............................................................................299Figure4.12.11.Cathedral,lookingsouth,1917.........................................................................................299Figure4.12.12.Cathedralwithgateandboardwalk,lookingeast,1923..................................................300Figure4.12.13.Frontofrectoryandschool,lookingnorthwest,ca.1907................................................300Figure4.12.14.Backofshed,rectoryandschool,lookingsouthwest,possibly1892-1883.....................301Figure4.12.15.Rectoryafter1960firewhichdestroyedtheschool,lookingsoutheast,1961................301Figure4.12.16.Cemetery,facingeast,1939.............................................................................................302Figure4.12.17.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs.......................................................................................304Figure4.12.18.SchematicplanofecclesiasticalresourcesinUnalaska(GoogleEarth2005)..................305Figure4.12.19.Ecclesiasticalcomplex,withrectoryleft,cathedralrightandcemeteryinrightbackground,

lookingeast,July2015......................................................................................................................307Figure4.12.20.Cathedralandchurchyard,lookingeast,July2015..........................................................307Figure4.12.21.WestcathedralentrancewithADArampleftandstairsright,lookingeast,April2015..308Figure4.12.22.Viewofcathedralfrombeach,lookingsoutheast,July2015...........................................308Figure4.12.23.RectoryfromBayviewRoad,lookingsouthwest,July2015.............................................309Figure4.12.24.Viewofcathedralandrectory,lookingeastdownBayviewRoad,July2015...................309


ListofFiguresxx

Figure4.12.25.ViewofcathedralandrectoryfromSummerBayRoad,lookingsouth,July2015..........310Figure4.12.26.Viewofrectory(left)andcathedral(right)withIlliliukRiverinforeground,looking

northwest,July2015........................................................................................................................310Figure4.12.27.ViewofcathedralandchurchyardwithIlliliukBayinthebackground,lookingnortheast,

July2015...........................................................................................................................................311Figure4.12.28.Expandedchurchyardarea,lookingnortheast,July2015................................................311Figure4.12.29.Churchyardcemetery,lookingsoutheast,July2016........................................................312Figure4.12.30.Churchyardcemetery,lookingnortheast,July2015........................................................312Figure4.12.31.Sprucesliningthenorthsideofthechurchyard,lookingnortheast,July2015...............313Figure4.12.32.Churchyardvegetation,July2015....................................................................................313Figure4.12.33.GravemarkerforFr.InokentiiShiashnikov(+1883),July2015........................................314Figure4.12.34.GravemarkerforBishopNestor(Zass,+1882),July2015................................................314Figure4.12.35.MemorialforFr.PeterBourdukovsky(+2005),July2015................................................315Figure4.12.36.Cemetery,lookingsoutheast,July2015...........................................................................315Figure4.12.37.Cemetery,lookingwesttowardsthecathedral,July2015...............................................316Figure4.12.38.Solitarygrave,lookingwest,neartheendofSummerBayRoad,July2015....................316Figure4.12.39.Sitkaspruceplantation,lookingsouthwest,July2015.....................................................317 Monk’sLagoon/SpruceIslandFigure4.13.1.SchematicdiagramofMonksLagoonlocation....................................................................319Figure4.13.2.ChapelatSpruceIsland,southside.....................................................................................320Figure4.13.3.Earlyphotographofchapelattachedtophotographofremodeledchapel........................321Figure4.13.4.Fr.Gerasim'schapel(left)andcell(right)...........................................................................322Figure4.13.5.Fr.GerasimstandingonthebeachatMonksLagoon.........................................................322Figure4.13.6.Fr.Gerasim'schapel,1989..................................................................................................323Figure4.13.7.Fr.Gerasim'scell,1989.......................................................................................................323Figure4.13.8.Fr.Gerasim'scellandgrave.................................................................................................324Figure4.13.9.Wellhouse,1989.................................................................................................................324Figure4.13.10.Chapelbefore2004renovation.........................................................................................325Figure4.13.11.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs........................................................................................326Figure4.13.12.ApproachtoSpruceIslandbywater,April2015...............................................................328Figure4.13.13.LookingtowardsthewaterfromthebeachofSpruceIsland,April2015.........................328Figure4.13.14.TrailfromthebeachtoFr.Gerasim'schapel(left)andcell(right),April2015.................329Figure4.13.15.Fr.Gerasim'schapel(left)andcell(right),April2015.......................................................329Figure4.13.16.Fr.Gerasim'scell,withfencedareainfront(likelyagarden),April2015.........................330Figure4.13.17.FencedenclosureattachedtoFr.Gerasim'scell,withFr.Gerasim'sgrave(left)andFr.

PeterKreta'sgrave(right),April2015..............................................................................................330Figure4.13.18.Creekandwellhouse,April2015......................................................................................331Figure4.13.19.BoardwalklinkingFr.Gerasim’schapelandcell,April2015.............................................331Figure4.13.20.BoardwalkoutsideFr.Gerasim'schapelwithmetalring,April2015................................332Figure4.13.21.Fr.Gerasim'sgrave,April2015..........................................................................................333Figure4.13.22.TheTrailtoChapelofSaintsSergiusandHermanofValaamwithrenovatedporch,April

2015..................................................................................................................................................334Figure4.13.23.CrawlspaceunderthechapelwhereSt.Hermanwasburied..........................................335Figure4.13.24.Eastendofthechapelwithbelltoweratright,April2015...............................................335


ListofFigures xxi

Figure4.13.25.Bellsattachedtorenovatedporch,April2015..................................................................336Figure4.13.26.ThetrailoverlandtoOuzinkie,April2015.........................................................................337

5. TheRussianBishop’sHouse–HistoricContextFigure5.00.1.ArchpriestPaulKedrolivanskii,VicarBishopPaul(Popov)andformerNushagakmissionary

ArchimandriteFeofil(Uspenskii),infrontoftheBishop'sHouse,1868...........................................350Figure5.00.2.ShippingroutesshowingtravelsofBishopNikolaiZiorovin1897,illustratingthecentral

positionofUnalaskafortravelsaroundAlaska(GrapachevskiiinROAM2[1897-1898])...............354Figure5.00.3.SergeiIonovichKostromitinov(1854-1915),long-timechurchwarden(starosta)ofSt.

Michael'sCathedral..........................................................................................................................356Figure5.00.4.St.Michael’sBrotherhood,menandwomenwearingribbons,menwearingribbonsand

sashes,officerswearingalsoagoldstar,withBishopInnocentPustinskii(centerwithstaff),Fr.AndrewKashevarov(immediatelytothebishop’sright)andotherclergy......................................365

Figure5.00.5.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs.........................................................................................367

6. TheRussianBishop’sHouse–FieldNotesFigure6.1.BoundaryUTMsofRussianBishop'sHouseLandscape(Welzenbach2012,10)......................370Figure6.2.BoundaryoftheRussianBishop'sHouseCulturalLandscape(Welzenbach2012,9)..............370Figure6.3.LandscapecharacteristicsandaspectsofintegrityoftheRussianBishop'sHouselandscape.372Figure6.4.Character-definingfeaturesoftheRussianBishop'sHouselandscape,groupedbylandscape

characteristics...................................................................................................................................373Figure6.5.PlanofSitka,1845....................................................................................................................373Figure6.6.AviewofCrescentBayshowingtheRussianBishop'sHouseandSchool,lookingwest,ca.1900.

..........................................................................................................................................................374Figure6.7.BeekeepingbehindtheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingsouth,ca.1900...............................375Figure6.8.ViewofSeminarybuildinginforegroundwiththeRussianBishop'sHouseinthebackground,

lookingnorthwest,before1882.......................................................................................................376Figure6.9.TheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnortheast,1885.............................................................376Figure6.10.TheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnortheast,1890...........................................................377Figure6.11.TheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnortheast,ca.1900......................................................377Figure6.12.TheRussianBishop'shouse,lookingnorthwestfromthebeach,ca.1900............................378Figure6.13.TheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnorthfromtheformerbeach(nowpark),September

2016..................................................................................................................................................378Figure6.14.TheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnorthwest,September2016........................................379Figure6.15.ViewfromthefrontyardoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingsouth,September2016...379Figure6.16.ViewfromthefrontyardoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingsouthwest,September2016.

..........................................................................................................................................................380Figure6.17.ViewfromthewestsideoftheRussianBishop'sHouse(alongMonasteryStreet),looking

south,September2016....................................................................................................................380Figure6.18.ViewfromthewestsideoftheRussianBishop'sHouse(alongMonasteryStreet),looking

north,September2016....................................................................................................................381Figure6.19.ViewoftheareabetweentheRussianBishop'sHouse(left)andtheSchoolhouse(right),

lookingnorth,September2016........................................................................................................382Figure6.20.FencinginfrontoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnorth,September2016..................384


ListofFiguresxxii

Figure6.21.ChangeofgradeandboundaryfenceonnorthsideoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnortheast,September2016..............................................................................................................384

Figure6.22.ViewoftheRussianBishop'sHousefromtheBaranoffSchoolplayground,lookingsoutheast,September2016...............................................................................................................................385

Figure6.23.BelloutsidethesecondfloorwestsideoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingsoutheast,September2016...............................................................................................................................385

Figure6.24.PathwornintheturfdemonstratesthecirculationpatternbetweentheRussianBishop'sHouseandtheSchoolhouse,lookingnorth,September2016.........................................................387

Figure6.25.GardeninfrontoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnortheast,September2016...........388Figure6.26.RolledormowedlawnandboardwalkinfrontoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,looking

northeast,ca.1900...........................................................................................................................389Figure6.27.NationalParkServicesignageattheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingeast,September2016.

..........................................................................................................................................................390Figure6.28.InterpretivesignageinfrontoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnorth,September2016.

..........................................................................................................................................................390Figure6.29.ExampleoflightingfortheRussianBishop'sHouseinthenortheastcorneroftheproperty,

lookingnorth,September2016........................................................................................................391Figure6.30.ADAaccessonthewestsideoftheSchoolhouse,lookingsoutheast,September2016.......391Figure6.31.ADAaccessonthewestsideoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingsouth,September2016.

..........................................................................................................................................................392Figure6.32.NoncontributingstorageshedandutilitiesinthenortheastcorneroftheRussianBishop's

Houseproperty,lookingnortheast,September2016......................................................................392Figure6.33.ConditionassessmentofcontributingandnoncontributingfeaturesattheRussianBishop's

House................................................................................................................................................394Figure6.34.Potentialpublicandprivatepartnersforcollaborativeinterpretivework............................397Figure6.35.Potentialcollaboratingpartners-selectedparishesoftheAlaskanDioceseoftheOrthodox

ChurchinAmerica.............................................................................................................................397Figure6.36.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs.............................................................................................401

HistoricalEcclesiasticalLandscapesStudy–SitkaNationalHIstoricalPark

Historic Ecclesiastical Landscape Study – Sitka National Historical Park

xxiii

PROJECT INFORMATION

ThisprojectwascarriedoutbetweentheNationalParkService(NPS)andtheUniversityofArizona(UA)throughaJointVenturesAgreementadministeredbytheDesertSouthwestCooperativeEcosystemStudiesUnit(DS-CESU).PrincipalInvestigator: R.BrooksJeffery DrachmanInstitute|HeritageConservation CollegeofArchitecture,Planning,andLandscapeArchitecture TheUniversityofArizona P.O.Box210075 1040N.OliveRd.(deliveries) Tucson,Arizona85721-0075 Phone:(520)621-2991

FAX:(520)621-8700 Email:[email protected] ProjectDirector: HelenErickson DrachmanInstitute|HeritageConservation CollegeofArchitecture,Planning,andLandscapeArchitecture TheUniversityofArizona P.O.Box210075 1040N.OliveRd.(deliveries) Tucson,Arizona85721-0075 Phone:(520)621-2991 FAX:(520)621-8700 Email:[email protected]

Researcherand JohnH.EricksonHistorian: P.O.Box57249 Tucson,Arizona85732 Phone:(520)881-1092 Email:[email protected]

AgreementTechnical BrinnenCarter,Ph.D.Representative(ATR) ChiefofResourcesand SitkaNationalHistoricalParkParkProject Sitka,Alaska99835Coordinator: Phone:(907)738-4960 [email protected]


ProjectInformationxxiv

ParkSuperintendent: DavidElkowitz SitkaNationalHistoricalPark 103MonasteryStreet Sitka,Alaska99835 Phone:(907)747-0111 [email protected]: NinaBogdan,RussianTranslator DepartmentofHistory TheUniversityofArizona P.O.Box210027 Tucson,Arizona85721-0027 Phone:(520)390-7899 Email:[email protected] NevenkaKitanovski,MLA,ASLAVolunteer: 6305W.YachtsmanCircle Wasilla,AK99654 Phone:505-720-9865DS/CESUCoordinator: PatO’Brien CulturalResourceSpecialist DesertSouthwest/CooperativeEcosystemsStudyUnit NationalParkService Phone:(520)626-3966 pat_o’[email protected] ProjectReferences: CooperativeAgreementNo.H1200-10-0001

TaskAgreement#P14AC01172 ProjectNumberUAZDS-420 UAAccountNo.3011420

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY CHAPTER 2 OVERVIEW


2



Chapter1–ExecutiveSummary 3

EXECUTIVESUMMARYThissectionincludesthehistoryandobjectivesoftheproject,alongwithrecommendationsforexpandingtheinterpretivescopeoftheBishop’sHouseinSitkatoincludeitscontextwithintheRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticallandscapeinAlaskafromapproximately1840to1920.PROJECTOUTLINEThroughacooperativeagreementbetweentheNationalParkServiceandtheDrachmanInstituteoftheUniversityofArizonaCollegeofArchitecture,PlanningandLandscapeArchitecture,theSitkaNationalHistoricalParkandtheAlaskaRegionalSupportOfficewillgainabroaderunderstandingofhowtheRussianOrthodoxDioceseofAlaskafunctionedinitsrelationshipswiththechurchhierarchyinRussiaanditsparishesandmissionsinAlaskaduringtheRussiancolonialperiodandthetransitionalAmericanperiod.Theserelationshipswillbeilluminatedthroughthedevelopmentofahistoriccontextandbylandscapeanalysesatscalesrangingfromstate-widetoindividualclustersandproperties,amongthemtheBishop’sHouseinSitka.PROJECTHISTORYThe Drachman Institute of the College of Architecture, Landscape Architecture and Planning of the University of Arizona, undertook this study in August 2014. The project was administered through a Cooperative Agreement with the Desert Southwest Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit of the University of Arizona (Cooperative Agreement Number H1200-10-001). Professor R. Brooks Jeffery served as Principal Investigator, with Helen Erickson as Project Director and John H. Erickson as Researcher and Historian. Nina Bogdan served as Russian translator for essential documents, and Nevenka Kitanovski, MLA, assisted with documentation of sites in the Anchorage area. Brinnen Carter, Ph.D., Chief of Resources at Sitka National Historical Park, served as Park Project Coordinator. The study required both library research and site documentation. Members of the project team made a number of trips to Alaska during the course of the project. In September 2014 R. Brooks Jeffery, Helen Erickson and John H. Erickson traveled to Sitka to meet with park staff to discuss the project and conduct initial site research. Helen Erickson and John H. Erickson subsequently traveled to Juneau to visit archives and to document ecclesiastical sites in Juneau and Douglas. During the period from September 2014 to September 2016, Helen Erickson visited thirteen ecclesiastical sites


Chapter1–ExecutiveSummary4

• Juneau and Sitka (September 2014) • Eklutna, Knik, Kodiak, Old Harbor, Ouzinkie, Sitka and Spruce Island (April 2015) • Kenai, Kwethluk, Napaskiak, Ninilchik, Seldovia and Unalaska (July/August

2015) • Kenai and Sitka (September 2016).1

John H. Erickson also visited and contributed to the documentation of the following sites

• Juneau and Sitka (September 2014) • Eklutna, Knik, Kodiak, Sitka and Spruce Island (April 2015) • Kenai, Kwethluk, Napaskiak, Ninilchik and Seldovia (July/August 2015).

HelenandJohnH.Ericksonundertookareviewofbibliographyandofarchivalresources.ThisreviewincludedvisitstotheAlaskaStateLibraryandthearchivesoftheSealaskaHeritageInstitute,JuneauAK(September2014);thearchivesoftheOrthodoxChurchinAmerica,SyossetNY(December2014andJanuary2015);thearchivesoftheAnchorageMuseum(April2015andJuly2015);andthearchivesofSt.Herman’sSeminaryinKodiakAK,thediocesanseminaryoftheOrthodoxChurchinAmerica’sDioceseofAlaska(April2015).SpecialthanksareduetotheUniversityofAlaskaAnchorage/AlaskaPacificUniversityConsortiumLibrary(July2015)andtotheUniversityofArizonaLibrarySpecialCollections(June2015)forobtainingmicrofilmaccesstoimportantmanuscriptandrareprintmaterials.HelenEricksonundertookworkonthedevelopmentofaprocedurefordocumentingecclesiasticalresourcesatremotelocationsinAlaska(Chapters7.06and7.07).AtSt.Herman’s(April2015),atextandphotographformatwaspresentedtotheseminarystudents,whoaredrawnfromvillagesacrossAlaska.AsimilarpresentationwasmadeforclergywivesattheannualKuskokwimDeaneryconference,heldinNapaskiak,Alaska(July2015).Afterthesepresentations,itwasdeterminedthatvideo(phone)documentationratherthanwrittendocumentationwouldbeafarmoreeffectivemediumforthiscrowd-sourcedproject.ThefootagefortwovideomodelswascompletedinOctober2016.RobertDemersoftheUniversityofArizonaprovidedguidanceinhowtouseaniPadtofilmonsiteandprocessedthefinalversionsofthevideos.DorothyGrayoftheChurchoftheAssumption(Kenai,AK)andV.Rev.MichaelOleksaoftheRussianDioceseoftheOrthodoxChurchinAmericanarratedfootageinKenaiandSitka,respectively.VideoreleasesforGrayandOleksa,andalsoforAnaDitmar,whorangtheSt.Michael’sCathedralbellsfortheSitkarecording,areavailablefromtheDrachmanInstitute.HisGraceBishopDavid(Mahaffey)ofSitkaandAlaska(OrthodoxChurchinAmerica)supportedandfacilitatedthissegmentoftheprojectthroughoutthestudy.

1 Return visits to Kenai and Sitka undertaken in September 2016 provided an opportunity to film the two videos associated with this project, as well as to verify earlier documentation.



InDecember2015,adraftdocumentwassubmittedtoSitkaNationalHistoricalPark.AfinaldocumentwassubmittedinJanuary2017. METHODOLOGY The project context was based on archival research and evaluation of preexisting documentation of Russian Orthodox ecclesiastical sites in Alaska. The context utilized both secondary and primary sources in an initial effort to create a comprehensive overview of the presence of the Russian Orthodox Church in Alaska. National Register Nominations and Historic American Buildings Surveys provided an initial framework for the work. A review of these materials is contained in Appendix 7.01. Historic photos of the sites chosen for documentation were obtained online from the Library of Congress, the National Park Service National Register, and VILDA, or, in a few cases, were scanned from publications and archival collections. Historic photos were used as a basis of comparison with today’s existing conditions, although only a minority of these provide landscape information. It should be noted that there has been no effort made to obtain publication permission for these historic photographs, but the information contained in them was essential to the completion of the study. Thirteen ecclesiastical sites were chosen for documentation. The sites were selected on the basis of historic resources, geographic and ethnic distribution, and accessibility. Many sites are accessible only by air or water, and some visited sites are generally not open to non-residents. His Grace, Bishop David of Alaska, supported our efforts in visiting some of these locations, and John H. Erickson, as a priest in the Russian Orthodox Church, was always welcome. Directions used in figures and in descriptions are based on liturgical east, not geographic east. More information on this aspect of the study is found in Chapter 4.00 (Introduction to Field Notes). When materials in Russian were deemed especially important to the project, University of Arizona graduate student Nina Bogdan assisted with translations. Because of the interpretive needs of the Russian Bishop’s House in Sitka, the study took place at several different scales, ranging from the geographic extent of the Russian Orthodox Church, to the state of Alaska, to individual towns and villages, to Sitka, and to the Bishop’s House itself. While the study of the landscape of the Bishop’s House is intended to be reasonably comprehensive, it should not be mistaken for a Cultural Landscape Report.



STUDYAREASInordertoprovideanappropriateinterpretivecontext,thechosenstudyareaisbothextensiveandintensive.BeginningwithageneralanalysisofthegeographicspreadoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchinAlaskaanditslinkstoRussiaand,later,thelowerUnitedStates,anumberofspecificsiteswerechosenforcloserevaluation.Theseecclesiasticallocationswereselectedonthebasisofhistoricimportance,associationwithmajorfigures,communitysize,ethnicbackground,andaccessibility.ToprovideanexpandedinterpretivecontextfortheBishop’sHouseaspartoftheSitkaNationalHistoricalPark,asubsectionoftheprojectisfocusedontheRussianBishop’sHouse,aswellasonotherecclesiasticalresourcesandtheirrelationshipsinSitka.Studyareaswereselectedatfourdifferentscales.

• TheStateofAlaskaandselectedconnectionstoRussia(Figure1.1)

• SelectedsitesprovidingananalyticcontextforRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalsitesinAlaska(Figure1.2)

• RussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalresourcesandsitesofformerresourcesinSitka

AK(Figure1.3)

• TheimmediatelandscapeoftheRussianBishop’sHouseinSitkaAK(Figure1.4)



Figure1.1.Studyareacoveredbythisreportwithoutlinedareaofmoreintensivestudy(imagerybasedonGoogleEarth2016).

Figure1.2.Geographiclocationofstudyareasindividuallyanalyzedinthisreport(imagerybasedonGoogleEarth2016).



Figure1.3.StudyareainSitkaAK(imagerybasedonGoogleEarth2016).

Figure1.4.Studyarea,RussianBishop'sHouseproperty(Welzenbach2011,6).



PROJECTOBJECTIVESAsbothametaphoricalandaphysicallandscapestudy,theprimaryobjectivewastoprovidecontextualmaterialsforagreaterunderstandingoftheintellectualandgeographicimpactoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchontheAlaskanlandscape.Recognizingtheenormousscopeoftheproject,thisreportisintendedtoserveasapointofdepartureforfutureworkaswellastoprovideusefulandimmediateinterpretiveguidancefortheRussianBishop’sHouse,linkingittothewiderecclesiasticallandscapeofSitkaandofthelargerAlaskanecclesiasticallandscape.Asecondarygoalwastoinvolvestudentsandmembersofthepublicinthisproject.Withdirectedreading,theUniversityofArizonagraduatestudenttranslatorbecameawareofawholenewareaofRussianstudies.AsanNPSvolunteer,Nevenka Kitanovski, MLA, assisted with documentation of sites in the Anchorage area. StudentsfromSt.Herman’sSeminary,Alaska,andOrthodoxclergyandtheirfamilieswereinvolvedintheplanningofatooltodocumentimportantbutrelativelyinaccessiblehistoricecclesiasticlandscapes.Thisledtothedevelopmentofavideomodeltoimplementsuchwork.AthirdobjectivewastoacquaintparkinterpretivestaffwithcurrentlyavailableprivateandecclesiasticalresourcesinAlaska.AmongtheseresourcesarethecontemporaryDioceseofSitkaandAlaska(OrthodoxChurchinAmerica),individualhistoricecclesiasticalsiteshavingactiveinterpretiveprograms(KenaiandKodiakparishes),andnon-profitssuchasROSSIA(RussianOrthodoxSacredSitesinAlaska).REPORT ORGANIZATION This report is organized into four parts, each of which focuses on a specific aspect of this study. When needed, these are divided into chapters. Figures are identified by chapter number; to reduce the complexity of figure captions, sources for all historic photos in a chapter are listed in a table at the end of the section rather than referenced in the caption.

• The Introduction provides material on the background and methodology of the project, along with summary recommendations for the report as a whole.

• Part I provides a historic context for the Russian Orthodox Church, its origins in

the Middle East and Russia, liturgical structures, organization and development in Alaska and the United States, along with field notes on the thirteen sites visited during the course of the study.

• Part II focuses specifically on the Russian Bishop’s House in Sitka. While this is

an effort to provide fine-grained information about the resource and its history, it is not intended to serve as a Cultural Landscape Report, but rather an analysis of the potential of the Russian Bishop’s House to develop a cohesive



interpretative strategy in collaboration with other groups at a variety of scales throughout Alaska and beyond.

• The Appendices contain information on preexisting documentation and

archival resources, a bibliography, a reference timeline, a glossary of terms and information on the two documentary videos completed as part of this project.

KEYFINDINGSGeneral This study covers a large area, both in terms of geography and in terms of information, and thus must be regarded as a starting point for additional work. Many aspects of the ecclesiastical landscapes studied have clear links to liturgical and administrative practices in the Russian Orthodox Church. These have been identified in the field site analyses in Part I and 2. Orientation of churches to a determined liturgical east is part of this linkage. The work of scholars completed over the past fifty years includes much that is excellent, but also much that requires revision. Some of the difficulties to be overcome include

• Primary sources are scattered throughout archives in Alaska and elsewhere in the United States. Much primary source research remains to be done, especially in Russian archives, which were previously inaccessible.

• Approximately half of the historic photographs – including almost all of the

photos in the Vinokouroff collection and those on the Sitka National Historical Park website – are undated.

• Access. Many resources are located in places difficult to reach by public

transportation and have no public options for lodging or meals. Social considerations may also restrict access to sites.

Almost all NPS documentation of historic Russian Orthodox ecclesiastical sites in Alaska should be revised and/or expanded. National Landmark documentation forms provide information on church architecture and appropriate descriptions of Setting, but in most cases landscape components are ignored. National Register Nominations dating from the 1970s and 1980s contain minimal historical information and require updated historic contexts as well as documentation of significant landscape features such as cemeteries. Polygonal site boundaries should be determined, rather than relying on the supplied lat/long points. Important undocumented sites, such as Russian Mission, Old Harbor, and Kwethluk, should be documented.



RussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalresourceslistedoreligibleforlistingintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesshouldbedocumentedthroughaseriesofHistoricAmericanLandscapesSurveyscomparabletotheHistoricAmericanBuildingsSurveyscompletedduring1989-1990.Crowd-sourcedvideodocumentationofremotesitesshouldbeencouraged,followingthetwoprototypesdevelopedaspartofthisstudy.SpecifictotheRussianBishop’sHouseTheRussianBishop’sHouseiswellsituatedtoprovideacomprehensiveinterpretationoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchinAlaskaduringRussianperiodandintotheperiodfollowingacquisitionofAlaskabytheUnitedStates.Interpretationshouldincludeitscontinuallychanginguses,illustratingtheongoingadaptationsoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchinAlaska.ConsiderationshouldbegiventothedevelopmentofaSitkahistoricecclesiasticaldistrict,ofwhichtheRussianBishop’sHousecouldserveasinterpretivecenter.RegionalRussianecclesiasticalresourcesinJuneau,Angoon,HoonahandFunterBayshouldbedocumentedforinclusionintheRussianBishop’sHouseinterpretivematerials.InterpretationofthemultiplerolesoftheRussianBishop’sHousewithinthecontextofthegreaterlandscapeofSitkaandofAlaskaasawholeshouldbepursued.Closerpartnershipsandpossiblecooperativeprojectswithentitieshavingsimilar,overlappingorcomplementaryinterests–suchastheSitkaHistoricalSocietyandtheSheldonJacksonMuseuminSitka,theBaranoffMuseuminKodiak,andvariousdivisionsoftheNPS(KatmaiNP,CratersoftheMoonNM,theWorldWarIIValorinthePacificNM,Alaskaunit)shouldbeexplored.InterpretivematerialsfortheBishop’sHouseandrelatedresourcesshouldreflecttheRussianEmpire’seastwardexpansionacrosstheNorthPacificandintoAlaskatocounteractthecommonperceptionofRussianAlaskaasanorthernoutpostoftheUnitedStates.FurtherarchaeologicalinvestigationoftheTrinityChurch,theRussianCemetery,andtheareaofthelocationofthefirstSt.Michael’sanditsassociatedcemeteryshouldbeundertaken.


Chapter2-Overview 13

OVERVIEWSTUDYAREASTheestablishmentofRussianOrthodoxchurchesinAlaskawasnotanisolatedendeavorbutratherpartofamuchwidermissionaryeffort,astheRussianEmpireexpandedintocentralAsiaandacrossSiberiatothePacific(Figure2.1)andeventuallytoCaliforniaandHawaii.TheearlyhistoryofRussianOrthodoxyinAlaskaiscloselylinkedtothehistoryofRussianexplorationandtradeinEasternSiberia,theKurileIslandsandevenJapanandChina.Churcheswereestablishedalongwaterroutes,bothoceanandriver,followingtraderoutespreviouslyidentifiedbyRussianandnativepopulations.Churchlifeinalltheseregionswasmoldednotonlybyregionalcircumstancesbutalsobyempire-widedevelopmentsinmissionphilosophyandbychangesininstitutionalpriorities.ThiswiderRussiancontexthasnotyetbeenfullyintegratedintoacademicstudiesorpopularpresentationsoftheAlaskanOrthodoxecclesiasticallandscape.

Figure2.1.MapofAlaskaandSiberia(imagerybasedonGoogleEarth2016).



GEOGRAPHICSPREADOFTHERUSSIANMISSIONSINTHENORTHPACIFICTheearliestAlaskanchurchesservedbypermanentlyassignedclergywerelocatedinKodiak(1794)andSitka(1816),successiveheadquartersoftheRussian-AmericanCompany.Anewcharterforthecompanyin1821ledtotheestablishmentofnewparishes(Figure5.2)inUnalaska(1824)andAtka(1928),followedbymissionparishesbasedinNushagak(1841),RussianMission(1945)andKenai(1845).Thegeographicextentoftheseparisheswasenormous.TheNushagakparish,forexample,encompassedtheNushagak,upperKuskokwimandStoneRiverbasins.Prieststraveledhundredsofmilesannuallytovisitoutpostsandvillages.Inmanyofthese,chapels(orprayerhouses)wereconstructedtoprovideastableplaceforworship,withsomeeventuallybeingraisedtothelevelofparishchurches.BytheturnofthetwentiethcenturythenumberofparishchurchesinAlaskahadmorethandoubled(Figure2.3),andthenumberofchapelshadincreasedproportionately.Today–withmoreclergyavailabletoservethechurch-thedistinctionbetweenparishchurchandchapelislessrigorouslymaintained.

Figure2.2.RussianOrthodoxParishesinAlaskain1860.



Figure2.3.RussianOrthodoxparishesinAlaskaatthebeginningofthe20thcentury.

CONTEXTUALRELATIONSHIPSOneoftheissueshinderingamorecomprehensiveunderstandingofRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalresourcesinAlaskaisthetendency,supportedbythestructureofearlyNationalRegisterpractice,toseeeachresourceasindependentandunique,ratherthanaspartofaconnectedwhole.Achurch,aspartofaparish,wasrarelyanisolatedandindependentunitasitisoftenunintentionallypresentedinarchitecturaldocumentation,butwaspartofalargerclusterofhousing,schools,orphanages,hospitalsandcemeteries.Withinvillagestheseunitstendedtobecloselygrouped,butinurbansettingstheyweremorelikelytobedistributedthroughoutthesurroundingurbanmatrix.Despitethis,theyremainedpartofasinglesetting,linkedbyacommonsocialandreligiousconcept.Oftentheywerephysicallylinkedbyceremonialprocessionsfromplacetoplace.Theyalsosharedacommonorientationtowardstheeastasestablishedbytheplacementofthechurchaltar.AswillbefurtherdiscussedintheIntroductiontoFieldNotes(Chapter4.00),liturgicaleastisarelativeconcept,possiblybasedonchangingmagneticdeclination.Newchurches–eveninurbanareas-werelikelytobebuiltadjacenttooldones,andoldchurcheswererepurposedforotherusessuchasschools(orweretakenaparttobuildorrepairotherecclesiasticalstructures).Orphanagesmightbetransformedintoschools.Housingforclergywaslocatednearthechurch,butmightalsoaccommodateaschool.



Atalargerscale,theparishessharedacommonadministrativestructurewhichledtosimilarpracticesingeographicallyseparatedplaces.Asaresult,commonpatternsarereproducedacrosstheecclesiasticallandscape.Radiatingoutfromthechurchitselfareprocessionalareasand,often,cemeteries.Cemeteriesreflecttheoverallecclesiasticalunit,manifesting,inmanycases,theliturgicalhierarchy,withreadersorotherclergyburiedadjacenttothechurchentranceoraltar.Fencingaroundachurchrarelyindicatesaboundary,butratherasphereofinfluence,muchasthesoundofbellsdefinesasphereofinfluencethroughoutalargergeographicrange.ExaminingthesepatternsandrelationshipsopensapathwayforamorecomprehensiveviewofthehistoricecclesiasticalresourcesoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchinAlaska.THERUSSIANROLETherewereactuallyveryfewRussiansinAlaska,andthemajorityofthosereturnedtoRussiaatthetimeoftheAmericanCession,beforethegreatsurgeofRussianOrthodoxdevelopmentattheendofthenineteenthcentury.WhatisoftenmissedindiscussionsofRussianAlaskaisextenttowhichthenativepeoplesofAlaskaparticipatedintheculturalfusionknownasRussianOrthodoxy.ThewidespreadpracticeofbaptismbeforeanymissioncontacthelpstoexplainhowthechurchcametopermeateAlaskanculturethroughnativeagencyratherthanbyforeignimposition.

PART ONE

THE ECCLESIASTICAL LANDSCAPE OF ALASKA

CHAPTER 3 HISTORIC CONTEXT CHAPTER 4 FIELD NOTES


18



Chapter3–HistoricContextoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchinAlaska

19

THEECCLESIASTICALLANDSCAPEOFALASKAHISTORICCONTEXT

ReferencesforallhistoricimagescontainedinthischapterarelistedinFigure3.00.15.Noreproductionrightshavebeenacquiredforthesematerials,whichareincludedhereforreferenceonly.3.0BACKGROUNDThissurveyofthehistoricandculturalcontextofRussianOrthodoxyinAlaskaoperatesatseveralscales.Section3.1providesabriefoverviewofthehistoryoftheOrthodoxChurchfromantiquitytothepresent.Section3.2offersasomewhatmoredetailedaccountofthehistoryoftheRussianOrthodoxChurch.BothsectionscallattentionparticularlytoissuesthatwillimpingeonthehistoryofOrthodoxyinAlaska.Thus,3.1considersEast/Westecclesiasticalrelations,and3.2considersinstitutionalcharacteristicsoftheSt.PetersburgperiodofRussianhistory,fromPetertheGreattotheRussianRevolution.Section3.3considersinverygeneraltermssomeoftheleadingcharacteristicsofOrthodoxworship,while3.4–3.6becomemoredetailed,withbasicinformationonchurchorganization,thechurchbuildinganditsliturgicalspace,cyclesofworship,sacramentallife,andpopularpiety,againdrawingparticularattentiontofeaturesespeciallyimportantforOrthodoxyinAlaska.Sections3.7–3.9turnspecificallytothehistoryoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchinAlaska.Ofthese,section3.7brieflysummarizesthebeginningsofOrthodoxyinAlaska.Section3.8givesasomewhatmoredetailedaccountofageofInnocentVeniaminov,and3.9coversthefirstthreedecadesofAmericanrule.Section3.10dealswiththedramaticchangeinthedemographiccomposition,geographicorientationandethnicflavoroftheRussianOrthodoxDioceseoftheAleutiansandAlaskathatbeganca.1890withmassiveimmigrationtotheUnitedStatesfromEasternEurope,theBalkansandtheNearEast.Section3.11returnstoAlaska,withtheestablishmentwithinthedioceseofaseparatevicariateofSitkaandAlaska(1903).ItcontinueswithnewchallengesforOrthodoxyinAlaska–andinallofNorthAmerica-inthewakeoftheRussianRevolution.Itendswithabriefappreciationthe“rediscovery”ofOrthodoxAlaskainthemid-20thcentury.Thegeographicscaleandtemporalorderingofthischapterrunsfromglobal,toRussian,toAlaskanandNorthAmerican.Chapter5willnarrowthegeographicandtemporalfocusofthepresentstudystillfurther,tothehistoriccontextoftheRussianBishop’sHouseinSitkaduringtheperiodca.1840–1920.



20

3.1THEORTHODOXCHURCH

3.1.0AfaithancientbutlittleknownManyAmericansareunfamiliarwithOrthodoxy.AlthoughtherearewelloverfourmillionOrthodoxChristiansintheUnitedStatesandCanadaandbetween210and225millionworldwide,theirhistory,beliefsandpracticesremaingenerallyunknownormisunderstood(Krindatch2011,8).ThatistrueeveninAlaska,whereOrthodoxChristiansarenumerousandalmosteveryoneknowssomeonewhoisOrthodoxorwhosegrandmotherwasOrthodox.SomeaspectsofOrthodoxchurchlifeareregularlycoveredinthelocalmedia:theliturgicalpageantryofHolyWeekandEaster(whichgenerallyfallsomeweeksafterwesternChristianshaveobservedthesesolemnities)orthecolorfulcustomsassociatedwithChristmas(whichformostOrthodoxinAlaskafallsthirteendaysafterthewesternobservance).ReadersofRussianliteraturemaybefamiliarwithcertainaspectsofOrthodoxspirituality.Art-loversmayhaveencounteredtheworldoficons.Schoolchildren(atleastinAlaska)mayhavereadabout(Russian)Orthodoxyinoneoftheearlychaptersofahistorytextbook.YetevenpeoplewithapassingacquaintancewithOrthodoxymaybeinclinedtoregarditassomethingforeign,apicturesqueremnantfromanalienpast.3.1.1BeginningsTheOrthodoxChurchtracesitshistoryandspiritualrootstotheearliestcenturiesofChristianity,toancienteasternChristiancenterslikeJerusalem,AntiochandAlexandria,wherethechurchhashadamoreorlesscontinuoushistorysinceNewTestamenttimes.ThechurchgrewupintheRomanEmpire,whichatthetimeencompassedtheentireMediterraneanworld.ThelanguagethatfacilitateditsspreadwasGreek,thelanguageoftheNewTestament,whichatthetimeservedasauniversallanguageinmuchthewaythatEnglishdoestoday.MostofthemajortheologiansoftheearlychurchwroteinGreekandlivedintheeasternpartoftheempire,whereChristianitywasthenstrongest.ButChristianitywasquicklyembracedbypeopleofmanydifferentculturesandlanguagesbothwithintheempireandbeyonditsborders.Thechurchoftheseearlycenturieswasnotamonolithicstructure.Mosttheologiansandchurchhistorianstodaywoulddescribeitratherasacommunionorfamilyoflocalchurches.Thesechurcheshadtheirowncustomsanddistinctivewaysofworshiping.Atthesametime,theywereunitedinmanyways,someveryconspicuous,otherslessperceptiblebutnolessreal.Thesechurcheswereunitedintheirsacramentallife,aboveallinbaptismandtheeucharist.Theywereunitedinthesameapostolicfaith,thatis,theyprofessedtoholdthefaiththatwaspreachedbyChrist'sapostles,expressedintheScriptures,confessedbythemartyrs,taughtbythechurchfathers,anddefinedauthoritativelyinchurchcouncils.Andtheywereunitedbybondsofcharity,throughthesharingofmaterialresourcesandtheexchangeofletters,relics,andothertokensoffellowship.



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Toaddressissuesofmutualconcern,bishopswhoheadedthelocalchurcheswouldmeettogetherincouncils.Someofthesecouncilswereregional.Thesewouldbeorganizedandchairedbythechiefbishopoftheregion,whobythe5thcenturywasdesignatedasametropolitan(becauseheheadedthechurchofthemetropolis,orcapitalcity,oftheregion)orasapatriarch(thechief"father"ofthepeopleofaregion).Stressingtheneedforcommondecision-making,theOrthodoxchurchesthroughthecenturieshavetriedtoorganizethemselvesinthisconciliarway.Butinmattersofparticularurgency,whentheintegrityofthefaithitselfwaschallenged,anevenwidergatheringofbishopswasneeded:anecumenical,oruniversal,council.Thefirstoftheseecumenicalcouncils,theCouncilofNicaeain325A.D.,wasespeciallyimportant.Itscreed,withamplificationsfromthesecondecumenicalcouncil,heldinConstantinoplein381A.D.,becamethetouchstoneforOrthodoxythroughouttheChristianworld.OrthodoxChristiansemphasizeitsauthorityinvariousways,bothintheirworshipandinteaching.AlongwiththeLord'sPrayer,thecreedissomethingthatpracticallyeveryOrthodoxChristianlearnstosaybyheart.ItalsoservesasthebasisforcatecheticalinstructioninChristiandoctrine.3.1.2Constantinople,“NewRome”TheriseofIslamintheeasternMediterraneaninthe7thcenturysweptawaymanyofthestructuresforcommunicationandculturalexchangethattheRomanEmpirehadprovided.ManyancientcentersofeasternChristianityinSyria,PalestineandEgyptfellintodecline.ButalreadyanewcenterforeasternChristianityhademerged:Constantinople,thecityontheBosporusnowknownasIstanbul,whichhadbeenfoundedbyEmperorConstantinetheGreatinthe4thcenturytobeaNewRomeandco-capitaloftheempire.Fromthe9thcenturyonward,Constantinopleentereditsgoldenageasthe"rulingcity"oftheByzantineEmpire,anempirethatwasstillofficiallyRomanbutincultureoverwhelminglyGreek.FromConstantinople,missionarieswentoutespeciallytotheSlavicpeoplesofthenorth,beginningwithSts.CyrilandMethodiusinthe9thcentury.ThesesaintssetthepatternformissionintheChristianEast.Theyemphasizedtheimportanceofadaptingthewaysinwhichthefaithisexpressedtotheculturesofthepeople.RatherthanimposingGreek,theyestablishedawrittenSlaviclanguage,nowmostoftencalledOldChurchSlavonic,andtranslatedliturgicalservicesandothernecessaryworksintoit.Inthisvernacularform,EasternOrthodoxChristianitybecamedeeplyimbeddedinthenationalculturesoftheBulgarian,Serbian,UkrainianandRussianpeoples.Thechurchesestablishedinthiswayenjoyedahighdegreeofindependenceinmanagingtheirownaffairs,buttheyrecognizedConstantinopleastheirspiritualcenter.3.1.3SchismofEastandWestEvenasConstantinoplewasenteringitsgoldenage,itsrelationswithOldRomeweregrowingstrained.InthewakeoftheGermanicinvasionsthatoverwhelmedwestern



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partsoftheRomanEmpirefromthe5thcenturyonwards,Romehadbeenlefttoitsowndevices.IthadsucceededinconvertingtheGermanictribestoLatinChristianitywithoutsignificantrecoursetothevernacular.IntheprocessithadhelpedtoforgearelativelyunifiedanduniformLatinChristendominwesternEurope,whichbythe11thcenturybegantochallengetheculturalandpoliticaldominanceofConstantinople.InprinciplethechurchesofEastandWestremainedonefamily,onecommunion,buttheyhadgrownestranged.In1054A.D.RomeandConstantinopleofficiallybrokecommunion,formalizingtheschismthatalreadyhadbeguntodividethem.Contactbetweenthechurchescontinuedafter1054.Itevenintensified,ascrusadersfromthewestswarmedeastwardintentonliberatingtheHolyLandfromtheforcesofIslam.ButwhentheknightsoftheFourthCrusade(1204A.D.)turnedtheirattentioninsteadtoConstantinople,sackingitandforciblyimposingtheirownruleandchurchauthorities,hopesforreunionfaded.EstrangementgavewaytothehostilityandmistrustthatcharacterizedrelationsbetweentheOrthodoxChurchandtheRomanCatholicChurchformanycenturiesthereafter.Sincetheeventsof1204,manyEasternChristianshavebeeninclinedtoregardeventhemostwell-meaningeffortstowardsreconciliationwithsuspicion.3.1.4DisciplinaryandtheologicaldifferencesbetweenEastandWest

Manyoftheissuesinitiallyindisputebetweenthechurchesarosebecauseofdifferencesinliturgicalpracticeanddiscipline.Forexample,thechiefissuethatgaverisetotheschismof1054waswhetherleavenedbread(asintheEast)orunleavenedbread(asintheWest)shouldbeusedintheeucharist.Moredivisivewaswhethercelibacyshouldbearequirementforalltheordersoftheclergy.IncontrasttotheWest,theEasthasalwayspermittedmarriedmentobeordainedasdeaconsandpriests.(Bishops,however,arechosenfromamongthecelibatemonasticclergy.)Theologicalissuesalsodividedthechurches.ThemostenduringofthesehastodowiththedoctrineoftheTrinity.AlthoughChristiansEastandWestbelieveinoneGodinthreepersons–Father,Son,andHolySpirit-theyhaveexplainedtherelationshipofthesethreepersonsinslightlydifferentways.IntheearlyMiddleAgestheWestaddedthewords"andfromtheSon"(filioque)totheNicaeo-ConstantinopolitanCreed,sothatitread"IbelieveintheHolySpirit...whoproceedsfromtheFatherandfromtheSon."OrthodoxtheologianshaveseenthisassymptomaticofanincorrectunderstandingoftheplaceoftheHolySpiritintheTrinitarianmystery.Theyalsohaveobjectedtothefactthatthisadditionwasmadeunilaterally,withoutdueconcerneitherfortheauthorityoftheancientecumenicalcouncilsorfortheconciliarwayinwhichthechurchshoulddealwithsuchissues.Closelylinkedtodisagreementsoverdisciplineandtheologyhasbeendisagreementoverauthorityinthechurch,andmorespecificallyoverpapalprimacy.IntheWestinthecourseoftheMiddleAges,theauthorityofthepopegrewenormously.Theologians



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andcanonlawyersevencametodescribeitintermsofmonarchy.TheOrthodoxobjectedwhenitbecameevidentthatsuchideashadseriousimplicationsnotonlyfortheWestbutalsofortheEast.Intheireyes,theRomanunderstandingofprimacywentbeyondwhattheancientecumenicalcouncilshadenvisioned.Itappearedtoundercuttheeasternemphasisonconciliarityandconsensusbysuggestingthatthepopewasmorethanjust"firstamongequals"inrelationtohisbrotherbishops.Italsoseemedtobeatoddswiththeeasternunderstandingofthechurchuniversalasacommunionoflocalchurches.ForseveralcenturiesafterthefallofConstantinopletotheOttomanTurks,OrthodoxChristiansintheBalkansandNearEastwerecutofffromfruitfultheologicalcontactwiththeRomanCatholicChurchandtheProtestantchurchesthatemergedinthewestinthe16thcentury.AttimesOrthodoxRussiaenjoyedcordialdiplomaticrelationswiththeProtestantpowersofnorthernEurope,butitsrelationswithPoland,AustriaandotherCatholicpowersweregenerallyhostile,particularlyaftertheUnionofBrest(1596)andsubsequent“unions”broughtlargegroupsofEasternChristianslivingunderPolishandAustrianruleintotheRomancommunionbutattheexpenseoftheirspiritualandcanonicalunitywiththeirOrthodoxbrothersandsisters.Inthecourseofthe20thcentury,theOrthodoxchurchesdevelopedgenerallyamicablerelationswiththeProtestantchurchesthroughcommonmembershipintheWorldCouncilofChurchesandotherecumenicalbodies.RelationswiththeCatholicChurchalsoimproved,especiallyafteritsSecondVaticanCouncilincreasedopportunitiesfortheologicaldialogue.Evenso,theissueof“uniatism”tothisdayhasremainedastumblingblockinthequestforfullunitybetweenOrthodoxandCatholics.3.2THEORTHODOXCHURCHINRUSSIA3.2.1.TheriseofMoscowThe"easternness"ofOrthodoxyanditsdistinctivenessinrelationtowesternformsofChristianitywasreinforcedwiththefallofConstantinopletotheOttomanTurksin1453.TurkishrulethroughouttheBalkansandtheNearEastmadeOrthodoxChristiansintosecond-classcitizens,heavilytaxedandsubjecttonumerousrestrictionsaffectingapparel,modeoftransportationandmanyotheraspectsofdailylife.Churchlifealsowasrestrictedinsomeverytangibleways.Manyancientchurchesweretransformedintomosques,mostnotablyHaghiaSophiainConstantinople.BuiltundertheEmperorJustinianIinthe6thcentury,ithadbeenthelargestChristianchurchintheworldfornearly900years.Publicprocessions,externalarchitecturaldisplay(towers,domes),theuseofbells,andotherprojectionsofauthoritywereprohibited.WhileOttomanrulewasghettoizingOrthodoxchurchlifeintheBalkansandeasternMediterranean,anewOrthodoxpower,Russia,wasrisingtothenorth.ChristianityinitsByzantineOrthodoxformhadflourishedinthelandsoftheRus’followingthe



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baptismofVladimir,GreatPrinceofKiev,in988A.D.,buttheKievanstate–alooseconfederationofprincipalities–wassweptawaywiththesuddeninvasionoftheMongols(Tartars)in1237-1240.Veryslowly,theprincipalityofMoscowconsolidateditsauthorityinthenortheast,throwingoffvassalagetotheMongolsbythe16thcentury.Moscowemergedasa"thirdRome."Churchesandmonasteriesproliferated,iconographyandotherformsofecclesiasticalartflourished,thegrandeurofchurchserviceswasaugmentedthroughrichvestmentsandextendedchants.ThemetropolitanateofMoscow,defactoautocephalous(independent)since1448,wasraisedtopatriarchalstatusbyavisitingpatriarchofConstantinoplein1589,adecisionconfirmedsubsequentlybyallfoureasternpatriarchsin1593.ButbeneaththeritualsplendorofMuscoviteRussialaycertaintensionstouchingonitsveryidentity.Whatshouldbetherelationshipbetweenthetsarandthepatriarch,betweenthecivilauthorityandtheecclesiastical?Whatshouldbetherelationshipbetween“HolyRussia”andtherestoftheOrthodoxworld,includingnotonlyConstantinoplebutalsoUkraineandotherwesternregionsoftheancientKievanstate?AndwhatshouldbeitsrelationshipwiththeChristianWest,whichbythispointwasdividedinthewakeoftheProtestantReformation?3.2.2.InternalcontroversiesandschismAmajorcontroversyarosewithintheRussianOrthodoxChurchinthemid-17thcentury,whenPatriarchNikonofMoscowembarkedonaprogramtorevisethechurch’sliturgicalbooksinordertobringthemmorecloselyintolinewithcontemporaryGreekusage.Someoftheissuesimmediatelyindisputemayseemtrivial–thenumberofsyllablesinAlleluia,thedirectionforprocessions,thenumberoffingerstobeusedinmakingthesignofthecross.ButformanyRussians,thiswasaquestionofreligiousandnationalidentity.In1667apan-OrthodoxcouncilinMoscow,whichincludedrepresentativesoftheeasternpatriarchsaswellasRussianbishops,ratifiedNikon’sliturgical“reforms”whiledeposingthepatriarchhimself.ButmanyRussiansrejectedthese“reforms,”inwhathascometobeknownastheOldBelievers’schism-adivisionwithinRussianOrthodoxythathaslastedtothepresentday.1Inthecourseofthiscontroversyoverliturgicaltextsandpractice,TsarAlexisandPatriarchNikonhadafallingoutovertheirrespectiveroleswithinthestate,butbothenvisionedRussiaasakeyplayerininternationalOrthodoxy,perhapsevenasaninstrumentforrecapturingConstantinoplefromtheTurks.BothalsoenvisionedcloserengagementwiththeOrthodoxinUkraineandotherwesternregionswhichuntilrecentlyhadbeendominatedbyCatholicPoland.

1TherearefoursecludedOldBelievercommunitiesinAlaska,datingbacktothe1960s,whentheirfounders–originallyfromSiberia–arrivedintheUnitedStatesbywayofChinaandBrazil.



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Themid-17thcenturythereforemarkedadecisiveturnnotonlyforRussia’spoliticalhistorybutalsoforitsculturalorientation.Artandarchitecture,music,apparel,theritualsofdailylife–allwereaffectedinwaysthatchallengedreceivedMuscovitenorms.Intheprocess,theexternalaspectofRussianchurchlifeacquiredawesternveneer.Iconographytakesonamorenaturalistic,westernizedstyle.Monophonicchantbeginstobesupplantedbychoral“partsinging.”TheologicalscholarshipadoptstheLatinatestyleoftheKievTheologicalAcademy.3.2.3PetertheGreatThisnewwesternculturalorientationinRussiafounditsdefinitiveinstitutionalexpressionwiththereignofPetertheGreat(1672-1725).FromanearlyagePeterwasfascinatedwiththeWest–withitssuperiortechnologieswhetherinwarfareorincommerceoringovernment.Toadvancehisgoalofacquiringa“windowontheWest,”heengagedinanextendedstrugglewithSwedenforcontroloftheBaltic,whereheestablishedanewcapitalforhisempire,St.Petersburg.SymptomaticofthisneworientationwasPeter’sadoptionofanewtitle,imperator,oremperor,inplaceoftheoldMuscovitedesignation,tsar.LikemanyofhiscontemporariesintheWest,Peterwasaproponentofabsolutemonarchy-ofstatesovereigntyinallmatters,includingecclesiasticalmatters.ImplicationsfortheRussianchurchwerespelledoutintheSpiritualRegulation(DukhovnyReglament),whichPeterpromulgatedin1721.Thisabolishedthepatriarchateandestablishedinitssteada“SpiritualCollege,”laterknownastheMostHolyGoverningSynod,whichwascomposedofbishopsandotherecclesiasticaldignitarieschosenbytheemperor.GivenPatriarchNikon’sattempttoassertpatriarchalauthority,therationaleforabolishingtheofficeofpatriarchinfavorofacollectivebodyisclear:

Thefatherlandneedhavenofearofrevoltsanddisturbancesfromacollegialadministrationsuchasproceedfromasingle,independentecclesiasticaladministrator.Forthecommonpeopledonotunderstandhowthespiritualauthorityisdistinguishablefromtheautocratic;butmarvelingatthedignityandgloryoftheHighestPastor,theyimaginethatsuchanadministratorisasecondSovereign,apowerequaltothatoftheAutocrat,orevengreaterthanhe....(Muller1972,10).

TheSpiritualRegulationdoesnotstopwithabolitionofthepatriarchate.Mostofthetextaddressesahostofissuesforwhichbishopsareresponsible.Anevenlongersupplementpresentsdetailedrulesforclergyandmonastics.Amongotherthings,clergyaretodirecttheirattentiontotheextirpationofsuperstitiouspractices,carefulrecord-keeping,andproperbehavior(includingproperdeferencetotheemperor).Theirtrainingshouldincludesuchpracticalsubjectsasgeography,arithmeticandgeometryaswellastwohoursdailyforrecreation“bywayofstraightforwardand



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physicallyactivegames”which“withamusementaffordsomeinstruction:forexample,sailingonwaterinrealvessels,makinggeometricalmeasurements,constructingregularforts...”(Muller1972,41).AswastruealsowiththeabsolutemonarchiesoftheEnlightenmentinwesternEurope,nodetailofecclesiasticallifewentunregulated.Likealltheemperor’ssubjects,clergywereexpectedtocontributeinsomewaytothewellbeingofthestate.Theyformedadistinctsocialclassorestate(soslovie),alongsidethenoble,merchant/burgher,andpeasantclasses.Thisstatusgavetheclergy–includingnotonlypriestsanddeaconsbutalsoreaders,sextonsandotherchurchservitors-certainprivileges(e.g.,exemptionfromthepolltax).Italsoinvolvedcertainexpectationsandresponsibilitiesthatdistinguishedclergy(andtheirfamilies)fromotherclasses.Theywereeducatedinaseparateschoolsystemintendedspecificallytopreparethemforchurchservice,aboveallforpropercelebrationoftheliturgyandthesacraments.Theyweredistinguishedbyattireandotheraspectsofappearance(e.g.,beards,inthecaseofadultmales).Theiraccesstoothercareerpathswaslimitedinvariousways(Freeze1977,passim).3.2.4Ecclesiasticalrecord-keepingIntheemergingmodernworld,animportantmechanismforstatecontrolandsupervisionwasrecord-keepingandreporting–aresponsibilitythatfellheavilyontheclergy.Satisfactoryfunctioningofthechurch,oranygovernmentaldepartment,dependeduponitsbureaucracy.Orders,ultimatelyintheformofanukaz(decree)fromtheemperor,wereissuedfromabove,andinformationdeemedimportantbysuperiorswassubmittedfromfrom“below.”Forhistoriansthesevariousreportsareinvaluable.Forthebureaucratsthemselves,includingparishpriests,theycouldbecomeasourceoffrustration,especiallyforthoseservinginremoteregions.Forexample,areprimandcouldbereceivedforfailuretoobservetheprovisionsofanukazthathadneverbeenreceived.Recordsthatpriestswereexpectedtokeepincludethepriest’sjournal,schoolrecords,financialrecords,andchurchregistersofvarioussorts.- Thejournal(zhurnal’)wasthepriest’sprimarywayofinforminghissuperiorsofhis

activities.Somepriestsinterpretedtherequirementtokeepajournalinaminimalistway,recordingsimplytheliturgicalservicesperformed.OthersfollowedinstructionsalongthelinesofthosegivenbyMetropolitanInnocentVeniaminovtoamissionarypriest,“tosetdownallthyacts,alltheprincipalthoughtsandwordsthatshallhaveoccurredinthytalks...andeverythingnoteworthygenerally”–suchastravels(ROAM3[1999]572).

- Asschoolsassociatedwithchurchesgrewmorecommoninthecourseofthe19thcentury,aseparateschooljournal(klasnyizhurnal’)oftenwaskeptinordertotrackstudentattendanceandperformance.



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- Especiallyimportantwasthechurchregister(tserkovnyivedomost’),whichprovided

acomprehensiveannualreportonthestateoftheparish,includingabriefhistory;descriptionofthechurch,associatedchapels,andtheirproperties;acensusofthoselivinginthevillagesandsettlementscomprisingtheparish;andreportsonmembersoftheclergyattachedtotheparish,includingnotonlyordainedpriestsanddeaconsbutalsoreaders,sextonsandotherhumblermembersoftheclericalestate.

- Financialrecords,includinginventoriesofcandlesandothersupplies,incomeand

expenses,andspecialpurposedonations.- Themetricalrecordsbook(metricheskaiakniga)containedannualaccountsof

births,baptisms,marriagesanddeathsintheparish,ineachinstancegivingspecificinformationaboutname,age,civilstatus,residence,and–inthecaseofdeath–itscauseifknown.

- Theconfessionalrecord(ispovednyiarospisi)recordedthenamesandother

personalinformationonpersonswhofilled–ordidnotfill-their“annualobligation”ofgoingtoconfessionandreceivingholycommunionatleastonceayear,indicatingwhennecessaryreasonsfornon-fulfillment.

Afaircopyofsuchrecordswouldbesubmittedannuallytothediocesanbishop,whointurnwouldprepareacomprehensivereportonhisdiocesetosubmittotheHolyGoverningSynodanditsfinancedepartment.Meanwhileordersandinstructionsonvarioussubjectswouldberelayeddownward,fromtheemperorandtheHolySynodtodiocesanbishopstoparishpriests.Forexample,anukazmightprescribeaprayerserviceofthanksgivingontheoccasionofthebirthormarriageofamemberoftheimperialfamily.Inremoteplacessuchordersoftenarrivedlongaftertheeventinquestiontookplace.Initsquestforinformation,thebureaucracyofthevastRussianEmpirewascomprehensivebutnotveryefficient.3.2.5TheSynodalperiodThemostconspicuousofthechurchreformsinstitutedbyPetertheGreat–replacementoftheofficeofpatriarchbytheHolySynod–wouldremaininplaceuntiltherestorationofthepatriarchatein1917,inthemidstoftheRussianRevolution.TheinstitutionalhistoryoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchduringthis200-yearperiodislessthestoryofnoteworthychurchmenthanitisofsuccessive“Overprocurators”oftheHolySynod.InprincipletheOverprocurator,alayman,wassimplytheliaisonofficerbetweentheHolySynodandtheemperor.ButinfacthewasinchargeoforganizingHolySynodbusiness,decidingonagendas,sendingoutinvitationstomeetings,andcommunicating



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anydecisionstotheemperorforapprovalorrejection.InthiswaysuccessiveOverprocuratorsshapedchurchpoliciesandproceduresinavarietyofways.Forexample,inthecourseofhistenurePrinceA.N.Golitsyn(1805-1824)movedfromthefashionablerationalistthoughtoftheEnlightenmenttoanequallyfashionableProtestant-stylepietism,butwithlittlediscernableinterestintraditionalOrthodoxtheology.Thelong-servingCountN.A.Protasov(1836-55),amilitaryofficer,wasagreatbelieverindiscipline,insubordinationtoauthority,inproperadherencetoestablishedprocedures,andinranksandthedecorationsandawardsthatgowiththem.Healsoimplementedanewstatuteondiocesanconsistories(1841),adetailedhandbookfordiocesanadministrationthataligneditsactivitiesmorecloselywiththoseoftheOverprocurator’schanceryinonehighlycentralized-butunderstaffed–bureaucraticsystem.CountDimitriiTolstoiservednearlysimultaneouslyasOverprocurator(1865-1880)andasMinisterofEducation(1866-1880).InRussiathiswastheeraofthe“GreatReforms,”whichincludedliberationoftheserfs,modernizationofthemilitary,overhaulofthefinancialsystem,extensionofeducation,andagenerallooseningoftheoldsystemofestates.Tolstoiworkedtoprofessionalizeclergyeducation,toimprovethepriest’spastoralpreparation,andtostrengthenthepriest’sroleinthecommunity.Thisambitiousprogramhelpedimprovethelivingconditionsandsocialstandingofpriests,butitalsoundercutthesocialsolidarityoftheclergyasaclass.Thoseinhumblerclericalpositionslostmuchoftheirearliersocialandeconomicstanding,and–absentaseminaryeducation–theynolongerhadmuchhopeofadvancementthroughtheclericalranks.ConstantinePobedonostsev(1880-1905)–pious,politicallyconservative,devotedtotheautocracy-wasinofficenearlyaslongasProtasov,butbytheendofhistenureeventhebishops–forthemostparthisappointees-weregrowingrestive.Whenqueriedaboutpossiblechurchreforms,theyjoinedagrowingchorusofchurchmenandscholarswhocalledforgreaterfreedomofthechurch,greaterparticipationofthelaityinchurchlifeandadministration,lessrelianceonacentralizedbureaucracy,greaterinvolvementinsocialissues,liturgicalrenewalwithgreateruseofthevernacular,and–aboveall–theconvocationofanAll-RussianChurchCouncilandrestorationofthepatriarchate.Despitemanydelays,complicatedwiththeadventofWorldWarIin1914,thelong-awaitedcouncilfinallyconvenedfollowingthedemocraticrevolutionofFebruary1917.ItactedtorestoretheofficeofpatriarchandelectedTikhonBellavin–aformerarchbishopoftheAleutianIslandsandAmerica–tothathighoffice.Butfollowingthecommunist“OctoberRevolution”laterthatyear,newchallengesandtrialsfacedtheRussianOrthodoxChurch.



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3.2.6InthewakeoftheRevolutionOntheeveofthecommunistRevolutionin1917,theRussianOrthodoxChurch,withabout117millionadherents,wasthelargestnationalchurchintheworld.BytheeveofWorldWarII,itwasclosetoliquidation.Therewereperhapsonethousandchurchesopenintheentirecountry,thosemostlyinthecitiesinordertodemonstratetoforeignersthattherewasfreedomofreligionintheSovietUnion.ButadramaticreversalcamefollowingNaziGermany’ssurpriseattackontheSovietUnionin1941.ThechurchralliedtosupportthewareffortagainstGermany,andinreturnrestrictionsonitsactivitieswereslowlyeased.Thelegalpositionofthechurchremainedprecarious,however,anditsactivitieswerecloselymonitoredbythegovernment.SubscriptiontoSovietpropagandawasexpected.NothingcouldbesaidaboutdarkeraspectsofSovietlife.Nevertheless,intheSovietUnionand–followingWorldWarII–inotherpredominantlyOrthodoxnationsunderSovietdomination,theOrthodoxchurcheswereabletofindstrategiesforsurvival.Followingthefallofcommunism,theOrthodoxchurchesinRussiaandelsewhereinEasternEuropeemergedfromdecadesofoppressionwithnewpossibilitiesforgrowth,andwithnewchallenges.SymptomaticisthedramaticgrowthinthenumberoffunctioningparishesinRussia,fromaround8000in1990tonearly35,000in2016(http://www.patriarchia.ru/db/text/4366063.html).Inthisnewcontext,thechurchhasfacedthedelicatetaskofestablishingitsplacewithinthepoliticalandsocialfabricofcontemporarylife.Inprinciple,thechangedinternationalsituationsincethefallofcommunismhasgivenalltheOrthodoxchurchesgreateropportunitiesforcontactandcooperation.Atthesametime,newtensionsininter-Orthodoxrelationshavearisen,particularlybetweentheRussianOrthodoxChurchandthePatriarchateofConstantinople.AnewchapterinlonghistoryoftheRussianOrthodoxChurch–andworldOrthodoxy–isbeingwritten.3.3THESPIRITOFORTHODOXWORSHIP

3.3.1“RightWorship”Ifapproachedonlyintermsofitshistoryanditsexternalstructures,theOrthodoxChurchmightappeardisorganizedandfragmented.ButmostOrthodoxChristiansdonotapproachtheirchurchinthatway.Theirperceptionofthechurchismoldedbytheirexperienceofthechurch'ssacramentallife,itslifeofworship,andonlysecondarilybyitsorganizationalpoliticsorevenbytheletterofitsdoctrinalformulations.ForOrthodoxChristians,worshipisanessentialaspectofOrthodoxy.Asispointedoutsooften,theveryword"orthodoxy"doesnotmeansimplyadherencetorightdoctrine.Italsomeans"rightworship,"therightwayofgivingglory--doxainGreek,slavainChurchSlavonic--toGod.



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TheimportanceofworshipfortheOrthodoxChurchcanbeillustratedinmanyways.Forexample,worshiphasplayedamajorroleinmissionandevangelization.WhenSts.CyrilandMethodiusundertooktheirmissiontotheSlavsinthe9thcentury,theydevisedanalphabetthatinprinciplemadeitpossibletotranslateanytextswhatsoeverintothelanguageofthepeople,butthetextsthattheytranslatedwerealmostexclusivelyliturgical.Acenturylater,whenadelegationofstill-paganRus’cametoConstantinoplefromKievonbehalfoftheirprinceVladimir,theyweretakentoservicesinthegreatchurchofHaghiaSophia,thechurchoftheHolyWisdom.EarliertheyhadfoundtheworshipoftheMuslimstobe"abominable,"thatoftheGermanstobe"lackinginbeauty,"butinHaghiaSophia,"Weknewnotwhetherwewereinheavenoronearth,foronearththereisnosuchsplendororbeauty,andweareatalosshowtodescribeit.WeonlyknowthatGoddwellsthere"(RussianPrimaryChronicle).Overthecenturies,thebeautyofOrthodoxworshiphasattractedmanytothefaith--notonlySlavsandothereasternEuropeansbutalsoAfricans,Indians,Japanese,NativeAmericansandmanyotherethnicgroups.IthasmoldedtheirunderstandingoftheChristianfaith,andithashelpedthemmaintaintheirsenseofidentitynotonlywhengreattempleslikeHaghiaSophiawerestillfunctioningchurchesbutalsointimesofmarginalizationandpersecution.VisitorstoanOrthodoxchurchserviceoftenstruckbyhowdifferenttheatmosphereisfromwhatonefindsinotherhousesofworship.Themanyicons,therichvestmentsoftheclergy,thecloudsofincense,theposturesandgesturesoftheworshipers,themelodiesofthechants--allthiscanbeoverwhelming,bewilderingandperhapsabittroubling.Thoseusedtoalessformalstyleofworshiportochurchservicesinwhichinstructionandadmonitionplayamajorrolemaywonderwhatisthepointofsomuchritual.Butthepointofthiselaborateritualreallyisverysimple:tocommunicatethebasictruthsoftheChristianfaiththrough"rightworship,"inwaysthatgobeyondwordsalone.Orthodoxworshipisverytangible.Itappealstoallthesenses–sight,hearing,touch,taste.Itengagestheentirehumanperson,bodyaswellasmindandsoul.Throughritualactions,suchbowsandprostrationsormakingthesignofthecross,theentirehumanpersonisdrawnintoprayerandpraise.InthiswaytheChurch’sworshiptriestomakethemeaningoftheincarnationreadilyaccessibletoeveryone,includingchildrenandotherswhomightotherwisebemarginalized.3.3.2Worshipandcommunity "Rightworship"givesOrthodoxChristiansanexperientialknowledgeoftheChristianfaith.Italsomanifestsandreinforcestheirsolidarityasacommunity.VisitorstoanOrthodoxchurchoftenarestruckbythewaythateveryoneseemstofeelathome.Everyoneseemstoknowhisorherproperplaceandtask.Thepriestsanddeaconsandaltarserversplayaprominentrole,butsodothecantorsorchoir,sinceintheOrthodoxChurchservicesaresungthroughout.Thecongregationalsoareengagedinvariousways(e.g.,throughtheirpostureandgesturesduringtheservices).Inallthis,everyone



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seemstohaveagoodideaofwhatwillhappennext.Oneofthehappierconsequencesofhavingastableliturgywithpredictablewordsandactionsisthateveryoneknowsitsbasicrules.Theordainedclergyarenotautomaticallyinthepositionofbeing"experts"totheexclusionofothers.ThesenseofcommunitycreatedinOrthodoxworshipisnotlimitedtothosewhoarephysicallypresent.Theiconsofthesaints,theircommemorationinthecourseofthechurchyear,thenamesofthedeceasedmentionedduringthechurchservices--allthiscreatesapowerfulsenseoftradition,asenseofthecontinuityofthechurchthroughthecenturiesdespitetheriseandfallofempires.Morethananyinstitution,worshiphasgivenOrthodoxChristianstheirsenseofidentityintimeaswellasspace,theirsenseofbeing"athome"inthechurchandtheirsenseofbelongingtothechurch.Ofcourse,Orthodoxworship,likeotheraspectsofthechurch'slife,hasundergonehistoricaldevelopment.Itisnotstatic,utterlyunchangedandunchanging.Nevertheless,theOrthodoxliturgicaltraditiononthewholehasbeenveryconservative.IthasnotexperiencedthekindsofdisruptionsandrevolutionsthatwesternChristianworshipexperienced,forexample,atthetimeoftheProtestantReformationinthe16thcentury.ThishashelpedmakeworshipanindependentandauthoritativestandardforpracticallyallaspectsofchurchlifetoadegreeunmatchedintheChristianWest.AsthesometimesfractioushistoryoftheOrthodoxChurchsuggests,however,itisnotalwayseasytotellwhatrepresentsanappropriateadaptationtonewcircumstancesandwhatamountstoabetrayalof"rightworship."InRussia,andthroughRussiainAlaska,therehavebeenmanyadaptationsthathardlycallforcomment.Forexample,nativepussywillowsareusedonPalmSundayratherthanthepalmfrondsthataresoreadilyavailableintheMediterraneanworld.Butoverthecenturiesmajorschismshaveresultedfromseeminglyminorchanges.ThiswasthecasewiththeOldBelievers'schismin17thcenturyRussia,whicharosebecauseofchangesinsuchthingsasthewayinwhichthesignofthecrossismadeandthedirectioninwhichprocessionsaroundthechurcharetogo.Inthe20thcentury,similarissueshavecausedcontroversyandevendivision.3.3.3TheliturgicalcalendarAcaseinpointisthequestionofthecalendar.Untilthe20thcentury,alltheOrthodoxchurches–andthepredominantlyOrthodoxnationsofEasternEurope-followedtheJuliancalendar,socalledbecauseitwasoriginallydevisedunderJuliusCaesarinthefirstcenturyB.C.Bythe20thcentury,however,forbothcivilandecclesiasticalpurposes,mostoftheworldhadadoptedtheGregoriancalendar,whichwasintroducedbyPopeGregoryXIIIinthe16thcenturyinordertocorrectfortheever-increasingdiscrepancybetweenastronomicalreckoningandcalendardates.



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From1923onward,forthecalculationoffixed-datefeastslikeChristmas,someOrthodoxchurchesadoptedtheGregoriancalendarwhileothers–mostnotablytheRussianOrthodoxChurch-retainedtheJulian.Onbothcalendars,Christmas,forexample,fallsonDecember25,butforthosefollowingtheJuliancalendarDecember25fallsthirteendayslaterthanontheGregoriancalendar–i.e.,onJanuary7.Atthesametime,inordertomaintainameasureofunitywiththeotherOrthodoxchurches,thoseadoptingthe“new”Gregoriancalendarforfixed-datefeastsretainedthe“old”JuliancalendarforcalculatingthedateofEasterandthemoveableobservancesdependentonit.Inprinciple,accordingtonormssetdownbytheFirstEcumenicalCouncilin325A.D.,EastershouldfallontheSundayfollowingthefirstfullmoonafterthevernalequinox,whichatthetimeofthecouncilfellonMarch21ontheJuliancalendar.Sincethen,however,withtheprogressive“lag”oftheJuliancalendar,March21hasfallenprogressivelylaterthantheastronomicallyobservablevernalequinox.BecausethedateofEasterdependsnotonlyontheequinoxbutalsoonthephasesofthemoon,EasternOrthodoxandwesternChristianobservancesofthefeastsometimescoincide.Moreoften,however,theOrthodoxobservancefallssomeweeksafterthewestern.Thechangefrom"oldcalendar”to"newcalendar”hasnotalwaysgonesmoothly.Attimes,disagreementoverthecalendarhascontributedtomajordivisionswithinOrthodoxchurchcommunitiesorhascomplicatedrelationsbetweenthem.InGreece,forexample,severalOldCalendaristgroupshavebrokenofffromtheChurchofGreeceandotherchurchesthatfollowtheNewCalendar.InAlaska,churchesoftheOrthodoxChurchinAmerica’sDioceseofAlaskaandtheSerbianOrthodoxChurchgenerallyfollowtheOldCalendar.ChurchesoftheAntiochianOrthodoxChristianArchdioceseandtheGreekOrthodoxArchdiocesefollowtheNewCalendar.Fortunatelyrelationsbetweenthesechurchesareamicable,butparishionersandevenclergymayfinditdifficulttoexplainwhytheircalendarsdiffer.3.4THEPARISH:CHURCHANDCHAPEL(Shevzov2004,54-130)3.4.1ChurchorganizationTheorganizationandadministrationoftheOrthodoxChurchisbasedontheprincipleofterritoriality.Theparish,thediocese,thepatriarchateandsimilarstructuresinprinciplecompriseallthefaithfullivingwithinadefinedgeographicarea,withoutreferencetoethnicity,languageorothersociologicalfactors.Thisecclesiologicalprinciplereflectsthechurch’sinsistencethatunityinChrist,expressedinsacramentalunity,transcendsalllessertiesandallegiances.Onlyinrelativelyrecenttimes,sincetheriseofnationalisminthe19thand20thcentury,haveotherfactorsbecomepreponderant,sothattodayitisnotunusual,inNorthAmerica,Australia,SouthAmerica,WesternEuropeandotherareasofEasternEuropeanandNearEasternemigration,tofindOrthodox



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churchesorganizedlargelyalongethniclinesanddependentinvariouswaysononeoranotherOldWorld“motherchurch.”Inmedievalandearlymoderntimes,indenselysettledagriculturalregionsoftheMediterraneanworldandpartsofwesternEurope,thegeographicextentofparishesandevendioceseswasgenerallyrathersmall.Theparishchurchofafarmingvillageorofacompacturbanneighborhoodwastheself-evidentfocalpointforcommunitylife,bothreligiousandsocial.ButinthinlypopulatedregionssuchasnorthernRussiaandSiberia,wheretopographyandclimatelimitedagriculturalproductionandencouragedotherformsofeconomicactivity(hunting,trapping,gatheringofmushroomsandberries...),parishboundariescouldextendforhundredsofmiles.Theparishchurch,ortemple(khram),mightbedifficulttoreach,especiallyininclementweather.Oftenthesolutioninsuchcaseswasconstructionofachapel(chasovnia)orprayerhouse(molitvennydom).Generallythistookplaceatlayinitiative.3.4.2ThechapelAstheRussiantermchasovnia,fromthewordchas(hour),suggests,achapelwasprimarilyintendedforthereadingofthedailycycleofservices,ofwhichtheliturgical“hours”formanimportantpart.Itmightbeasmallandsimplestructure–perhapsjustaroadsideshrineoranappendagetoahouse.Oritmightrivalachurch(khram)insize,internalspatialarrangements,andmagnificence.Inanycase,thechapelwasintendedtorecallandsimulatetheexperienceofprayeraffordedinaconsecratedchurch.Inalargerchapel,aniconostasismightbepresent,andbehinditanaltartableandotherappropriatefurnishingsinanticipationofanoccasionalvisitbythepriestoftheparish.Inhumblersituations,thearrangementoficonsonthechapel’seastwallmightapproximatethatofafulliconostasis.Butthecanonicalstatusofachapeldifferedfromthatofachurch(khram)inseveralimportantways.Amongotherthings,evenifithadanaltartableandsimilarliturgicalfurnishings,achapel(chasovnia)hadnopermanentantimension(antimins)-thesilkenclothbearinganimageofChristentombed,containingtherelicofasaintandsignedbythediocesanbishop,withoutwhichnoDivineLiturgymaybeserved.ADivineLiturgycouldbeservedonlyifapriestbroughtatravelingantimensionwithhim.Inaddition,unlikeaconsecratedchurch,achapel(chasovnia)hadnospecificliturgicalserviceforitsblessing.Oftenestablishedandfundedbyoneormorepious(andprominent)villagers,thechapelwaslargelyundertheircareandsubjecttoonlyminimalclericalsupervision.InRussiathissometimesarousedthesuspicionofecclesiasticalandcivilauthorities.Formuchofthe18thcenturyandintothe19th,theconstructionofnewchapelswasofficiallybanned,butthishadlittleeffectinremoteregionslikeAlaska,wherepriestswerefew.Thechapel,andchapelculture,offeredvillagersawayofrelatingtothewiderworldofOrthodoxyandofidentifyingasOrthodoxChristians.Atthesametime,itallowedthemtoexperienceandexpresstheirfaithwithinthecontext



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oftheirownveryparticularcommunity,andnotsimplyasisolatedindividuals.Largesegmentsofthechurch’sliturgicalcyclecouldbereadandsunginacommunalsettingundertheleadershipofachurchreaderoranappropriatelytrainedlocallayperson.Putsimply,unlikethedistantparishchurch–nottomentiontheevenmoredistantcathedralofthediocesanbishop–thechapelgavevillagersasenseof“ownership.”

Figure3.1.Atypicalchapelofmoderatesize,inthevillageofAkutan,builtin1878.

InAlaskatoday,thedistinctionbetweenchurchandchapel,khramandchasovnia,isnotassharplydrawnasitoncewas.InpartthismaybebecausetheEnglishword“chapel”isnotrestrictedtothechasovnia.Oftenitisusedforsmallersubsidiarystructuresthatformpartofalargerparishchurchcomplex(e.g.,acemeterychapel,orasidechapelofaparticularlyimportantchurch,withitsownconsecratedaltarandaltarfeastday).Orthewordmaybeusedforachurchdependentonanecclesiasticalauthorityoutsidetheusualparishanddiocesanadministrativestructures(e.g.,thechapelofanacademicorphilanthropicinstitutionorofthebishop’shousehold).Forthese,thetermstavropegial(krestovaia)oftenisused,meaningthatthebishophimselfhasestablishedthechurchbyplantinghiscross(Greek:stavros)onitssiteasanexpressionofhisauthorityoverit.ThiswasthecasewiththechurchintheBishop’sHouseinSitkaatthetimeofitsestablishment.Thankstogrowthinthenumberofpriestsoverthepasthalfcentury,manyformervillagechapelsinAlaskahavebecomeparishes,withtheirownassignedpriests.Atthesametime,someparisheseffectivelyfunctionaschapels,withonlyoccasionalservicesledbyavisitingpriest.Nevertheless,thehistoricimportanceofthechurch/chapeldistinctionhasleftanindeliblemarkontheecclesiasticalgeographyandchurchlifeoftheOrthodoxChurchinAlaska.Evensmallandisolatedcommunitiesremaindevotedto



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thephysicalmaintenanceoftheirchurchorchapeland–asfaraspossible–tothemaintenanceofcommunityliturgicallifeandcommunitytraditions.3.4.3ThechurchbuildinganditsfurnishingsAnOrthodoxchurchbuildingis,asitwere,designedfromtheinsideout.Viewedfromtheoutside,thechurch–whetheratemple(khram)oranimportantchapel–frequentlyexpressesitsinternalspatialorganizationveryclearly,throughthevaryingarchitecturalformsandfeaturesofitsconstituentelements.Sometimestheremaybeonlysymbolicexpressionsoftheseelements(e.g.,adecorativelittleoniondomepositionedontheroofwhereonemightexpectastructuraldome).Buttheinternalspaceofthechurchisarrangedforaparticularpurpose,andthatistoaccommodatetheliturgicalworshipoftheOrthodoxChurch.Regardlessoftheshapeandstyleofthechurchbuilding,itisalwayssurmountedbyacross,ormoreoftenbymultiplecrosses;anditisalmostalwaysorientedtowardtheeast–thedirectionoftherisingsun,thedirectionfromwhichChristiansanticipateChrist’sreturninglory–withatripartiteorganizationofinternalspace.- Thealtarareaorsanctuaryislocatedattheeastendofthebuilding,withthealtar

table(prestol’)freestandingatitscenter.Lyingenthronedonthealtartableisthegospelbook,oftenwitharichlyadornedcover.Beneaththegospelbook,folded,istheantimension(antimins),asilkenclothbearinganimageofChristentombed,intowhichtherelicofasaintissewn.NoDivineLiturgymaybeservedwithoutit.Signedbythediocesanbishop,theantimensionatteststothedependentrelationshipoftheeucharisticassemblyonitsarchpastor,thebishop.Onit,asasignoftheconnectionbetweenthebishopandthelocalchurch,thesacramentalgiftsofbreadandwineareplacedinthecourseoftheDivineLiturgy,oreucharist.

- Alsoonthealtartableisatabernacleinwhichtheconsecratedeucharisticgiftsarereservedforthecommunionofthesickandthedying.Behindthismaybeaseven-branchedcandelabrum.This,likeothersymbolicfurnishingsandliturgicalvocabulary,reflectstheOrthodoxChristianunderstandingoftheJerusalemtempleanditsworshipasaprototypeforChristianworship.



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Figure3.2.ThesecondchurchatRussianMission,1895-1938,illustratesthetripartitearrangementofatypicalOrthodoxchurch:altararea(right),nave(center,surmountedbydome),narthex(surmountedbybelltower),andporch.

Figure3.3.AltartablewithantimensiongiventotheteamofmissionariesfromValaamMonasterythatsetoutforKodiakin1793.



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- Tothenorthsideofthealtarareaisasubsidiary“tableofoblation”onwhichthebreadandwineusedintheDivineLiturgyareprepared.Onitarekeptthechalice,patenandotherliturgicalinstrumentsandcoveringsneededforthatservice.

- Thealtarareaisseparatedfromthemainbodyofthechurch(thenave),butatthesametimejoinedtoit,bytheiconostasis,oriconscreen.Thisispiercedbythecentral“royaldoors,”throughwhichonlybishops,priestsanddeaconsmaypass,andbyflanking“deacons’doors,”

Figure3.5.St.NicholasChurch,Juneau,iconostasiswithroyaldoorsopentorevealaltartable.Inadditiontopriestlyvestments(Lentenpurple)thepriest(Fr.AndrewKashevarov)iswearingamiter,normallywornonlybybishops,indicatinghishighposition.

throughwhichattendantserversalsopassinthecourseofthechurchservices.Placementoficonsontheiconostasisiscarefullyplanned.Generallythoseontheroyaldoorsincludethefourevangelistsand–intwopanels–theAnnunciation,withaniconoftheLastSupperdirectlyabovethedoors.TotherightoftheroyaldoorsisaniconofChrist,andtotheleft,aniconoftheVirginMary,whoinOrthodoxterminologymostoftenisreferredtoas“BirthgiverofGod”(Theotokos,Bogoroditsa).Thedeacons’doorsusuallybeariconsofangelsorofdeaconsaints.AdditionaliconsonthelowertieroftheiconostasistypicallyincludeSt.Johnthe

Figure3.4.Tableofoblation,withliturgicalspear,spoon,patenwithstarcover,cross,sponge,andchalice.



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Baptistandthechurch’spatronsaint.UppertiersoftheiconostasismayincludeiconsofadditionalsaintsoroftheTwelveGreatFeastsofthechurchyear.

- Thefront(east)portionofthenaveofthechurchmayhavespacesetoffforsingers

totheleftandright(kleros,orkrilos),butforthemostpartthenaveiswhereworshippersstandfortheservices,traditionallymentotheright,womentotheleft.Usuallytherearenopews,butbenchesorchairsmaybeprovided.Eveninmodestchurchestheremayalsobeachoirloft.Acentraldome–sometimesexternallyexpressed,sometimessimplysuggestedinternallybyarecessintheceiling-oftensurmountsthenave.Beneathitachandeliernotonlyprovidesilluminationbutalsohelpsorganizetheinteriorworshipspace.

- Athirdmajorspace,tothewest(rear)ofthenave,isthenarthexorvestibule.

Besidesservingvariousutilitarianpurposes(e.g.,toblockdrafts),thenarthex,alongwiththedoorbetweenitandthenave,iswherecertainliturgicalactionstakeplace.Astandforthesaleofcandles,oftenstaffedbythechurchwarden(starosta)oranassistant,mayalsobefoundinthenarthexorelsejustinsidethedoorstothenave.Oftenthenarthexissurmountedbyabelltower,andsometimesashallowopenporchprotectsthenarthexentrancefromtheelements.

OrthodoxChristiansandpopularpresentationsoftheOrthodoxfaithfrequentlyascribesymbolicsignificancetothevariousconstitutiveelementsofthechurchbuilding.Thecentraldome,forexample,issymbolicoftheheavens;usuallydepictedinitscenteristheimageofChristasruleroftheuniverse(pantocrator).Thetripartiteorganizationofthechurchisinterpretedinmultipleways.Forexample,insomeinterpretationsthenarthexsymbolizestheearth;thenave,heaven;thealtar,theheavenabovetheheavens.Buttheoverallthrustofthesesymbolicinterpretationsisthesame:thechurchisthemeetingplaceofheavenandearth,notsimplyautilitarianstructure.Itsbeautificationandadornment–withimages,gilding,richfabrichangingsandbanners,devotionallights,seasonaldecorations–providesafocusforbothindividualandcommunitypiety.Itssite–andparticularlythesiteofitsaltartable–ishonoredandmemorializedinvariouswaysevenifthechurchbuildingitselfisrelocatedordestroyed.3.4.4Churchbehavior Whenenteringthechurch,OrthodoxChristianstypicallymakethesignofthecross,holdingthethumb,indexfingerandforefingertogether,andtheringfingerandlittlefingerpressedagainstthepalm,beginningwithforeheadandbreast,thenrightshoulderandleftshoulder.Oftentheystopnextatthecandlestandandmakeasmalloffering.Then,withcandlesinhand,theyvisittheprincipleiconsdisplayedonstandsalongthefrontandsidesofthechurch.Ateachtheymakeathree-foldreverence,makingthesignofthecrossandbowingfromthewaist,withrighthandextendednearlytothefloor.Theyveneratetheicon,lighttheircandle,placeittheappropriatecandlestand,andpauseinprayer.Inperformingtheseacts,OrthodoxChristiansarereminded



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bothoftherichsymbolismofworshipandalsoofitshighlytactile,physicalmanifestations.ForOrthodoxChristians,candles–alongwithlampshunginfrontoficonsandtorchesborneinliturgicalprocessions-arenotmeantsimplyforpurposesofillumination.They

aresymbolicoflight,revelationandinnerillumination.Besideslightingcandlesuponenteringthechurch,thefaithfultypicallyholdthemduringmemorialservicesforthedeparted,duringnighttimeprocessionsaroundthechurch,andespeciallyatEaster,thefeastoftheresurrection.AtChristmasandotherspecialoccasions,theyalsoplacecandlesortorchesonthegravesofthedepartedinthecemetery.Ascircumstancesallow,theylightacandleoroillampinfrontoftheiconsarrangedinthefamily’siconcornerathome.There,thecentraliconstypicallydepictChristandtheVirginMary,justasinchurch,effectivelyextendingthechurch’spresenceintothehome.Thesurroundingiconstypicallyincludethoseofsaintsparticularlydeartofamilymembers,suchasthoseoftheirpatronsaints,whosenamestheyweregivenatbaptismandbywhichtheyreceivecommunioninchurch.Soalso,icons-aswellasrelics,thecross,thegospelbook,andother

sacredobjects-arenotmeantsimplytoberemindersofsacredeventsandpersonagesofthepast.Theyfrequentlyaredescribedaswindowsintoeternity,asverytangiblemeansforenteringrealitiesthatarenolongersubjecttothetimeandspaceofthisworld.IconscommunicateinwaysthatcomplementthewrittenwordofScripture.Bothrequiresome“translation,”someexplanationofwhatisbeingrepresented.Butbecauseofitsplasticcharacter,theiconisabletocommunicateanduniteinsituationswhereculturalandlinguisticdifferencesmightotherwiseimpedeunderstandingandpromptdivision.Bypointingthefaithfultothetranscendenttruthreflectedinthesacredimage,theiconalsobringsthemintoacloser,moreimmediaterelationshipwitheachother.3.5CYCLESOFWORSHIP(Ware1969,Ware1978) 3.5.1Dailyandweeklycycle ForOrthodoxChristianstheliturgicaldaybeginsatsundown,withVespers.Inmonasteriesandontheevesofcertainfeasts,ComplineandNocturnmaybesaidduringthecourseofthenight.ThenextmajorserviceofthedayisMatins,inearlymorning.EspeciallyinchurchesofRussiantradition,VespersandMatinsmaybelinkedtogetherontheevesofSundaysandmajorfeaststoformalong“All-Night”Vigilservice(vsenochnoevdeniie).(Inactualparishpracticethisserviceisabouttwohoursinlength.)Inthecourseoftheday,servicesoftheFirst,Third,SixthandNinthHoursalso

Figure3.6.Makingthesignofthecross.



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areread,butusuallyincombinationwithotherservicesratherthanatdawn,mid-morning,noon,andmid-afternoon,astheirnamessuggests.OnSundays,majorfeastsandotherdayswhentheDivineLiturgy(eucharist)iscelebrated,thisusuallyfollowstheThirdHour.SometimestheTypika(Obednitsa)–consistingofthepsalms,hymnsandreadingsfortheday–isservedinplaceoftheDivineLiturgy.Liketheregularcycleofdailyservices,theTypikaservice,withcertainadaptations,maybeledbyaduly-authorizeddeacon,reader,cantor,orknowledgeablelaypersonintheabsenceofapriest.InfactinmanypartsofAlaska,theTypikawasprobablythemostcommonformofSundayandfeast-dayworshipformanyyears.Relativelyfewcommunitieshadpermanentlyresidentpriests,andevenwhenamissionarypriestvisited,hewasnotalwaysabletoserveafullDivineLiturgyduetolackofthenecessaryelementsofbreadandwine.Eachdayoftheweekalsoismarkedbyspecialhymnographyandprayers.SundayalwayscelebratestheresurrectionofChrist;Mondayhonorstheangels;TuesdayisdedicatedtothememoryofJohntheBaptistandtheprophets;WednesdaysandFridayscommemorateChrist’sbetrayalandcrucifixion;Thursdayisdedicatedtotheapostlesandsaintlybishops,includingSt.Nicholasasforemostamongthelatter;SaturdayisdedicatedtoMarytheTheotokosandtothememoryofthedeparted.3.5.2AnnualcyclesSeptember1marksthebeginningofthechurchyearforfixed-datefeastsandcommemorations,suchasChristmas(December25).Thesefallonthesamecalendardateeachyear,regardlessofthedayoftheweek.MoreimportantfordeterminingthecourseoftheliturgicalyearisEaster(orPascha,asmanyOrthodoxprefertocallit),thefeastofChrist’sresurrection.TheannualpaschalcyclebeginswiththefastingseasonofGreatLent,precededbyspecialpre-LentenSundays.ItcontinueswithPalmSundayandHolyWeekandculminateswithEasterSunday.FollowingEaster,fiftydaysofcelebrationarepunctuatedbythefeastoftheAscension(40thday)andPentecost(the50thday).EachSundayandweekthereafter,untilthenextpaschalcyclebegins,isaSundayandweek“afterPentecost.” Thesetwoyearlycycles–forfixeddatesandformoveabledatesdependentonEaster–coincideslightlydifferentlyeachyear.Coordinationoftheirreadings,hymnographyandotherliturgicalfeaturesrequiresahighlevelofspecializedknowledgeandtrainingonthepartofthoseleadingtheservices.

Figure3.7.ElaborateAleut/Alutiiqpegcalendar,probablyfromtheearly20thcentury,intheAlaskaHistoricalLibraryandMuseum.



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3.5.3MajorfeastsandfastsInadditiontoEaster,theFeastofFeasts,theOrthodoxchurchyearcelebrates“TwelveGreatFeasts.”Ofthese,threearemoveable,dependentuponthedateofEaster:PalmSunday(EntranceofChristintoJerusalem);theAscensionofChrist;andPentecost(SendingoftheHolySpirit).Theremainderarefixed-datefeasts:TheNativityofMarytheTheotokos(September8);ExaltationoftheHolyCross(September14);EntranceoftheTheotokosintotheTemple(November21);Christmas:theNativityofChrist(December25);Epiphany:theBaptismofChrist(January6);theMeetingofChristintheTemple(February2);theAnnunciation(March25);theTransfigurationofChrist(August9);andtheDormition(FallingAsleeporAssumption)ofMarytheTheotokos(August15).

Eachdayoftheyearhonorsoneormoresaints.Quiteunderstandably,thepopularityofagivensaintvariessomewhatfromoneOrthodoxchurchtoanother.Oftenthisdependsonthesignificanceofthesaintforaparticularcommunityornation.Forexample,St.Nicholas,patronsaintofmariners,isparticularlypopularinfishingcommunities.Preferencessuchastheseoftendeterminethededicationandpatronalfeastdayofagivenchurchorchapel.

Particularlyimportantfeastshavetheirowncyclesofpre-festalpreparationandpost-festalcelebration.TheChristmascycle,forexample,ispatternedonthatofEasterandincludesaforty-daypreparatoryfastanalogoustothefastofGreatLent.ThefeastsoftheDormitionandSts.PeterandPaulalsoareprecededbyfastingperiodsofshorterduration.

Althoughcoordinationoftheseliturgicalcycles,theirhymnography,andtheirreadingscanbeadauntingtaskevenfortrainedprofessionals,keepingtrackoftheweeklycycleanditsrelationshiptomajorholidayswasfacilitatedfornativehouseholdsinAlaskabyuseofpegcalendars.ProbablyintroducedbyRussianpromyshlennikiinthemid-18thcentury,theyremainedinusewellintothe20thcentury(Black2004,225). 3.6SANCTIFICATIONOFLIFE3.6.1SacramentsandsacramentalsTextbooksandcatecheticalmaterialinuseintheOrthodoxChurchtypicallyenumeratesevensacraments,or“mysteries”:baptism,chrismation(confirmation),eucharist,holyorders,matrimony,penance,andanointingofthesick.Thisenumeration,correspondingtothatdevelopedintheRomanCatholicChurchintheMiddleAges,isnotparticularlyancient.ThroughtheMiddleAges,Orthodoxpresentationsmadenosharpdistinctionbetweenwhatlatertheologianswouldrefertoas“sacraments”and“sacramental”.Forexample,insomepresentations,thefuneralservice,monastictonsure,andtheconsecrationofachurchwereincludedamongthe“holymysteries”of



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theChurch(Meyendorff1974,192).Such“mysteries”wereunderstoodlessasisolated“meansofgrace”andmoreasaspectsoftheuniquemysteryofChristandthechurch,inwhichGodsharesdivinelifewithhumanbeingsbyrenewingcreationasameansofcommunionwithHim.- IntheOrthodoxChurchtoday,asintheearlychurch,thethreesacramentsof

Christianinitiation—baptism,chrismation,andcommunionintheeucharist—arecloselylinked.Baptismwhetherofadultsorchildrennormallyisperformedbyapriest,bytripleimmersion,andisimmediatelyfollowedbychrismationwithperfumedointmentdistributedbythebishopandbyreceptionoftheeucharist.“Normally”:butincircumstanceswhenpriestisunavailable,baptismmaybeperformedbyalayperson.Sometimesalso,circumstancessuchasextremecoldmaymakebaptismbypouringadvisable.SuchcircumstanceswerehardlyexceptionalthroughmuchofthehistoryofOrthodoxyinAlaska.Thetheologicalrelationshipofthesethreesacramentswasmaintainedinchurchteaching,buttheirtemporalunitywasdisrupted.Inremotevillages,intheabsenceofapriest,infantswerebaptizedbyalaypersonsoonafterbirth.Anointingwithchrismandreceptionofcommunionwouldfollowonlylater–sometimesmuchlater–whenapriestwasabletovisitthecommunity.

- Theeucharistoftenisreferredtoasthe“sacramentofsacraments,”becauseother

aspectsofthechurch’ssacramentallifeareorientedtoitandreceivemuchoftheirmeaningfromit.IntheOrthodoxChurchtoday,theeucharistiscelebratedthroughmuchofthechurchyearaccordingtotheDivineLiturgyofSt.JohnChrysostom,butonSundaysinLentandcertainotherespeciallysolemndays,itiscelebratedaccordingtothemuchlongerDivineLiturgyofSt.BasiltheGreat.TheLiturgyofthePresanctifiedGifts–basicallyaVespersservicewiththeadditionofcommunionusingtheHolyGiftsconsecratedonthepreviousSunday–isservedonWednesdaysandFridaysinLentandonthefirstthreedaysofHolyWeek.

- ManyOrthodoxChristiansreceivecommunioninfrequently—perhapsonlyoncea

yearinordertofulfilltheir“annualobligation”ofconfessionandcommunion.Thisisnotbecauseofanydisrespecttowardsthesacrament,butratherbecauseofthegreatseriousnesswithwhichbeing“joinedintheholymysteries”isregarded.Insuchcasescommunionistypicallyprecededbyanextendedperiodofpreparation(govenie),includingfasting,ritesofcontrition,andconfession.Inrecenttimes,however,theancientpracticeofreceivingcommunionmorefrequentlyhasgainedground.Inanycase,infantsandyoungchildrenareadmittedtocommunionatanytime,withoutextendedpreparation.Whetheryoungorold,laycommunicantsreceivecommuniononaspoon.AfterreceivingcommunionandattheendoftheDivineLiturgy,itiscustomarytoreceiveapieceofholybread(antidoron)thatwasleftoverafterholycommunionwasprepared.



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- Confessionandreceptionofcommunionoutsidetheusualliturgicalcontextisacommonpracticeforpersonsseriouslyillornearingdeath.Insuchcases,thepriest(orbishop)typicallycarriestothepersonasmallportionofthereservedsacramentfromthealtartabernacle.Hecarriesthisinatabernacle-shapedcontainer.Usuallythiscontainerissmallenoughtobebornesuspendedaroundthepriest’sneck,butsometimesitisconsiderablylarger.

- Marriage,asunderstoodintheOrthodox

Church,givesaveryspecificsignificancetowhatotherwisemightbeappeartobeamerelyhumaninstitution.ItismeanttoreflecttheunionofChristandtheChurch,enduring,groundedinmutuallove,andasourceofblessingnotonlyforhusbandandwifebutalsoforthewidercommunity.Today’smarriageserviceistheproductoflonghistoricaldevelopment.PatternedafterthesacramentsofChristianinitiation,itincludesaceremonialcrowningthatisatoncemartyricandcelebratory(seeFigure3.8).Scripturereadings,atriplecircularprocession,andparticipationinacommoncup.Onlyabishoporpriestcanperformthemarriageserviceand“sacramentallybless”aunionotherwiseenteredintobylocalcustom.Beforedoingsohemustascertainthatthemarriagemeetscanonicalandlegalrequirementsrelatingtosuchmattersasage,consanguinityandconsent.

- IntheOrthodoxChurchordinationinvolvesasacramentalsettingapartfora

specificministry.Threemajororders–ofbishop,priest,anddeacon–involveserviceatthealtartable.TheyareconferredinthecourseoftheDivineLiturgy,atthealtartable,bythelaying-onofhandsofabishop(intheordinationofapriestordeacon)orofmultiplebishops(intheordinationofabishop,asacollegialact).Minororders–ofsubdeacon,reader/cantor,andinthepastcertainothers–areconferredoutsidethealtararea,byformalappointment,or“settingapart,”byabishop.

- Thesacramentofunction,oranointing,isintendedforthehealingofsoulandbody.

Initsfullform,thisisacommunalchurchevent,involvingsevenpriests,sevensetsofreadingsandsevenmajorprayers.Inpractice,itmoreofteninvolvesasinglepriestcomingtothebedsideofsomeonewhoisill.

- Whilemanyoftheprayersassociatedwithdeathandburialaremeanttobereadby

apriestorbishop,theritesthemselves–fromdeathbedandpreparationofthebodytothefuneralserviceandinterment–maybereadandsungbylaypersons.BasicallytheservicefollowstheorderofthedailyofficesofMatinsandtheTypika,

Figure3.8.TypicalRussianOrthodoxweddingcrowns,Seldovia,ca.1900.



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providingonefinaloccasionforthechurchcommunitytoworshiptogetherwiththedeparted.

- Theconsecrationofachurch,aparticularlycomplexrite,mustbeperformedbythe

bishop.If,however,“forreasonofremotenessoranyotherreason,”heisunabletodoso,hemayappointan“experiencedpriest”tosoinhisstead,usinganabbreviatedrite(GreatBookofNeeds2,2000,119).Likeotherimportantchurchrites,thefullorderinmanywaysisanalogoustothesacramentsofChristianinitiation,includingawashingandvestingofthealtar,anointingofthewallswithchrism,andbearingoftheantimensiononapatenforsolemnconveyancetothealtartable.

3.6.2Occasionalservices

TheGreatEuchologion,orBookofNeeds,includesspecialprayersandservicesforuseonvariousoccasions.Thereareprayersfortheblessingofliturgicalvessels,vestments,servicebooks,processionalbanners,icons,bells(with“naming”ofthebell,sprinklingwithholywater,andcensing),candles(onthefeastofthePresentation),palms(onPalmSunday),meatsanddairyproducts(atEaster),fruits(atthefeastoftheDormition),cemeteries,fields,herds,beehives,wells,vehicles,fishingnets,shipsandboats...Thelistgoesonandon.- OfspecialsignificanceareservicesfortheGreatBlessingoftheWatersatEpiphany

(Theophany),whenChrist’sbaptismintheRiverJordaniscommemorated.Afirstblessinginthechurchsanctifieswaterforuseinhomesandthechurchduringthecomingyear.Asecondblessingfollowsasolemnprocessiontoanearbyriver,lakeorspring.Duringthefollowingdaysthepriest–oftenwithgroupsofparishioners–goesfromhometohometoblessthem.

- Additional“crossprocessions”takeplaceoncertainappointeddays,veryoftenwith

theblessingofwater,onmajorfeastdays,andonoccasionsofspecialsignificancetotheparish.Typicallytheseprocessionsareledbyaltarserversbearingaprocessionalcross,lampsandbanners.Nextcomesingers,clergy,andprominentparishionerscarryingfestalicons,followedbymembersofvariouschurchorganizationsandthecongregation.Whenfeasible,funeralprocessionsfromchurchtocemeteryareorganizedinasimilarfashion.(SeeFigures4.11.19and20.)

- Specialprayerservices(molebens)–conductedwhetherinthechurchorinthe

homeorelsewhere-typicallyaredevotedtointercession(forthesick,beforeajourney,atthebeginningofinstruction,intimeofpestilence,etc.)andtothanksgiving(forhealing,forsafereturnfromavoyage,onimportantanniversaries,etc.).



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Thepresenceandliturgicallifeofthechurchextendsbeyonditswalls.Bellsrunginvariousways–fromsimpletollingtoalivelyday-longtrezvon–conveyinformation,promptprayerfulreflection,andstimulateanemotionalreaction,whetherofgriefor

celebration.Thelightofcandlesfromanilluminatedchurchinteriororanighttimeprocessionstimulatesasenseofwonderevenwhenviewedfromafar.Processionalrouteswhetheraroundthechurchorbeyondthechurch-totheriverside,thecemeteryorasubsidiaryshrine-suggestthemysteryoflifeasapilgrimagethatisatoncespiritualandphysical.Paraliturgicalactivities–“starring”andotherritualexchangesofhospitality–bringthechurchintothehome(Inouye1987).“Sacred”spacemaybe

delineatedinvariousways-bytheiconostasiswithinthechurchbuildingitself,bysimplefencingaroundthechurchyard–buttheblessingsofthis“sacred”spaceoverflowintoawiderworldofhumanactivity,mundanebutnotprofane.3.6.3ExtensionofcommunionintimeandspaceEspeciallyinarelativelyremoteregion,achapelorparishchurchcommunitycouldeasilybecomeingrown,preoccupiedwithitsownjoysandsorrows.Thecommunitymighthavesomesenseofitsconnectionwiththediocesanbishopbecauseofhisoccasionalvisits,whenheexaminesthechurchrecords,givesappropriateliturgicalawardstomembersoftheclergy,bestowscertificatesofappreciation(gramota)onprominentmembersofthechurchcommunity,anddistributesiconprints,crossesandothersmallgiftstothefaithful.Butawidersenseofbelongingandconnectednesswaspromotedinotherwaysaswell.Onoccasion,specialofferingsweretakenup(e.g.,theannualPalmSundaycollectionforthePalestineMissionoftheRussianOrthodoxChurch).Linkswithothercommunitiesandindividualswereestablishedthroughthegiftofbells,liturgicalobjects,and–especially–icons.Thesegiftexchangeshelpedbringdistantplacesandpersonalitiesintoquasi-immediatecontact.

Figure3.9.UnangangroupposingwithChristmasstar,onUnalaska,early20th-century.



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InUnalaskathesightoficonsacquiredfromRussiatomarkthecoronationofthe

reigningRussiansovereigns,TsarNicholasIIandhiswifeAlexandra,certainlywouldhaveremindedworshippersnotonlyofthedepictedsaintsbutalsoofthecathedral’shistoricandculturaltieswithRussia.InSeldovia’sSt.NicholasChapel,twoiconsofSt.TheodosiusofChernigov–canonizedbytheRussianOrthodoxChurchin1896-servedtoremindworshippersoftheenlargementandrefurbishmentoftheirchapelinthatyear.ManychurchesreceivedgiftsoficonscraftedonMountAthos,theholymountainofworldOrthodoxmonasticism.Inmanychurches,copiesandadaptationsofthefamousiconofOurLadyofKazanlinkworshippersnotonlytotheVirginMaryandJesusbutalsotomiracleswroughtthroughthaticoninRussia.TheseadaptationsrecallAlaska’sownfamousiconoftheKazantype,OurLadyofSitka,inSt.Michael’sCathedral.Examplescouldbemultiplied.Suchicons,ratherthanlarge-scalecyclesofwallpaintingsormosaics,fillthewallspaceofthechurchesandchapelsofAlaska.Oftendonatedtocommemorateaspecialoccasionorreproduceafavoriteobjectofdevotion,

theyofferedthelocalcommunityasenseoftrans-temporalcommunion.Theyremindedviewersnotonlyofthesaintsandsacredeventsdepictedintheiconbutalsoofthecircumstancesofitsarrivalintheirmidst(Shevzov2004,171-213).3.7ORTHODOXYINALASKA:THEBEGINNINGS(Black2004,223-253)

3.7.1TheageofexplorationDuringtheageofEuropeanexplorationandexpansion,asSpain,FranceandGreatBritaincrossedtheAtlantictoestablishcolonialempiresinAmerica,anotherEuropeanpower,Russia,waspressingtowardAmericafromtheoppositedirection.Duringthe16thand17thcenturies,Russianexplorersandtrapper-traders(promyshlenniki)madetheirwayacrossSiberiainsearchofsableandothervaluablefurs,andnavigatorsmadetheirwaytotheChukchiPeninsulaandKamchatka.EmperorPetertheGreathadmoreambitiousplansformakinghisland-basedempireamaritimepower.Beforehisdeathin1725,helaidplansforsystematicexplorationoflandsstillfarthereast.Afteraninconclusivevoyagein1728,VitusBering,aDaneinRussianemployment,andAlexeiChirikovledasecondeasternexpeditionin1741.AftermappingsomeoftheAleutianIslands,theysightedtheAlaskanmainlandinJulyofthatyear.Thereturnvoyagewasmarredbyshipwreck,disease,andthedeathofmanyofthecompany,includingBeringhimself,buttheexpeditionhadachieveditsscientificgoalof

Figure3.10.“OurLadyofSitka,”basedontheRussian“Kazan”icon–animagepopularthroughoutAlaska.



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chartingthenorthwesterncoastsofNorthAmerica.Italsocarriedhomeavaluablecargoofseaotterpelts,thustouchingoffa“furrush”toAlaska.3.7.2PromyshlennikiForthenexthalfcenturyindependentSiberian-RussianpromyshlennikipliedtheAlaskanwatersinsearchofquickwealth.Therapacityofthesetrapper-tradersprovokedoccasionalresistanceonthepartofthenativepeoplesofAlaska,butcircumstancesalsoencouragedwhathistorianLydiaBlackhasreferredtoas“professionalcooperation”inhuntingactivitiesandalsodailylife(Black2001,http://www.loc.gov/rr/european/mofc/black.html).TheRussians–andtheSiberiannativepeoplesworkingwiththem–wereexpertattrappingsableandothervaluablefur-bearinganimalsonland,buttheyhadlittleexperienceofthepelagichuntingofseaotters.TheyneededthenavigationalandhuntingexpertiseoftheAlaskanatives.Thepromyshlennikialsorecognizedcertaincommonalitiesofreligiousbeliefandpractice.AsoneofthesewroteoftheAleutiannatives:

Theyliveandactineverythingsimply.JustlikeweRussians,whenwesetoutonanyenterprise,callonthenameoftheLordGodtoaidusandbless[theenterprise]orwhenatseainthebaidarasonthewaytoourhunting,allkeepsilentforawhileandthen,havingcalledonGodforaidandinhopeofHismercywesay“Godaidus,”likewisetheseforeignpeoples,leavingforthehunt,saytheprayer“Lord,bless.”Andwhensettingoutinthebaidaras,likeourselves,allkeepsilentandthensay,likewedo,“Godhelpus”(Black2004,223-224).

ThisledtomanyinstancesinwhichRussiansadoptedyoungnativehostages.Almostinvariablythesewerereturnedhome,wheretheyservedasinterpretersandculturalmiddlemen.ThebestknownexampleofthisisIvanStepanovichGlotovofUmnakIsland,thenephewofalocaltoion(headman),whobecameagodsonoftheRussianpromyshlennikStepanGlotov.ThenewlybaptizedIvanGlotovoftenservedashisgodfather’sinterpreter.EventuallyhebecamethetoiononUmnak,wherehe

Figure3.11.ShrinemarkingtheputativesiteofthefirstbaptismintheAleutianIslands,thatofIvanStepanovichGlotov,agodsonofRussianpromyshlennikCaptainStepanGlotov.



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settledatthevillagenowcalledNikolski,builtthefirstOrthodoxchapelintheeasternAleutians(dedicatedtoSt.Nicholas),andconductedreaderservicesonregularbasis(Black2004,224-225).AtsomepointacrossandthereafterasmallshrinewereerectedneartheentrancetotheNikolskichurchinordertomemorializethisearlybaptism(Smith1994,3).Intime,somepromyshlennikisettledinpermanentlyinAlaska,pickingupnativelanguages,takingnativewivesandadoptingnativeways,inmuchthewaythattheirforebearshadamongthenativepeoplesofnorthernRussiaandSiberia.Socompletelydidtheyassimilatethatbytheendofthecentury,whenBritishCaptainJamesCookvisitedtheAleutianIslands,JohnLedyard,whokeptajournalforthevoyage,foundithardtodistinguishtheRussiansfromnativeAlaskans(Black2004,229).Eventhoughtheirmaterialculturewaslargelynative,thepromyshlennikigenerallymaintainedtheirOrthodoxbeliefsandpracticesevenintheabsenceofordainedclergy,buildingchapelsandprayerhouses,holdingreaderservices,baptizingtheirnativewivesandchildren,andcommunicatingtothemtherudimentsoftheChristianfaith.Thus,whenFr.JacobNetsvetovreturnedasapriesttohishomeislandofAtkhain1828,hefoundthattheentirepopulationhadalreadybeenbaptized,eventhoughnopriesthadbeentherepreviously.Fr.IoannVeniaminovhadmuchthesameexperiencewhenhearrivedonUnalaskain1824.BothpriestsspenttheirfirstyearsintheAleutianstravelingfromsettlementtosettlementinordertocompletethesebaptismswithchrismationandreceptionoftheeucharist.

3.7.3TheGolikov-ShelikhovCompanyThedaysoftheindependentfreebooterpromyshlennikiwerenumbered,however.Largertradingcompaniescompetedforfurstocks,oftensettingtheirhuntersandnativealliesagainsttheirrivals.Bythe1780s,GregoryShelikhov,partnerinthemostaggressiveofthesecompanies,wasarguingfortheestablishmentofpermanentoutpostsinAlaska.These,heargued,wouldnotonlypermitmoreefficientexploitationofnaturalresources.TheyalsowouldextendRussianmilitaryandpoliticalinfluencethroughoutthePacificrim.Afterasavagemassacreofresistingnatives,ShelikhovestablishedasmallRussiancolonyonKodiakIslandin1784.

In1787ShelikhovtraveledtotheimperialcourtinSt.Petersburgtoboastofhisaccomplishmentsandtoseekamonopolyonthefurtrade.EmpressCatherinetheGreatwasnotgreatlyimpressed.ThecompanyestablishedbyGolikovandShelikhov,aftermergingwithtwolessertradingcompanies,gaineditscovetedmonopolyonlyin1799,whenitwascharteredbyhersuccessor,PaulI,astheRussian-AmericanCompany.ButatleastoneprominentfigurewasmovedbyShelikhov’simportunities.Withcharacteristicexaggeration,ShelikhovhadwrittentoMetropolitanGabrielofSt.Petersburg,oneofthehighest-rankingchurchmenintheRussianEmpire,boastingofthenumberofnativeswhomhehadbaptizedandofthemanynativechildrenwhowere



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attendingthecompanyschoolandfrequentingthecompanychapel.Hebeggedforapriesttobeassignedtohisfledglingcolonyandpromisedthatthecompanywouldcoverallexpenses.3.7.4MissionariesfromValaamMonasteryShelikhovprobablyhadinmindamemberofthe“white,”ormarriedclergy,whowouldserveaschaplainforhisfledglingcolony.MetropolitanGabrielrespondedtohisrequestbyrecruitinganentiremissionaryteamfromtheValaamMonastery,afamouscenterofspiritualityandmissionlocatedontheRusso-Finnishborder.OnDecember25,1793,abandofeightmonks,headedbyArchimandriteIoasafBolotov,leftSt.PetersburgforAmerica.Afterajourneyof293daysand7,327miles,theyarrivedonKodiakonSeptember24,1794.Theyhadtraversedonethirdoftheworld’scircumferencewithouteverleavingtheRussianEmpire(Tarasar1975,15). ArchimandriteIoasafandhisassociatesweretheheirsofalongtraditionofmonasticmissionintheChristianEast.TheycouldlookbackatSts.CyrilandMethodius,the9th-centuryevangelizersoftheSlavs,andatSt.StephenofPerm,whoselaborsamongtheZyrianpeopleinSiberiaincludedtheinventionofaZyrianalphabetandtranslationofthegospel.OnceonKodiakthemissionariesenergeticallybeganimitatingthesemodels,travelingthroughouttheregionandbaptizingthenativepeoples.Themissionariesfacedunexpectedhardships.Theirgreatesttrialscameatthehandsoftheall-powerfulmanageroftheRussian-AmericanCompany,AlexanderBaranov.Whentheyarrived,notonlydidtheydiscoverthatthechurchandsuppliespromisedbyShelikhovdidnotexist.TheyalsowereappalledbythebrutaltreatmentthatthenativeAmericansreceivedatthehandsofBaranovandhismen–nativehuntersforcedtoworkatgunpoint,youngwomenkeptasconcubines,littlechildrenseparatedfromtheirmothers.

IoasafsentvividreportsofabusebacktoShelikhov:“SincemyarrivalatthisharborIhaveseennothingdonetocarryoutyourgoodintentions.MyownpleasureisthatsomanyAmericansarecomingfromeverywheretobebaptized,buttheRussiansnotonlymakenoefforttoencouragethem,butuseeverymeanstodiscouragethem.ThereasonforthisisthattheirdepravedlivesbecomeevidentifcomparedtothegoodconductoftheAmericans”(Oleksa1987,58-59;Tikhmenov2,1979,77).

ReceivingnoreplyfromShelikhov,whoinfactwasnotthegenerousandsupportivepatronofthemissionthathemadehimselfouttobe,IoasafandtwoothermonksreturnedtoRussiain1798toreportfirsthandonconditionsinthecolony.In1799IoasafwasordainedtobeBishopofKodiak,avicarbishopwithinthedioceseofIrkutsk.ThispositionwouldhavegivenhimmoralandpoliticalinfluencefargreaterthanBaranov’s.Healsowasgivenbooks,vestmentsandotherchurchsupplies.Onthe



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voyagebacktoAlaskain1799,however,theshipcarryinghimandhisentouragewaslostinheavyseas.Allonboardperished.3.7.5NewchallengesforthemissionEvenbeforethedeathofIoasafandhiscompanions,themissionhadlostoneitsmostenergeticmembers,Fr.Iuvenalii,whowaskilledbyhostilenativeswhileonapreachingexpeditionin1796,probablynearQuinhagakonKuskokwimBay(Oleksa1986;Oleksa1987,14;Black2004,251n.41).Nowitwasreducedstillmore.Nevertheless,withthelaymonkHermanincharge,theremainingmissionariescontinuedtodefendthenativeAlaskans.In1800Baranovretaliatedbyplacingthemunderhousearrestandforbiddingfurthercontactwiththenatives.WithinayearthemissionariesinfuriatedBaranovstillmorebyattemptingtoadministertothenativestheoathofallegiancetotheemperor,whichwouldhavegiventhemgreaterlegalprotectionasRussiansubjects.ThistimeBaranovthreatenedtoputthemallinirons.SomehopeforimprovementinconditionscamewhentheHolySynodappointedArchimandriteGedeontoinspectthecolonyandrevivetheflaggingmission.Duringhisvisit(1804-1807)hegainedashrewdappreciationofthesourceofthemission’sproblems.AshereportedtohissuperiorsinRussia,“thepersonalinsultswhichthemissionariesenduredfromtheemployeesofthecompanyweretheresultsoftheprevailingattitudethat‘Godisinheaven,theCzarisfaraway,’andonlyBaranovistobefeared”(Gedeon,inRussianOrthodoxReligiousMission1978,58).ButGedeon’sreportwasundercutbylettersfromNicholasRezanov,acompanylobbyist,whodefendedBaranov’smanagementandbelittledthemonks,who“haveneverknownhowtoenterintotheextensiveplansoftheGovernmentorthecompany”(Tikmenev2,1979,167).ContinuingcomplaintsaboutthemanagementoftheRussian-AmericanCompanyledtoyetanotherinquiry,thisoneconductedbyCaptainVasiliiGolovninin1818.HewasfavorablyimpressedbythesimplepietyandgoodsenseofFatherHermanandtookseriouslyhisassessmentofBaranov’sregime(Black2004,205n.3).Golovnin’sfindingswouldbetakenintoaccountwhenthecompany’schartercameupforrenewalin1821.Bythetermsofitsnewcharter,thecompanywassubjectedtomuchclosergovernmentsupervision,anditwasobligedtoprovideandsupportasufficientnumberofpriestsandchurchreaderstoservethereligiousneedsofitsfar-flungNorthAmericanholdings.

ButalreadyconditionsinAlaskawerechanging.BaranovhadretiredtoRussiaafewmonthsbeforeGolovnin’sarrival.Hisreplacement,SymeonIanovskii,admittedthatheatfirsthadbelievedslanderousstoriesthatclaimedFatherHermanwasencouragingthenativestoriseinrebellionagainsttheauthorities,butaftermeetinghimandviewingthesituationpersonally,hechangedhisopinion.Thiswell-readandcosmopolitangentlemanlaterwouldwritetotheabbotoftheValaammonastery:“Tomygreatsurprise,thesimple,uneducatedmonkFatherHerman,inspiredbyGod’sgrace,spokesoskillfully,forcefullyandconvincingly,andofferedsuchproof,thatnolearningor



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earthlywisdomcouldstandagainstit!”(RussianOrthodoxReligiousMission1978,32).IntimehecametoregardFatherHermanashisspiritualmentor,andfollowingthedeathofhiswife,hehimselfbecameamonk.3.7.6FatherHermanonSpruceIslandFatherHerman,thelastsurvivingmemberoftheoriginalmissionteam,spenthislastyearsinseclusiononSpruceIsland,awayfromthebustleofKodiak.Henamedhislittlehermitage“NewValaam”,afterhisoldmonasteryinRussia.Hisasceticalwayoflifewaspatternedonthatoftheancientdesertfathers.Hesleptonawoodenbenchwithabrickforhispillow,woreheavychainsunderhissimplehomemadeclothes,andspentmuchofhistimeinprayer.Buthealsoranaschool,nursedthesick,caredfornumerousorphans,andraisedfoodforhimselfandtheminanexperimentalgarden.

Atthetimeofhisdeathin1837,FatherHermanwaslargelyforgottenbythewiderworld,buthismemorywasstillaliveamongthenativesandinecclesiasticalcircles,especiallyamongthebrethrenofhisbelovedmonasteryofValaam,whohadreceivedhislettersovertheyears.Inafewyearshisreputationforsanctityhadspread.Bythemid-19thcenturypilgrimswerevisitingthesiteofhisgraveonSpruceIsland.In1970hewascanonizedasthefirstOrthodoxsaintofAmerica.3.8ORTHODOXYINALASKA:THEAGEOFVENIAMINOV3.8.1ChangingtimesDuringthefirstdecadesofthe19thcentury,therelationshipbetweenAlaskaandtherestoftheRussianEmpirechangedinseveralsignificantways.TheAlaskaexploitedbythepromyshlennikiinthe18thcenturyhadbeen,ineffect,anextensionofSiberia.Linesofcommunication,commerceandmaterialculturepassedthroughSiberia.Inthe19thcentury,frombeinganextensionofSiberia,Alaskaslowlyevolvedintoanoverseascolonyofaland-basedEuropeanempire(Vinkovetsky2011).SymptomaticofthischangewastransferoftheheadquartersoftheRussian-AmericanCompanyfromIrkutsktoSt.Petersburgin1801andacorrespondingshiftinthecontrolofitsboardofdirectorsfromSiberianmerchantstometropolitanaristocrats.AnimportantcontributingfactorwasdevelopmentofthemodernRussiannavy.Beginningin1803-1806,Russiaundertookaseriesofround-the-worldvoyagesdevotedtoexplorationandcartographyaswellastradewithforeignmarketsandprovisioningofdistantoutpostslikeAlaska(Vinkovetsky2001).AfterthedepartureofBaranovasGeneralManagerin1818,topmanagementoftheRussian-AmericanCompanyinAlaskawasdrawnalmostexclusivelyfromwell-traveled,cosmopolitannavalofficers.DuringthisperiodthesocialcompositionofAlaskawasgrowingmorecomplexandalsobecomingincreasinglydistinctfromthatofRussiaitself.Companyemployees



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previouslyhadbeenengagedoncontractsthatassumedtheireventualreturntotheirhometownsinRussia,butwhatwastobedonewiththosewithlongyearsofservicewhonowhadnoinclinationorincentivetoreturntoRussia?Forthemthenewsocialcategoryof“colonialcitizen”wascreated(Arndt1996).Retireesweregivencertainincentivestoestablishagriculturalsettlementsontheconditionthattheyremainpermanentlyinthecolonies.Themostsignificantofthese–atNinilchikandAfognak–maintainedtracesoftheirdistinctiveoriginwellintothe20thcentury.Numericallymoresignificantthanthe“colonialcitizens”werethecreoles.Usedgenericallythetermmostoftenreferstoapersonofmixedrace,butinAlaska–inthesecondandthirdchartersoftheRussianAmericanCompany-itacquiredaspecificlegalmeaningthatwasonlytangentiallyrelatedtorace.CreolesconstitutedanewsocialestateestablishedspecificallyforAlaska.InAlaskacreoleswereexemptfromthepolltaxandvariousotherobligations,butiftheychoseeventuallytosettleinRussiatheyassumedsomeotherlegallyrecognizedstatus,inmostcasesmerchant/burgher(commoner,onemightsay),butpossiblyevengentryorclergy,dependingoncareeraccomplishments(Miller2010,Blumlo2010).ItwouldbehardtooverstatetheimportanceofthecreoleestateforAlaskaduringtheperiodofRussian-AmericanCompanycontrol.AsLydiaBlackhaspointedout:

BytheendoftheRussianperiod,thenumberofpersonsincompanyservicebelongingtothecreolestatuswasconsiderable:in1893,theirnumbersapproached2,000.Theirroleinmanagingthecolonywasofprimeimportance.Creolesweremanagersofremoteoutpostsandofdistricts.Theywereteachers,clergy,navigators,cartographers,shipcommanders,andartists.(Black2004,217)

3.8.2Themissionarycalling(Pierce1990,521-527)Duringtheearly19thcentury,asAlaskawasacquiringadistinctiveidentitywithintheRussianEmpire,theRussianOrthodoxChurchwasdevelopinganewzealformissions.ItwassendingoutmissionariestothemanytribesandpeoplesofSiberiaandCentralAsia,translatingScriptureandliturgicaltextsintothenativelanguages,andencouragingdevelopmentofindigenouschurchleadership.EspeciallynoteworthywastheworkofHieromonkMakariiGlukharev(1792-1847),canonizedin2000forhisroleasApostletotheAltai,followedlaterinthecenturybytheworkoflinguistandeducatorNikolaiIvanovichIl’minskii(1882-1891)andHieromonkNicholasKasatkin(1836-1912),canonizedin1970asApostletoJapan.Alaska–throughtheworkofSt.InnocentVeniaminov–wouldbeamongtheearliestbeneficiariesofthisnewzealformissionandofthenewapproachtomissionthatitrepresented.Veniaminovwasbornin1797asIvanPopov,inavillageintheIrkutskprovince.Hewasoneoffourchildrenofthesacristanofthelocalparishchurch–amember,albeitalowlyone,oftheclericalestate.Afterthedeathofhisfather1806,youngIvanlivedwithhis



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uncle,thedeaconofthatchurch,whogavehimtherudimentsofanecclesiasticaleducation.In1806,attheageofnine,heenrolledintheIrkutskseminary,wherehespentthenextelevenyears.There,tohonorthememoryofthelateBishopVeniamin(Benjamin)ofIrkutsk,hewasgivenanewsurname,Veniaminov.NamechangesofthissortwerecommoninRussianseminaries,ifonlytodistinguishbetweenstudentshavingcommonpriestlyfamilynameslikePopov.YoungVeniaminovmarriedin1817,tothedisappointmentofhisecclesiasticalsuperiors,whohadexpectedhimtogoontooneofRussia’selitetheologicalacademies.InthesameyearhewasordainedasapriestandassignedtoachurchinIrkutsk.VerylikelyFr.Ioann(ashewasnowcalled)wouldhaveremainedinIrkutskpermanentlyhadhenotmetanagedpromyshlennik,IvanKriukov,whoin1823hadreturnedtohishometowninordertovisithisfamily.Atthetime,thebishopofIrkutskwaslookingforapriesttosendtofar-awayUnalaska,andnoone–includingVeniaminov–wantedtovolunteer.ButafterhearingKriukovdescribethenativeAlaskans’hungerforChristianity,Veniaminovchangedhismind.InMay1823,hesetofffromIrkutskwithhismother,hisyoungerbrother,hiswife,andtwoyoungsonsonthelongjourneytoAlaska.3.8.3Fr.IoannVeniaminov,missionarypriestIn1824,afteralonglay-overinSitka,Fr.VeniaminovandhisfamilyarrivedontheislandofUnalaska.HequicklylearnedthelocaldialectoftheAleut/Unanganlanguage,developedanalphabetandcompiledadictionary.Withthehelpofalocalnativechief,IvanPan’kov,hetranslatedtheGospelofSt.Matthew,partsoftheeucharisticliturgyandthestandardcatechism,andwroteaworkofhisowninAleut,entitledIndicationofthePathwayintotheKingdomofHeaven.Ajack-of-alltrades,Veniaminovtaughtthenativesthebasicsofcarpentryandmetalwork,andtogethertheybuiltUnalaska’sChurchoftheAscension.HeandhiswifeCatherinealsoestablishedanorphanageandaschool,whereoveronehundredboysandgirlslearneddiversetradesaswellasreading(inbothAleut/UnanganandRussian),writingandarithmetic.

FromUnalaskaVeniaminovtraveledonaregularannualcircuitthroughouthisparish,whichstretchedalongtheeasternislandsoftheAleutianchain.Everywherehewent,Veniaminovtookcarefulnotesonallaspectsofthelocale--geology,climate,population,customs,floraandfauna.Histhree-volumeNotesontheIslandsoftheUnalaskaDistrictandotherethnographicworkswouldeventuallyearnhimmembershipintheprestigiousImperialAcademyofSciences.In1834GovernorFerdinandPetrovichWrangellpersuadedVeniaminovtomovetoSitka,thencalledNovo-Arkhangel’sk,orNewArchangel,thecapitalofRussianAmerica.ThereVeniaminovsetaboutlearningthelanguageandcultureofthelocalTlingitIndians,whotraditionallyhadbeenhostiletowardstheRussiansandtheirAleutianandAlutiiqconfederates.Conversionswerefewatfirst,butVeniaminovdidmanagetogain



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theTlingits’confidencewhenhehelpedcombatasmallpoxepidemicbyundertakingaprogramofimmunization.DuringhisyearsinSitkaVeniaminovdidnothavetotravelasfrequentlyashedidwhenhewasstationedinUnalaska.IncludedaspartofhisSitkaparish,however,wasoneofthemostdistantoutpostsoftheRussian-AmericanCompany,FortRoss,abouteightymilesnorthofSanFrancisco.Thesettlementhadbeenestablishedin1812inhopesthatitwouldsupplymuch-neededagriculturalprovisionsforAlaska,anditstillservedasthebaseofoperationsforamixedflockofabout260menandwomen,thelattermostlyPomoIndians.In1836Veniaminovundertookasix-weekpastoralvisittotheRosssettlement.OnhisreturntriptoSitkahewasabletotourtheSpanish-MexicanmissionsoftheSanFranciscoBayarea.HeconversedwiththepadresinLatin,whichhehadlearnedasaseminarian,andasatokenofappreciationfortheirhospitality,hebuiltseveralsmallbarrel-organsforthemuponhisreturntoSitka.3.8.4BishopInnocentVeniaminov(Nordlander1995;seealsoChapter5.5below.)In1839VeniaminovtraveledtoEuropeanRussiatoarrangeforpublicationofhisscientificstudies,reportonhismissionwork,andurgeestablishmentofaseparatedioceseforAlaska.(UntilthenithadformedpartofthedioceseofIrkutsk,inSiberia.)Evercurioustoexplorenewplaces,hetraveledaschaplainononeoftheRussiannavy’sround-the-worldvoyages.WhileinEuropeanRussia,helearnedofthedeathofhiswife,whohadtraveledhometoIrkutskfollowingtheoldSiberianlandroutefromOkhotsk.Aftervisitinghergraveandbeingassuredthathischildrenwouldbecaredfor,Veniaminovtookmonasticvows,takingthenameofInnocent,thenameborneinthe18thcenturybythefamousmissionarySt.InnocentofIrkutsk.InDecember1840hewasappointedandordainedtobebishopofthenewly-establishedDioceseofKamchatka,theKurileandAleutianIslands.Veniaminov,nowBishopInnocent,returnedtoSitkathefollowingyear.Forthenexteighteenyearstraveledextensivelythroughouthisvastdiocese.ToevangelizetheYup’ikandDena’inanativepeoplesintheheartofAlaska,heestablishedthreenewmissiondistricts.ThesewerebasedinIkogmiut,orKwikhpak(nowcalledRussianMission),servedfirstbyhisoldfriendFr.JacobNetsvetov;inNushagak,servedfirstbyBishopInnocent’sson-in-lawFr.EliaPetelin;andinKenai,servedfirstbyHieromonkNikolaiMilitov,oneoftheclericswhohadarrivedinSitkawiththenewbishop.InhisdiocesanseeofSitka,BishopInnocentinitiatedamajorbuildingcampaignwhichincludedconstructionoftheBishop’sHouseanditsAnnunciationChurch,theoldestRussian-periodstructurestillstandinginAlaska(1843);anewSt.Michael’sCathedral(consecrated1848);andtheHolyTrinityChurch,alsosometimesreferredtohastheChurchoftheHolyResurrection(consecrated1849,toservethenativeTlingitpopulationintheirownlanguage).AlsoimportantforthefutureofOrthodoxyinAlaskawastheestablishmentofaseminarywherenativeandcreolecandidatesforordination



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followedacurriculumthatincludednotonlytheologicalsubjectsbutalsonativelanguages,elementsofmedicine,andLatin.3.8.5Fr.JacobNetsvetovAmongVeniaminov’sassociatesinAmerica,noneaccomplishedmorethanJacobNetsvetov,acreoleofmixedAleutandRussianancestry,whowasprobablybornonSt.GeorgeIslandinthePribilofsin1802.AftercompletingseminarystudiesinIrkutsk,Netsvetovwasordainedin1828andassignedaspriestonAtkha,withaparishcoveringthewesternAleutianIslandsandtheKurileIslands.Aftermanypersonalcalamities,includingthedeathofhiswifeinfar-awaySitka,whereill-healthhadforcedhertotravelfortreatment,withVeniaminov’sencouragementNetsvetovdevotedhimselftotranslationwork,nativeeducationandothermissionaryactivities.

AfterVeniaminovwasordainedbishop,heassignedNetsvetovtobeginmissionaryworkamongtheYup’ikintheYukonRiverregion.WiththeaidofhiscreoleassistantsInnokentiiShaiashnikovandConstantineLukinandhisnephewVasiliiNetsvetov,Fr.JacobestablishedamissioncenteratIkogmiut(RussianMission)toserveashisbaseofoperations.Fromtherehetraveledwidely,bothtoYup’ikvillagesandtotheAthabaskanpeoplesfartherupstreamonthemiddleYukonandtheInnoko.Netsvetov’sworkatIkogmiutwouldmarkanewstageintheAlaskamission.ForeighteenyearsheandhisassociatescarriedonwithoutthemilitaryprotectionandlogisticalsupportoftheRussian-AmericanCompany,hundredsofmilesfromitsnearestmajoroutpost,St.Michael’sRedoubtonNortonSound.Feebleandnearlyblind,Fr.JacobwasunceremoniouslyrelievedofhisresponsibilitiesattheIkogmiutmissionin1863andmadehiswaytoSitka,whereheservedaspriestattheTlingitHolyTrinitychurch.HediedthereonJuly26,1864,andwasburiedatthechurchentry,notfarfromthegraveofhisbelovedwife.In1994NetsvetovwascanonizedbytheOrthodoxChurchinAmericaasSt.Jacob,EnlighteneroftheNativePeoplesofAlaska.Longbeforethat,however,hewasbeinghonoredasasaintthroughoutwesternAlaska.

3.8.6Veniaminovasarchbishopandmetropolitan(SeealsoChapter5.9)In1850BishopInnocentwasraisedtotherankofarchbishopandgivenagreatlyexpandedjurisdictioninnortheasternSiberia.In1858thearchdiocesanseeaswellastheseminarywereofficiallytransferredfromSitkatoYakutsk,whereInnocenthimselfhadbeenlivingsince1853.Inviewofthevastextentofthisarchdiocese,HieromonkPeter(Petr)Sysakov,orEkaterinovskii,wasordainedin1859toassistArchbishopInnocentasvicarbishopforAlaska;thewidowedpriestPaul(Pavel)PopovwasordainedinthefollowingyeartoassisthimasvicarbishopforYakutia.InnocenthimselftookupresidenceinBlagoveshchensk,thenewlyfoundedcityontheAmurRiver,wheretheseeofhisarchdiocesewasofficiallytransferredin1862(Black1997,27-29).



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Theyear1867wasaturningpointbothinthelifeofArchbishopInnocentandinthehistoryofhisbelovedAlaska.InOctober18,AlaskawascededtotheUnitedStates.OngettingwordoftheimpendingeventinAugust(Pierce1990,526),ArchbishopInnocentaddressedtwoletterstohisfriendandmentor,MetropolitanFilaretDrozdovofMoscow,thehighest-rankingchurchmanintheRussianEmpire,expressinghisconcerns:WhatwouldbethelegalstatusoftheOrthodoxChurchunderAmericarule,andhowwoulditbesupported?(Black1996,89-90).HedidnotknowatthetimethatFilarethadpassedaway(November19)andthathewouldsoonbechosentosucceedhim.

Intheearlymonthsof1868InnocentslowlymadehiswaytoMoscowwhere,onMay26,hewassolemnlyinstalledasMetropolitanofMoscowandKolomna.Hisinterestinmissionneverwaned.In1870hefoundedtheOrthodoxMissionarySociety,whichwouldhelpfinancetheworkoftheAlaskanmissionuntilthecommunistrevolutionof1917.ThegreatmissionarydiedonMarch31,1879,attheageofeighty-two.In1977hewasformallycanonizedbytheRussianOrthodoxChurchasSaintInnocent,EnlighteneroftheAleutsandApostletoAmerica.HeisburiedintheHolyTrinity–St.SergiusMonastery,nexttoMetropolitanFilaretDrozdov,himselfcanonizedbytheRussianOrthodoxChurchin1994.Bythe1860s,avibrantindigenousOrthodoxculturehaddevelopedinAlaska,thanksinlargeparttotheinspirationandleadershipgivenbySt.InnocentVeniaminov.ThenativeandcreolepopulationwasassumingadominantroleintheeconomyandreligiouslifeofthisdistantoutpostoftheRussianEmpire.Accordingto1860companyfigures,Sitka,thecapital,hadapopulationof1024,ofwhomonly452wereRussians.IntheKodiakdistrict,outofatotalpopulationof3086therewereonly67Russians.InotherdistrictstheRussianpopulationwasevenlesssignificant.InalltheAleutianIslands,forexample,therewereonlyeightRussians(Oleksa1992,157).Butthechurchnumberedapproximately12,000OrthodoxChristians,withnineconsecratedchurchesand35chapels.Churchpersonnelincludedthebishop,ninepriestsandtwodeacons,andapproximatelytwentyreaders(Kapalin2009,161).Itwaslargelythroughtheworkofcreoleandnativeleadership,includingdozensoflayreadersandchurchwardensaswellasordainedclergy,thatthechurchinAlaskawasabletosurvive--andattimeseventothrive--followingthesaleofAlaskatotheUnitedStatesin1867.3.9ORTHODOXYINALASKA:AMERICANRULE

3.9.1RussianreactionstotheCession(SeealsoChapter5.10and5.11.)ForsomeintheRussianOrthodoxChurch,thesaleofAlaskarepresentedanewopportunity.ForMetropolitanInnocentVeniaminov,thiseventwas“oneofthewaysofProvidencebywhichourOrthodoxycaninsertitselfintotheUnitedStates.”Inaletter



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totheOverprocuratoroftheHolySynod,hesketchedanumberofmeasurestoencouragethemissionoftheOrthodoxChurchthroughoutNorthAmerica:TheseatofthebishopshouldbetransferredfromSitkatoSanFrancisco;abishopandstaffshouldbeappointedwhoknowtheEnglishlanguage;theclergyshouldbeallowedtouseEnglishinchurchservices;translationsofservicebooksandothermaterialsintoEnglishshouldbeundertaken;andpastoralschoolsshouldbeestablishedtotrainfutureclergy,inwhich“thecurriculummustbeinEnglishandnotinRussian,whichwillsoonerorlaterbereplacedbytheformerlanguage”(Garrett1979,275-77;Afonsky1977,78).Innocent’srecommendationswerelargelyimplementedoverthenextcoupledecades.DiocesanheadquartersweretransferredtoSanFrancisco(1870-1872)andthentoNewYork(1905).MostofthebishopswerefluentinEnglishornearlyso,andtheyappeartohavebeenselectedonbasisofcertainrelevantcompetencies.BishopJohn(Ioann)Mitropol’skii(1870-76)authoredafive-volumestudyonTheHistoryofReligiousSectsinAmerica.BishopNestorZass(orZakkis,1879-1882)hadpreviouslyspentayearin(ornear)theUnitedStatesduringtheAmericanCivilWarasaRussiannavalchaplain.BishopVladimirSokolovskii-Avtonomov(1888-91),whomadetwovisitstotheUnitedStateswhilestationedasamissionaryinJapan,createdEnglish-languagesettingsforthemostcommonRussianliturgicalchants,thoughhiscriticscomplainedthat“neitherweourselvesnorAmericanscanunderstandtheresultantmutilatedEnglish”(Emmons1997,15).UnfortunatelyneitherBishopJohnnorBishopNestornorBishopVladimirsignificantlyadvancedMetropolitanInnocent’svisionforOrthodoxyinAmerica.BishopJohn’sadministrationwasmarkedbyscandalssoseriousthattheyresultedinhisrecalltoRussia.BishopNestorhadazealformissionandmanyambitiousplans,buthisshorttenureendedwithhisapparentsuicideashewastravelinginAlaskanwaters,leavingthediocesewithoutabishopforsixyears.BishopVladimir’stumultuoustenureasbishopwasalsobrief,cutshortinhiscasebyrecalltoRussia.Untilthe1890s,survivaloftheDioceseoftheAleutiansandAlaskadependedlessuponitsbishopsthanuponlessconspicuousfiguresoperatingbehindthescenes.Ofthesethemostimportantwasthelong-timeheadofthediocesanconsistoryinSanFrancisco,Fr.VladimirVechtomov,whosavedthechurchfromseveralembarassingsituationsandalsohelpedreinvigorateitsflaggingmissioninAlaska.3.9.2ChurchpropertiesunderAmericanruleThesaleofAlaskaofferednewopportunitiesforOrthodoxmissionintheNewWorld,butitalsopresentedsomeunprecedentedproblemsandchallenges.The1867TreatyofCessionhadpromisedthattheOrthodoxChurchcouldretainitspropertiesinAlaskaandcontinueitsmission,protectedbyconstitutionalguaranteesoffreedomofreligion.Alaska,however,waseffectivelyundermilitaryrule.AciviliangovernmentwouldnotbeestablisheduntilcongressionalpassageoftheOrganicActof1884.Meanwhilechurchproperty–inadequatelysurveyedatthetimeoftheAlaskaCession–waseasily



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misappropriatedbysquattersandhomesteadersorlostthroughfraudulentbusinessdeals.TheTreatyofCessionalsodidlittletoprotectthepropertyandculturalheritageofthenativepopulationorthelegalstatusofthecreoles.EngagedinsuccessiveIndianwarsaswhitesettlerspushedwestward,thegovernmentoftheUnitedStateslargelyignoredthelegalclaimsofAlaska’snativesand“half-breed”creoles.Physicalviolencewasminimal,althoughAmericansoldiersstationedinSitkaatonepointlootedSt.Michael’sCathedral,andanavalgunboatshelledtheTlingitvillageofAngoon.ThebattlefortheAlaskannativepeopleswouldbefoughtoutintheclassroom,throughaggressiveprogramsintendedtoreplaceindigenousculture,withitsimportantOrthodoxcomponent,withAmericancultureandmainstreamwhiteProtestantvalues(Oleksa1987,311-339;Oleksa1992,171-186;Dauenhauer1980;Dauenhauer1997).3.9.3BattlesovereducationAnimportantleaderinthiscampaignofAmericanizationandassimilationwasDr.SheldonJackson,aPresbyterianministerwhosesocialandpoliticalconnectionsinWashingtongainedhimappointmentasthefirstTerritorialCommissionerofEducation(1885-1906).FollowingwhatwasthenacceptedpracticeforeducationonAmericanIndianreservations,JacksonencouragedestablishmentofboardingschoolsrunbyfederallyfundedProtestantmissions.Nativeandcreolechildrenwouldberemovedfromtheirhomes,sometimesbyforce,andenrolledintheseschoolsinordertobringthemto“theAnglo-Saxonframeofmind”(Oleksa1992,172).IncontrasttothebilingualortrilingualapproachtoeducationfollowedintheschoolsoftheOrthodoxmission,theseboardingschoolsinsistedontheexclusiveuseofEnglish,evenwhenstudentswerespeakingamongthemselves.OneofJackson’sassociates,theReverendS.HallYoung,explainedinhisautobiographywhythisEnglish-onlypolicywaspursued:“Onestrongstand,sofarasIknowIwasthefirsttotake,wasthedeterminationtodonotranslatinginto...anyofthenativedialects.Irealized...thatthetaskofmakinganEnglish-speakingraceoftheseNativeswasmucheasierthanthetaskofmakingacivilizedandChristianlanguageoutoftheNativelanguages.Weshouldlettheoldtongueswiththeirsuperstitionsandsindie--thesoonerthebetter--andreplacetheselanguageswiththatofChristiancivilization,andcompeltheNativesinourschoolstospeakEnglishandEnglishonly”(Oleksa1992,171).Alongwiththenativelanguages,theseschoolsoftentriedtosuppressOrthodoxy.Studentswouldbeencouragedtochoosean“American”ratherthana“Russian”religion.Orthodoxpriestswouldnotbeallowedtoadministerthesacramentstothem.OnlyreligiousinstructionaccordingtotheProtestantfaithwouldbepermitted(Oleksa1992,171-178).



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3.9.4OrthodoxadvocacySpokesmenfortheOrthodoxChurchprotestedagainsttheaggressivepoliciesofJacksonandhisassociates.Eventuallyarticlesappearedinchurchperiodicalsdenouncingabuses.Petitions–somebynativeleaders-weresenttofederalofficialsinWashington.In1898BishopNicholasZiorov,thentheheadoftheRussianNorthAmericandiocese,addressedasharplettertoPresidentMcKinleyinwhichheappealedforprotectionfromofficialswhoare“senttoAlaskawithoutanydiscriminationandexclusivelyontherecommendationofAlaska’simmovableguardian,SheldonJackson....Alaskamustbedeliveredfromthatman.Byhissectarianpropagandahehasintroduceddissension,enmityandiniquitywherethoseevilsdidnotbeforeexist.ItwastheOrthodoxChurchwhichbroughtthelightoftruthtothatcountry;whythentrytodriveheroutofitbyeverymeans,lawfulorunlawful?“(ROAM3[1899]6-9).Unfortunatelysuchprotestsdidnotsucceedinstoppingabusivepractices.Rather,theypromptedevensharperattacksontheOrthodoxChurch.InitscoverageofthelettertoPresidentMcKinley,theNewYorkTribunedenouncedBishopNicholasforhis“blindandunwarrantedprejudiceagainstthisProtestantcountryanditsexcellentschools”(Oleksa1992,179-180).SheldonJacksonalsoreactedangrily,warningthatthe“daysoftheOrthodoxChurcharenumbered”andthat“twenty-fiveyearsfromnow,therewillnotbeanyOrthodoxchurchmembersleftinAlaska”(Oleksa1992,182).ButJacksonunderestimatedtheresilienceofOrthodoxyinAlaska--aresiliencewhichwasthedirectresultofitsapproachtomission.Asa1901articleintheRussianAmericanOrthodoxMessengernoted,Orthodoxmissionsdonotaimatpromotingapoliticalagendaorimposingaparticularculture.Rather,theyareopentoallcultures(ROAM5[1901]90-94,110-119,132-139,150-157).ItsopennesstonativecultureallowedtheOrthodoxmissioninAlaskatosucceedinsituationswhereJackson’sassimilationistpoliciesonlyalienatedthenativepeoples.Forexample,theTlingitIndiansofsoutheasternAlaskainitiallyhadshownlittleinterestinOrthodoxy.Inthe1880s,however,inthefaceofmountingpressuresfromJacksonandhisassociates,theirleadersbegantopetitiontheOrthodoxbishopforteachersandclergyandencouragedtheirpeopletoacceptbaptismintheOrthodoxChurch.Astheyrecognized,acceptanceofOrthodoxywouldallowthemtomaintaintheirculturalidentity.AcenturyafterJackson’sangrypredictionsofitsimpendingdemise,theOrthodoxChurchinAlaskahasremainedaliveandstrong.AtthetimeoftheAlaskaCession,OrthodoxywasasignificantculturalforceinAlaska.Despiteperiodsofneglect,itremainedsointhedecadesthatfollowed.InsomepartsofAlaska,briefintervalsofprosperitybroughtnewchurchconstruction.Inaddition,supportfromRussia,bothpublicandprivate,helpedfinanceclergysalariesandeducationalandphilanthropicactivities.



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3.9.5AnewboominfursDuringthefirstdecadesofAmericanrule,theOrthodoxnativepopulationofAlaskacontinuedtodependheavilyonthefurtrade.Seaotterstocks,depletedearlierinthecentury,hadreboundedbecauseofconservationmeasuresintroducedduringthelastdecadesofRussianrule.Oneconsequencewasthat,duringtheyearsbetween1867and1890,theaverageannualkillrosedramatically.Butthen,injustafewyears,itdroppedevenmoredramaticallyastheseaotterpopulationplummeted.Atfirst,growingscarcitycausedthepriceofapelttorisetoastronomicallevels,butbythetimeaninternationaltreatybannedcommercialhuntingin1911,theseaotterhadbeennearlyexterminated.Duringtheboomyears,Aleut/Unangan,AlutiiqandIndianhuntingpartiesonboardAmericanandBritishschoonerswereamongthoseprofitingfromthehunt.OrthodoxcommunitiesalongthePacificcoastoftheAlaskapeninsula,theKodiakarchipelago,andtheGulfofAlaskawouldbeamongthebeneficiariesoftheirwork.NewparisheswerecreatedinNuchek,UngaandBelkovski,eachwithdependentchapels.WithitselegantChurchoftheHolyResurrection(1887),BelkovskiforatimewasoneofthemostprosperousOrthodoxparishesinAlaska.Butastheseaottertradedeclined,sodidthetown.Itssurvivaldependedonthedevelopmentofalocalcommercialfishingindustryand–increasingly--onseasonalcanneryemploymentinnearbyKingCove.AlthoughBelkovski’schurchwasaddedtotheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesin1980,afterthetown’slastresidentsleftlaterinthedecadeitsupkeepbecameimpossible.St.Herman’schurchinKingCove,establishedin1984,becameitssuccessor,receivingitsmagnificenticonostasisandbells.2AlsothrivingduringtheearlyAmericanperiod,butforslightlydifferentreasons,werethestand-aloneparishesofSts.PeterandPaulandSt.GeorgeinthePribilofIslands.UnliketherestofAlaska,whichwasadministeredbythearmyand–foratime–thenavy,thePribilofs,breedinggroundsforthefurseal,wereunderthesupervisionoftheU.S.TreasuryDepartment,whichgrantedmonopolyleasesonsealharvestingtotheAlaskaCommercialCompany(from1870to1890)andtheNorthAmericanCommercialCompany(from1890to1920).Theseleaseswereextremelyprofitabletothegovernmentaswellastothelessees.Duringitstwenty-yearleasetotheAlaskaCommercialCompany,theTreasuryDepartmentreceived$9.6milliondollars(Hoagland1993,296;and1997,passim).Alsobenefiting,butnotnearlysospectacularly,weretheAleut/Unanganworkers,whofinancedconstructionofhandsomenewchurchesonbothislands–bothofwhicharenowontheNationalRegister.

2In1992theBelkovskichurchcollapsed,andin2013nearlytheentiresiteofBelkovskiwasdestroyedbyfire.



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AnothercenterofchurchactivitywasNushagak,offBristolBay,wheremanydecadesearliertheRussian-AmericanCompanyhadestablishedatradingpost,NewAlexanderRedoubt,andBishopInnocentVeniaminovhadcreatedamissiondistrictthatstretchedallthewayfromBristolBayuptheriversystemsintothelakecountry.Fromthelate1870s,JohnW.Clark,forwhomLakeClarkisnamed,rantradingoperationsatNushagakfortheAlaskaCommercialCompany.HisvariouscommercialundertakingsthrivedinpartbecameofhisfriendshipwiththeOrthodoxpriestatNushagak,Fr.VasiliiShishkin,andDeaconVasiliiOrlov,whosedaughterClarkmarried.AsClark’sbiographerJohnB.Bransonobserves,“theClark-Shishkin-Orlovclan...wasmadeupofthethreemostinfluentialfamiliesinalloftheBristolBayregioninthelatenineteenthcentury.Betweenthemtheycontrolledthecommercialandreligiousreinsoftheregion”(Branson2012,58).Nushagak’srelativeprosperitycontinuedintotheearly20thcentury,butwithshiftsinregionaltradeandeconomicactivity,dueinparttoshiftingrivercurrentandmudflats,NushagakwaseventuallyeclipsedbyDillinghamacrossthebay.TheiconsandotheraccoutrementsofthelatestNushagakchurch,builtin1903,weretransferredtoparishesinAleknagikandDillingham.Thechurchitselfeventuallysuccumbedtotheelementsandwastakendown.Alargecrosswaserectedonthesiteofitsaltar.Toppledduringaviolentstorm,itwasreplacedbyanevenlargercrossslightlyhigherupthebluffoverlookingNushagakBay.ForseveraldecadesUnalaskawasaconvenienthubforchurchandcommercealike.BishopNestorconsideredmakingitthebaseofhisactivitiesinAlaskaandcontractedwiththeAlaskaCommercialCompanyfortheconstructionoftheUnalaska“bishop’shouse”andaschoolbuildingthere,aswellassubstantialnewrectoriesinNushagak,KodiakandKenai.AfterupstartBelkovskibuiltitsfinenewchurchin1887,theChurchoftheTransfigurationatUnalaskawasexpandedandthoroughlyremodeledin1894.Intheprocessitacquiredtwosidechapels,oneoverthesiteofVeniaminov’soriginalUnalaskachurch.AcquisitionofthesesecondandthirdaltarsboostedthestatusoftheUnalaskachurch.LikeSt.Michael’sCathedralinSitka,itnowqualifiedasacathedral,orsobor,thoughunlikeSt.Michael’sitneverbecameakafedralnysobor,theseatofabishop.

3.9.6AdventofthecanneriesAsecondandmoreenduringchangeinAlaska’seconomyandchurchlifecamewiththearrivalofcommercialfishcanneriesincoastalAlaskaduringthelate19thcentury.ThecannerieswouldtransformAlaska’seconomyand,intime,thefaceoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchinAlaska.Initially,however,thecanneryownerswerereluctanttohireNativeAmericans,whowereregardedasunreliable–mostlybecausetheycouldresumetheiraccustomedsubsistenceactivitiesiftheygotdissatisfiedwithworkingconditionsinthecanneries.Canneryoperatorsandmanagementpreferredtoengage



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Asiancontractlaborers,whowouldbetotallydependentonthemnotonlyforhousing,foodandwagesbutalsofortransportationtoandfromtheirpointoforigin.ThischangedinthewakeoftheSanFranciscoearthquakeandfireof1906.Inhis1906traveldiary,Fr.NicholasKashevarovrecountshisvisittoAkhiok,onKodiakIsland,forthatvillage’sfeastday.Hehadnotexpectedthenativestobeworkingatthecannery.

Isaidtothecaptain:thisisnotthefirsttimeIhavebeenhere,andIknowverywellthattheresidentshereneverworkedatthecannery,whichiswhyIsentthebaidarkatoletthemknowofmyarrival.ButIamnotpressuringanyonetoloseoutontheirpay,eithernoworinthefuture.Thecaptainsaidtomethatitwastruethattheresidentshadnotworkedlikethisbefore,butbecauseofthecatastrophicearthquakeinSanFrancisco,thecompanywasunabletorecruitenoughChinesepeople,andthereforeitreallyneededthelocalresidentstoworkatthecannery.“Well,”Isaid,“Iamnotsummoningthembyforce;letthemearnmoney,especiallysincetheydoneedit.”

Asacompromisemeasurewiththecannerymanager,Kashevarovcompressedtheusualtwo-orthree-dayperiodofpreparationforcommunionintoonelongnight.TheworkerswerefreetoresumetheircannerylaborsaftertheDivineLiturgyearlythenextmorning(ROAM11l1907]207-210).TheeconomicbenefitsofthecannerieseventuallyextendedtoOrthodoxcommunitiesthroughmuchofcoastalAlaska.OneoftheearliestandmostremarkableexamplesoftheconcernoflocalworkersfortheirchurchcanbeseenatKarluk.IfoneexcludesthechurchintheBishop’sHouseinSitka,theAscensionofOurLordChapelinKarlukisprobablytheoldestextantRussianOrthodoxChurchinAlaska.AsHoaglandnotes,

ItssizeandstyleareprobablyattributabletotheprosperityaffordedbytherichsalmonrunsintheKarlukRiver,whichbroughtcanneriestothissiteinthe1880s....WhentheKarlukPackingCompanybeganconstructingnewhousesfortheNatives,aNativenamedMeletyrequestedthatthecompanybuildhimachurchinstead.Astenciledplaqueinthechurchreads“Melety’sMemorialChurch,Builtin11June1888,byCharlieSmithHursh,Karluk,Alaska”(Hoagland1993,289).

Onemaysuspectthatthearrivalofcanneriesalsopromptedtheconstruction,enlargementandembellishmentofothercharmingchurchesalongCookInlet,includingHolyAssumptionChurchinKenai(1894-1895,withremodelingandtheadditionofamassivebell-towerin1900)andSt.NicholasChapelinSeldovia(1891,expandedwithbell-towerca.1896).Theplaceoftheseandcomparablechurcheswithintheirhistoriclandscapesettingcanbegatheredfromearlyphotographs.Withthedisappearanceofthecanneries,churcheslikethatatKarluk-nowstandinginsplendidisolationonits



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promontory-seemmoredistantfromthelifeoftheirlocalcommunitiesthantheydidatthetimeoftheirconstruction.

Figure3.12.Karluk,onKodiakIsland,1900-1901,showingchurchwithcemeteryandthegovernmentschoolonthehighpromontory,villagehomesalongitsslopeandintheforeground,andcanneriesalongtheshoreline(backgroundfarright).

3.10ORTHODOXYINTHEUNITEDSTATES

3.10.1NewimmigrationBythetimeoftheAlaskaCession,OrthodoxyhadmadeverylittleimpactintheUnitedStatesitself.Consularofficials,shippingagentsandmerchantsfromGreeceandRussiaprovidedanOrthodoxpresenceinahandfulofportcities,butorganizedchurchlifewasonlybeginning.OrthodoxyseemeddestinedtoremainaperipheralelementinAmericanlife.Withinafewdecades,thissituationchangeddramatically.Fromthelate1880sonward,agrowingtideofimmigrationfromEasternEurope,theBalkansandtheMiddleEastmadeOrthodoxyoneofthefastest-growingfaithsinAmerica.WhenBishopNicholasZiorovarrivedintheUnitedStatesin1891,onlytwoofhisparisheslayoutsideAlaska.OnewashiscathedralparishinSanFrancisco.TheotherhadjustbeenreceivedintotheOrthodoxChurch.ThecircumstancessurroundingitsreceptionintotheRussianOrthodoxDioceseoftheAleutiansandAlaskawerepartofa



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movement–oftencalled“thereturnoftheUnia”-thatwouldtransformthediocese,itsgeographicaldistribution,anditsculturalmake-up.

3.10.2The“returnoftheUnia”Thefirstlarge-scaleimmigrationinthelate19thcenturycamefromtheAustro-HungarianEmpire,fromtheCarpathianmountainregionsthattodayaredividedamongPoland,Slovakia,Hungary,Moldova,andUkraine.Thepeopleinquestionwereknownbyvariousnames:Carpatho-Russians,Ruthenians,Rusyns,Uhro-Rusyns(iftheycamefromHungary),Galicians(iftheycamefromtheareasofPolandthenruledbyAustria)orTrans-CarpathianUkrainians.MostarrivedintheUnitedStatesasGreekCatholics,or–astheOrthodoxcalledthem–Uniates.Throughaseriesof"unions"inthelate16thand17thcenturies,beginningwiththeUnionofBrestin1596,theirOrthodoxforebearshadacceptedtheauthorityofthePopewhileretainingtheirEasternliturgicaltraditionsandmanyEasterncustomsandpractices.CatholicbishopsintheUnitedStatesweregenerallyignorantofthemanyliturgical,culturalandlinguisticpeculiaritiesthatdistinguishedtheseEasternCatholicsfromtheirLatinCatholicfellow-immigrants.ManyopposedtheestablishmentofEasternCatholicparishes.IfthesepeoplearegoodCatholics,theirreasoningwent,letthemattendtheexistingLatin-riteparishesoftheirSlovak,PolishandHungarianneighbors.From1891onward,thehostilityoftheRomanCatholicbishopsprovokedamassive“return”oftheseGreekCatholicstotheirancestralOrthodoxy–amovementspearheadedbythefieryFr.AlexisToth.By1917,some163Carpatho-RussiancommunitiesinAmericahadenteredtheRussianOrthodoxChurch.3.10.3AshiftoforientationThis"returnoftheUnia"profoundlytransformedtheDioceseoftheAleutiansandAlaska,givingitnotonlymanythousandsofnewmembersbutalsoanewdemographiccomposition,geographicorientation,andethnicflavor.WhenleadersofthemissionarydiocesemovedthediocesanseefromAlaskatoSanFrancisco,theycanhardlyhaveimaginedthattheirmissiontomainstreamAmericawouldachieveitsfirstmajorsuccesswiththemassconversionofnewimmigrantsfromtheAustro-HungarianEmpire.Thediocesenowfacedseveralnewchallenges.HowshoulditministertothenewimmigrantswhowerenowpouringintotheUnitedStates,notonlytheformerUniateCarpatho-RussiansbutalsothemanyOrthodoxSerbs,Greeks,Arabs,Albanians,RomaniansandBulgarians?Therulingbishopsofthisperiod--NicholasZiorov(1891-98),TikhonBellavin(1898-1907),PlatonRozhdestvenskii(1907-14,andlater1922-34)andEvdokimMeshcherskii(1914-17)--addressedthesechallengesinavarietyofambitiousways.Themissionarydiocese,in1900renamedtheRussianOrthodoxDioceseofNorthAmericaandtheAleutianIslands,wouldincludeover350parishesandchapels,aseminary,awomen’s



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vocationaltrainingschool,amonasteryandaconvent,severalorphanages,animmigrantaidsocietyandsavingsbank,withaprojectedannualcentraladministrativebudgettotalingoveraquarterofamilliondollars.ButonlyasmallpercentageoftheseparishesandinstitutionswereinAlaska.Adirectoryofparishesfor1917-1918listsseventeenAlaskaparishes,ofwhichonlyninehadresidentpriestsatthetime.MeanwhilethevicarbishopforAlaska,PhilipStavitskiiwaslistedas“onvacationinRussia”.Hewouldneverreturn(Tarasar1975,347).3.10.4BishopTikhonBellavinOfrulingbishopsinthisperiod,certainlythemostbelovedandmostconsequentialwasTikhonBellavin.Thirty-threeyearsoldatthetimeofhisarrivalintheUnitedStates,hewasoneoftheyoungestbishopsintheRussianOrthodoxChurch.AfterhisreturntoRussia,hebecameinquicksuccessionArchbishopofIaroslavl,ArchbishopofVilnius,MetropolitanofMoscow,and-inthemidstofthecommunistrevolutionof1917-thefirstPatriarchofMoscowandAllRussiainovertwohundredyears.Subjectedtoconstantharassmentandpersecutionbythecommunists,hediedwhileunderhousearrestin1925.Withthefallofcommunismin1989,hewasformallycanonizedasasaintbytheRussianOrthodoxChurch,butlongbeforethathewasuniversallyrecognizedasoneofthe20thcentury'sgreatestconfessorsoftheChristianfaith.OnarrivinginAmerica,BishopTikhonundertookaseriesofpastoralvisitsthroughouthisfar-flungdiocese.OneofthefirsttookhimtothemoreremotepartsofAlaska,wherehehadtotravelbykayakand“sleepfortwelvestraightnightsonbareground,toexperiencethelackofthemostessentialprovisionsandwagea‘bloody’waragainstbesieginginsects”(OCAArchives,bishop’sreportfor1900).Healsonoteddifficultiesofcommunication,since“notonlyistherenotelegraph,buteventhemailisdeliveredonlyonceamonthandtakesalmostafullmonthtoarrive”(ibid.).Tohischagrin,Tikhon“noticedthatseveralpriestswereengagingintrade”–afrequentcomplaintofearlierbishops,theirconsistories,andtheRussianconsularofficials.Formembersoftheclericalestate,engagingintradeandcommerce–alongthelinesoftheShishkinsandOrlovsandothercreoledynastiesintheAlaskanchurch–wasconsideredaltogetherinconsistentwiththeirhighcalling.Accordingly,TikhonissuedanencyclicaltoallAlaskaclergyurgingthem“toacquirefursandpeltsfromtheirparishionersatmarketprices”and“bynomeanstoengageinthesaleoffurs”(ibid.).In1902,findinghimselfunabletovisitAlaskabecauseofthegreatdistancesinvolved,Tikhoninsisted,withaddedemphasisinhisannualreporttotheHolySynod,that“itisessentialtoprovidetheBishopoftheAleutianswithavicarforAlaskatohelphim”(OCAArchives,bishop’sreportfor1902).InvitedtoattendasessionoftheHolySynodthefollowingyear,Tikhonvigorouslyinsistedontheneedforreorganizationofhisfar-flungdiocese.HerequestedthatavicarbishopbeappointedspecificallyforAlaska,inviewofitsdistanceandspecialneeds.SelectedforthisrolewasInnocentPustinskii,awell-



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educatedarchimandritewhointhe1890shadministeredforafewyearsintheUnitedStates.HewasordainedasabishopinSt.PetersburginDecember1903,withBishopTikhonservingasoneofhistenordainers.OnMarch11,1904,inthefirstOrthodoxepiscopalordinationeverperformedintheNewWorld,TikhonandhisnewAlaskanvicarbishopordainedasecondvicarbishop,RaphaelHawaweeny,tohaveresponsibilityspecificallyforArabOrthodoximmigrants.ArchimandriteSebastianDabovich,thoughnotabishop,alreadywasexercisingsimilarresponsibilityforSerbianimmigrants,organizingparishesinminingtownsthroughoutthewest,includingDouglasAK(oppositeJuneau).TikhonenvisionedanalogousarrangementsfortherapidlyexpandingGreekOrthodoxcommunityaswell,althoughthisdreamwouldneverberealized.In1905,asafinalsealofapprovalonhislaborsinNorthAmerica,TikhonreceivedpermissiontotransferthediocesanseefromSanFranciscotoNewYork,whereitwouldbeclosertothenewimmigrantparishesoftheindustrialnortheast.Healsowashonoredwiththetitleofarchbishop.WhathadbegunasaRussianmissionarydioceseinAlaskawasonitswaytobecomingamulti-ethnicAmericanOrthodoxchurch.ThisneworientationwouldhaveimportantconsequencesforOrthodoxyinAlaska.3.11THEVICARIATEOFSITKAANDALASKA 3.11.1VicarbishopsinSitka(SeealsoChapter5.17and5.18.)WiththeadministrativechangesputineffectunderArchbishopTikhon,thenewlycreatedvicariateofSitkaandAlaskaagainhadaresidentbishopwhowasimmediatelyresponsibleforAlaskanaffairs.BishopInnocentPustinskiiwasextraordinarilyenergetic.HetraveledextensivelywithinhisAlaskandiocesetopartsthathithertohadneverseenanOrthodoxbishop,andheworkedtodevelopdiocesanandparishinstitutions,suchastemperancesocietiesandschoolsinwhichEnglishwouldbetaught.HisannualreportsonthestateoftheAlaskanchurchandmanyarticlesoneducationandrelatedsubjectsprovideacomprehensivepictureofchurchlifeandinstitutionsduringwhatwascertainlythemostthrivingperiodofitshistorysincethedaysofVeniaminov.3BishopInnocentwassucceededinturnbyBishopsAlexanderNemolovskii(1909-1916)andPhilipStavitskii(1916-1919).ButtheseAlaskanvicarbishopshadadditionalresponsibilitiesthattookthembeyondthediocesetotheUnitedStates.Inaddition,theAlaskandioceseitselfwasexpandedtoincludetheChukchiPeninsulainRussia.Church

3InMarch1909,BishopInnocentreturnedtoRussiatobecomeBishopofYakutskandthereafterArchbishopofAlma-Ata(Tashkent,nowUzbekistan).HislifeaftertheascendancyoftheBolskeviks,whichincludedassociationwiththeschismatic“LivingChurch,”or“RenovatedChurch”(see§3.11.4),revealsmanyoftheambiguitiesandhorrorsoftheSovietperiod.In1937hewasarrestedbythesecretpolice(NKVD)forthefinaltimeandexecutedinAlma-Ata.



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lifeinAlaskacontinuedwithlittlechange,savethatasparishcommunitiesinmanypartsoftheterritorydeclinedeconomically,soalsodidchurchmorale.3.11.2DisastersandotherchangesAlaskawasrapidlychanging,andinwaysthatdiminishedtheeconomicandculturalcloutoftheRussianOrthodoxpopulationinmanyplaces.Thegoldrushbroughtaninfluxofnewcomers,alongwithnewwaysofexploitingnaturalresources.Inafewplacesnativepeoplesenteredintotheneweconomy.ThiswasthecasewiththeAthabaskansoftheupperKuskokwim,whobenefitedfromtransitalongtheIditerodTrail.OrthodoxchurchesinplaceslikeTelidaandNikolaiaswellasintheCookInletvicinityareareminderofthosedays.ButmanyregionswithasignificantOrthodoxpopulationexperienceddisastersthatalteredandweakenedchurchlife.Theseincludedsuchtypicalmisfortunesasshiftingcurrents,erosionofvillagesites,andchangesintraderoutes,aswasthecaseatNushagak.Diseasealsoplayedapart.Intheearly20thcenturyaninfluenzaepidemicdramaticallyreducedvillagepopulationsinmuchofwesternandsouthwesternAlaska.Theglobal“Spanish‘Flu”pandemicof1918addedtothedeathtoll.MoredramaticwastheNovarupta/Katmaivolcaniceruptionin1912(Clemens1999).AshfromtheeruptioncoveredwideswathsoftheAlaskapeninsulaandtheKodiakarchipelago,blottingoutthesunfordays.Themostaffectedpopulationswereforcedtorelocate,villagersofKatmaiandCapeDouglastoPerryville,ofSavonskiitoNewSavonskii-itselfnowabandoned.Intheprocess,villagerslostmuchoftheirculturalpatrimony,theirchurchesincluded.

Figure3.13.ThechapelatKatmaishowingtheaftermathoffloodingthataccompaniedthe1912volcaniceruption.Thehigh-watermarkofthefloodingreachedhalfwaytothetopofthebelltower.



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Clergymoralealsowasadverselyaffected,especiallyinareasthathadbeenboomingjustafewyearsearlier.ObituariesandextendedtributestoprematurelydeceasedpriestssupplantedadventuresomeclergytraveljournalsinthepagesoftheRussianOrthodoxAmericanMessengerandotherecclesiasticalpublications.DiocesanvicarbishopscontinuedtotourAlaskanvillagesandreportonconditionsastimeallowed.EvenrulingbishopsoftheNorthAmericandioceseoccasionallypaidavisit,butmoreastouriststhanaspastors.AsignofthetimesistheserializedaccountofavisitofArchbishopPlatonRozhdestvenskiiwrittenbyhis“travelingcompanion,”probablyFr.AlexanderHotovitskii,editoroftheRussianOrthodoxAmericanMessenger,thediocese’sflagshippublication.ThebishophadhopedtomakehisfirststopatSitkainordertoserveatitshistoricSt.Michael’sCathedral,buttheshipbypassed“OldLadySitka”andproceededdirectlytoJuneau,thenewterritorialcapital.Withwryhumor,thebishop’stravelingcompaniondescribesallthesymptomsofthegoldfeverthatwassweepingAlaska:theclamoroftheTreadwellmines,theboisterousvitalityoftheSerbianminersacrosstheGastineauStraitsinDouglas.HeisatoncefascinatedanddisgustedbytheAmericanpreoccupationwithmoney(ROAM14[1910]329-335;15[1911]92-95,195-203,213-214,234-236,249-253,264-270,278-289).

3.11.3WarandRevolution:LinkstoRussiachangeAsinstitutionalinertia,politicalcrisis,andtheadventofWorldWarIbegantoshakeRussia,uncertaintyaboutthefutureoftheAlaskanvicariatemounted.RumorscirculatedthattheRussianOrthodoxChurchintendedtowithdrawitssupport(ROAM20[1916]572;OCAArchives,miscellaneouscorrespondencefilefor1915-1916).ButneitherAlaskanortheNorthAmericandiocesewaspreparedforthedramaticchangesthatwouldcomeinthewakeofthecommunistrevolutioninRussia.Priortotherevolution,leadersoftheNorthAmericandiocesesometimeshadspokenofitseventualneedforautocephaly,thatis,ecclesiasticalindependence.Butinfactthediocesewasstillquitedependent,bothfinanciallyandadministratively,ontheRussianOrthodoxChurchandontheempiretowhichthatchurchwassocloselylinked.HithertothatrelationshiphadbeenadvantageousfortheAmericandiocese.Forexample,asubsidyfromRussiacoverednearlyallofitsheftycentraladministrativebudget.WiththeadventofcommunistruleinRussia,thatrelationshipbecameanoverwhelmingliability.Thediocesewasplungedintofinancialandadministrativechaos.Withfinancialsupportcutoff,disposableincomewasnegligible.Totalreceiptsfor1922wouldcometoonly$2,557(Tarasar1975,180).Asaresult,practicallyalleducationalandphilanthropicprogramswereterminated,nottomentionsupportforclergysalaries.TheNorthAmericandiocesealsofacedaconstitutionalcrisis.ArchbishopEvdokimMeshcherskiihaddepartedforRussiainsummer1917forthelong-anticipatedAll-RussianChurchCouncil,leavingadministrationofthedioceseinthehandsofhissenior



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auxiliarybishop,AlexanderNemolovskii.ButEvdokimneverreturned,andAlexanderwaslefttodealwithfinancialandadministrativeproblemsfarbeyondhisabilityandcompetence,includingadebtofover$100,000thatEvdokimhadincurred.In1922AlexanderresignedandleftAmerica,turningoveradministrationtoMetropolitanPlatonRozhdestvenskii,whopreviouslyhadheadedthediocese(1907-1914)andwhonowhadreturnedasarefugee.Thegenerosityofprivatebenefactorshelpedstemtheimmediatefinancialcrisis,butthechurchnowfacedanewquestion:Whowastoberegardedasitslegitimatehead?HithertolegitimizationhaddependedonRussia,butwhonowcouldlegitimatelyspeakfortheRussianOrthodoxChurch?3.11.4NewchallengesfortheNorthAmericandioceseIn1922aplenarychurchcouncilofdiocesanclergyandlaity,the“ThirdAll-AmericanSobor,”meetinginPittsburgh,proclaimedPlatonas“MetropolitanofAllAmericaandCanada,”apositionthathewouldholduntilhisdeathin1934.Nevertheless,hisauthoritywaschallengedfromseveraldirections.ThefirstandmostominouschallengehaditsrootsinRussia.WiththesupportofthenewSovietregime,agroupof“progressive”clergyseizedcontrolofchurchheadquartersinMoscow,declaredPatriarchTikhondeposed,andproceededtointroduceanumberofliturgicalandcanonicalinnovations.Thisgroup,knownasthe“LivingChurch”or“RenovatedChurch,”appointedadefrockedAmericanpriest,JohnKedrovsky,tobeitsarchbishopinAmerica.In1924,threatenedbyKedrovsky’slawsuitsandunabletocommunicatefreelywithPatriarchTikhon,the“FourthAll-AmericanSobor”metinDetroitandproclaimedtheNorthAmericandiocesetobea“temporarilyself-governingchurch”untilafuturecounciloftheRussianOrthodoxChurchcoulddealwithecclesiasticalaffairsunderconditionsofpoliticalfreedom.HenceforththeRussianOrthodoxGreekCatholicChurchofAmerica(togiveititsofficialname)orMetropolia(asitwaspopularlycalled)wouldpursueitsowntroubledcourseintheOrthodoxworld.AlthoughKedrovskydidgainpossessionofthechurch’shistoriccathedralinNewYorkCity,hislawsuitsmetwithlittlesuccessontheparishlevel.However,twoothergroupsenteredthestruggleforthespiritualallegianceofRussianOrthodoxChristiansinAmerica.OnewastheRussianOrthodoxChurchOutsideRussia,orthe“KarlovtsySynod,”whichwasorganizedin1921byagroupofrefugeebishopsinYugoslaviatounitethescatteredbranchesofRussianOrthodoxyoutsidethesufferingSovietUnion.Intheeyesofitscritics,however,the“Synod”compromiseditselfbyadoptinganovertlypro-monarchistpoliticalstance.ThesecondcompetitorwastheRussianpatriarchalchurchitself,which,afterthedeathofPatriarchTikhonin1925,wonameasureofrecognitionatthepriceofahighlycontroversialpledgeofloyaltytotheSovietstatebyMetropolitanSergeiStragarodskii,DeputyLocumTenensofthePatriarchalThrone.



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3.11.5AlaskanearlyforgottenDespitetheestablishmentoftheserivalRussianchurchgroupsinAmerica,thevastmajorityofclergyandparishionersremainedloyaltoMetropolitanPlatonandhissuccessors.ThestrugglesbetweenRussianOrthodoxfactionshadlittledirectimpactonparishlifeinAlaska,buttheydidaffecttherelationshipofbishopsandotherseniorchurchmeninAmericaonetoanother.Themutualtrustnecessaryfordevelopmentofcommonprogramsandconsistentpolicieswaslargelyabsent.Inanycase,evenwhengrandprogramswereproposed,financialmeanstobringthemaboutwerenon-existent.Fromthe1920sintothe1960s,theOrthodoxChurchinAlaskawaspracticallyforgottenbythewiderworld.Afewfigures,however,standoutfortheirdedicationtoministryintheAlaskancontext.AmfilokhiiVakulskii,agraduateoftheKazanTheologicalAcademywithaspecializationinlanguagesandmissiology,beganhisministryinAmericawhenBishopTikhonBellavinappointedhimasmissionarypriestfortheYukonregion,withheadquartersatIkogmiut/Kvikhpak(nowknownasRussianMission).HequicklymasteredtheYup’iklanguage,andtraveledextensivelyupanddowntheriversystemsoftheregionbydogsledinthewinterandkayakinthesummer.HemadehismissionatIkogmiutintoaneducationalcenterforthetrainingofvillagecatechists.HisenthusiasmfortheYukonregionneverwaned.EvenasbishopoftheAlaskandiocese(1924-1930),hecontinuedtouseRussianMissionashisbaseofoperations,itsimposingchurchservingashis“cathedralontheYukon”(Smith1982passim).MinistryofadifferentnatureisexemplifiedintheworkofFr.AndrewPetrovichKashevarov.Memberofalargeecclesiasticalfamily(hisfatherandfourbrothersallwerepriests,twoofhissisterswerethewivesofpriests),hefollowedatypicalecclesiasticalcareerformanyyears,asservingasateacher,psalmist(song-leader),and–aftermarrying–priestinvariouspostingsinAlaska.IntimehebecameapermanentmemberoftheAlaskaecclesiasticalconsistoryandwasgiventherankarchpriest,servingasrectoroftheJuneauparish.Butin1917,withthecomingoftheRussianRevolution,Fr.Kashevarovfoundhissalarycutoff.Whilecontinuingtoserveasapriest,hesupportedhimselfandhisgrowingfamilywithoddjobs,includingworkaslibrarianintheofficeoftheterritorialgovernor.HeapproachedtheterritoriallegislaturewithaproposaltoestablishaTerritorialMuseumandHistoricalLibrary.Theproposalwasapproved,andin1920Kashevarovwasappointeditscurator–apostthathewouldfilluntilhisdeathonApril3,1940.In2016,tohonorFr.Kashevarov’smanycontributionstothestudyofAlaskanhistoryandculture,thenewAlaskaStateLibrary,MuseumandArchivesfacilityinJuneauwasnamedforhim.WilliamWanamaker(orVasiliShaku,tousehisTlingitname)wasoneofasmallcadreofstudentseducatedinSitka’sRussianSchool,locatedinthelowerofleveloftheRussianBishop’sHouse.Laterinlifehebegantokeepadiary,withnewspaperclippingsoften



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inserted(SealaskaHeritageInstituteArchives,Wm.S.WanamakerCollectionMss47,Box1,Item1).Recorded,amongotherthings,arethedatesofhiselectionasvice-presidentofSitka’sSt.Michael’sBrotherhood(1917)andasvice-presidentoftheAlaskaNativeBrotherhood(1920).LaterWanamakerandhiswifesettledinJuneau,wheretheywereactiveinFr.Kashevarov’sparish,St.Nicholas.IncludedamongentriesandclippingsforApril1940areobituariesforKashevarov.HereareWanamaker’sentriesforlaterthatmonth,duringOrthodoxHolyWeek:

April25,1940.Thereadingof12GospelsFriday26.WindingSheetwasbroughtincenterofchurch.At7P.M.someeveningprocessionswithwindingsheet.April27.DecoratingoftheSt.Nicholaschurch.April28,1940.Easteratmidnight.AllserviceswereconductedbyC.Zuboff[CirillZubov,anotherprominentmemberoftheTlingitcommunity]andW.Wanamaker.FirsttimeonEastersincethechurchwasbuiltnopriest.

Fromitsbeginningsinthemid-eighteenthcenturytothedaysofWilliamWanamakerandFr.AndrewKashevarofvinthemid-20thcentury,OrthodoxyinAlaskahadcomefullcircle,fromRussianpromyshlennikibaptizingtheirnativegodchildrentonativelaymenleadingRussianOrthodoxHolyWeekservices.3.11.6FurtherdisastersFromthe1920sintothe1960s,theOrthodoxChurchinAlaskafacednotonlyfinancialchallengesbutalsodepletionofitsculturalpatrimonyduetodisastersbothnaturalandunnatural.Intheformercategoryonemustincludefire(asinKodiak,wherethehistoriccathedralwentupinflamesin1943)andearthquakefollowedbytsunami(asatmanychurchsitesalongtheGulfofAlaskacoastduringthe1964“GoodFriday”earthquake).Theresultanttopographicalchangescausedsomechurchcommunitiestorelocatecompletely(e.g.,AfognaktoPortLyons).Inothercases,post-earthquakereconstructionchangedhistoricpatternsofcirculationwithincommunities(asatSeldovia).Amongunnaturaldisasters,onemustincludetheevacuationofthenativepopulationfromtheAleutiansandPribilofsduringWorldWarIIandtheirinternmentinmake-shiftcampsinsoutheasternAlaskaandelsewherefarfromtheirhomes.BarbaraSmithdescribeswhatensuedafterthewarended:



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WhentheAleutsreturnedtotheirvillages,theyfoundaworldentirelychanged.ThosefromthetinyUnalaskaIslandcommunitiesofMakushin,Kashega,andBiorkawerenotallowedtoreturnhomeandwereforciblyrelocated,mostlytoUnalaskaandAkutan.TheAttuans,returningfromprisoner-of-warcampsinJapanalsowereforbiddentoreturntoAttuandweretoldtorelocateinAtka.TheAtkansthemselvesreturnedtodesolation,theirhomesandchurchburnedtotheground,everythinggone.TheresidentsofAkutanandNikolskifoundtheirchurchesvandalizedbytheU.S.militarypersonnelwhohadoccupiedthevillages.Thedistinctivecupola–oroniondome–atNikolskihadbeenusedastargetpractice,lettingwaterintotheceilingandwalls.AtAkutan,thedoorhadbeenhackedwithanaxeandwindowsboardedfromtheoutsidewerebrokenontheinside.ThefloorofthevenerableUnalaska“cathedral”(builtin1895)waswetthroughout,frombulletholesintheroofandbrokenwindowsleftunrepairedbythemilitary(Smith1994,7-8).

3.11.7OrthodoxyinAlaskarediscoveredAfterthestressandtraumaofthehalfcenturyfollowingtheRussianRevolution,OrthodoxyinAmerica–andinAlaska–begantotakeonnewlifeinthe1960s.IntheRussianOrthodoxGreekCatholicChurchinAmerica,orMetropolia,asinmostoftheotherOrthodoxjurisdictionsinAmerica,therewasincreaseduseofEnglish,increasedemphasisoneducation,increasedconcernforOrthodoxunity,andincreasedpresenceinAmericanlife.ThedecadeculminatedinMay1970,whentheRussianOrthodoxChurchgrantedaTomosofAutocephaly(ecclesiasticalindependence)toitsdaughterchurch,recognizingitastheOrthodoxChurchinAmerica(OCA).InAlaska,thedecadewasmarkedbyaconsciousness-raisingdisaster.OnJanuary2,1966,Sitka’shistoricSt.MichaeltheArchangelCathedral-standingtallsinceitsdedicationbySt.InnocentVeniaminovin1848,designatedasaNationalHistoricLandmarkin1962-wasdestroyedinafirethatsweptthroughdowntownSitka.Nearlyallitspricelessiconsandothermovablesweresaved,butthebuildingitselfwasatotal

Figure3.14.CemeteryatFunterBayfortheAleutianislanderswhodiedduringtheirforcedinternmenthereduringWorldWarII.


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loss.Fortunatelyithadbeendocumentedinthe1940sbytheHistoricAmericanBuildingsSurvey(HABS),thefirstsuchdocumentationinAlaska.Thismadepossibleitsfaithfulreconstruction,completedwithreconsecrationin1978.

WordofthisdisastrousfirepromptedrenewedinterestinAlaska’sRussianOrthodoxheritagenotonlyinthestatebutalsothroughoutNorthAmerica.ThiswasaccompaniedbyrenewedconcernfortheologicaleducationinandforAlaskans.OnefruitofthisconcernwasSt.Herman’sSeminary,initiallynearKenai,eventuallyinKodiak.ItsimportantroleinrevitalizingOrthodoxyinAlaskawasdueespeciallytothelaborsofdiocesanchancellorArchpriestJosephKretaandtoBishopGregoryAfonsky(1973-1995),thelongestservingOrthodoxhierarchinthehistoryofAlaska.OneresultofthisrevivalhasbeenasignificantgrowthinthenumberofnativeAlaskanpriests,especiallyintheYup’ikregionsofwesternAlaska.

IfthefirstmajoreventinthelifeoftheOCAin1970wastherecognitionofitsautocephalousstatusbytheRussianOrthodoxChurch,thesecondmajoreventofthatyearwasalsoamajoreventinthelifeofitsDioceseofAlaska.OnAugust9,inceremoniesinKodiakandonSpruceIsland,theVenerableandGod-bearingFatherHermanofAlaska,thelastsurvivingmemberoftheoriginal1794Kodiakmission,becamethefirstcanonizedOrthodoxsaintinAmerica.Describedasthe“North-starofChrist’sHolyChurch,”St.HermancontinuestoguideOrthodoxChristiansinAlaskaandallAmericathroughhisexampleofhumility,patienceandlove.AnnualpilgrimagestohishermitageonSpruceIslandcontinuetoremindOrthodoxChristiansoftheAlaskanrootsofOrthodoxyinAmerica.

Figure Caption Date Photographer Collection Identifier Source

Figure3.1 AkutanCa.1910

ThwaitesCollection,PCA-18-493,AlaskaStateLibrary Smith1994,26

Figure3.2RussianMission 1936

ClarkM.Garber

ClarkM.GarberCollection

UAF-2015-181-74

http://vilda.alaska.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/cdmg11/id/41551/rec/1

Figure3.3Antimension(1793) 2014

OrthodoxChurchinAmerica

https://oca.org/reflections/fr.-john-jillions/february-1-2013

Figure3.4TableofOblation 1917

Hapgood1956,xxx



74


Figure3.5

Fr.AndrewKashevarov,St.Nicholas,Juneau

Ca.1939

DoraM.Sweeney

DoraM.Sweeney.Photographs,1935-1975.ASL-PCA-421

ASL-P421-264


Figure3.6SignoftheCross 1917

Hapgood1956,xxxv

Figure3.7 Pegcalendar

AlaskaStateMuseum395WhittierStreet,Juneau,AK99801-1718

ASM-2001-10-1


Figure3.8Weddingcrowns HelenErickson

St.NicholasChurch,Seldovia

Figure3.9 Starring

CharlesE.BunnellCollection

UAF-1973-66-50


Figure3.10

KazanMotherofGod,Sitka

MichaelZ.VinokouroffPhotographCollection,ca.1880's-1970's.PCA243

ASL-P243-1-036


Figure3.11

Baptismshrine

Ca.1950

Dr.WilliamS.Laughlin Smith1994,3

Figure3.12 Karluk 1900-01

AMRC.WilliamJ.AspeCollection

AMRC-b90-13-1


Figure3.13 Katmai 1915 B.B.Fulton

NationalGeographicSocietyKatmaiexpeditionsphotographs,1913-1919.UAA-HMC-0186

UAA-hmc-0186-volume1-3774


Figure3.14 FunterBay 1940s

HaroldF.Hargrave

AlaskaStateLibraryPlaceFile.Photographs.ASL.

ASL-FunterBay-12ASL-P01-3749


Figure3.15.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs.


Chapter 4.00 - Introduction to Field Notes 75

INTRODUCTIONTOFIELDNOTESBecauseofthelackofdocumentationofecclesiasticallandscapesoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchinAlaska,sitevisitsweredeterminedtobeanessentialaspectofthisstudy.Siteswerechosenonthebasisofethnic,geographicandecclesiasticaldiversity,aswellasaccessibility.DuringtheperiodfromSeptember2014toSeptember2016,HelenEricksonvisitedthirteenecclesiasticalsites

• JuneauandSitka(September2014);• Eklutna,Knik,Kodiak,OldHarbor,Ouzinkie,SitkaandSpruceIsland(April2015);• Kenai,Kwethluk,Napaskiak,Ninilchik,SeldoviaandUnalaska(July/August2015);• KenaiandSitka(September2016).1

JohnEricksonalsovisitedandcontributedtothedocumentationofthefollowingssites

• JuneauandSitka(September2014);• Eklutna,Knik,Kodiak,SitkaandSpruceIsland(April2015);• Kenai,Kwethluk,Napaskiak,NinilchikandSeldovia(July/August2015).

AnalysisrevealedthatallvisitedsitesarecomprisedofaRussianOrthodoxchurchandacemetery.Forliturgicalreasons,thechurchissurroundedbyprocessionalspace,oftensetapartfromtheadjacentlandscapebyafence.Thischurchyard,whichmayormaynotcontaingraves,isasecondaryconsecratedarearatherthanmerelyawayofsettingapropertyboundary.Achurchmaybelinkedtoanadjacentcemetery,or,especiallyinurbanareas,acemeterysomedistancefromthechurch.Likechurchyards,cemeteriesareconsecratedspaces.SeveralAlaskanRussianOrthodoxcemeteriesoriginallylinkedtovisitedsiteshavebeendestroyedbynaturalforces(suchasatsunami),byurbanrenewal,orbyuninformed“clean-up”campaigns.Additionalelementsoftheecclesiasticallandscapemayincludeclergyhousing(whichmayalsohavebeenusedasateachingfacility),vegetablegardens,schoolsororphanages.Overall,thevisitedRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticallandscapesdemonstratetwotypicalpatterns:

• achurchbuildingsurroundedbyachurchyard,whichmayalsocontaingraves;supportingfacilitiesmaybeadjacentoratadistance.

• alandscapedistrictwithmultipleresources,ofwhichthechurchandits

immediatesurroundingsformonesegment.

1 Return visits to Kenai and Sitka undertaken in September 2016 provided an opportunity to film the two videos associated with this project, as well as to verify earlier documentation.



Theformerlandscapestructureistypicalofvillagechurches,whilethelatteristypicalofurbanchurches,whichtendtohavecomponentsdistributedthroughouttheurbanmatrix.Insomecases,thisistheresultoflossofchurchlandsthroughsalesortakings.ThealtarareaofOrthodoxchurchesistraditionallylocatedattheeastendofthebuilding.“East”isaflexibleconcept,perhapsdeterminedbythesunrisewhentheconstructionwasinitiatedorbyvariationsinmagneticdeclination.Inthechurchessurveyed,actualorientationrangedwithina90°arcfromnortheasttosoutheast.Once

liturgicalorientationwasdetermined,itinturndeterminedthegridofthecemeteryandadjacentecclesiasticalbuildings.Theasymmetricalthree-barredRussiancrosshelpstheobservertoidentifythisorientationindiscontiguousareas.

Whenfacingeast,thelowerbarofthecrossanglesdownwardtotheright.

Figure 4.00. 1. Characteristic landscape elements associated with churches in smaller communities.



Figure 4.00. 2. Characteristic organization of an urban ecclesiastical landscape.

ECCLESIASTICALLANDSCAPESINSMALLCOMMUNITIESThegreatmajorityofvillagechurchesaresetinachurchyardsurroundedbyafence.Thisfencerarelyifeverrunsalongthepropertyboundarybutinsteaddefinesanancillaryconsecratedspace,anextensionofthesacredspacecontainedwithinthechurch.Thisareaprovidesroomforliturgicalprocessionsand,insomecases,foreliteburials.Gravessitedinthechurchyardorcemeteryaretraditionallyalignedwiththeorientationofthechurch.Justasthealtarisplacedattheeastendofachurch,burialsarealignedeast/westwiththefoottotheeast,whereawoodencrossisplaced.Sometimesamarker,oftenofstone,indicatesthenameanddates.Thismaybeplacedatthefootofthegrave,orlesscommonlyatthehead.Inthecaseofchurchyardburials,peoplemostcloselyassociatedwiththechurch-clergyorpsalmreaders,orinsomecasesclergywives-areburiedimmediatelyadjacenttothechurchbuilding.Typicallocationsareattheeastend(nearestthealtar),ortothewestendneartheporchorentrance.Theunbaptizedmaybeburiedinaseparatelocationwithadifferenttypeofgravemarker.Insomeinstancesnon-Orthodoxmaybeburiedwithinthecemetery,ofteninperipheralareaswithadifferenttypeofcrossorgravemarker.Gravesmaybecoveredinsomeway,ormaybesurroundedbyafence,aconcreteframe,orbystones.



Housingforclergyandforresidentreaderswastypicallypartofthevillagelandscape.Manyofthesebuildingsdoubledasschools,althoughlargervillagesmightincludeaseparateschoolororphanage.Thehousingmightormightnotbeadjacenttothechurch.GiventheAlaskanclimate,itisnotsurprisingtofindthatanexistingchurchmaybethesecond,third,fourthorfifthbuildingincloseproximitytotheoriginalsite.Frequentlythelocationoftheformeraltartableismarkedbyaprotectivestructureorshrine,orinsomecasesbyalargethree-barredcross.URBANECCLESIASTICALLANDSCAPESChurchesinurbanareas–Unalaska,Kodiak,Sitkaand(tosomeextentandfordifferentreasons)Kenai–tendtohavediscontiguouselements.Forthesesites,thechurchformspartofalargerdistrictincludingclergyhousing,aschool,orphanage,agriculturalareas,oradiscontinuouscemetery.Todaytheseindividualelementsmaybedispersedthroughouttheurbanmatrix.Cemeteries,orsubsidiarycemeteries,maybeatadistancefromthechurchinurbansituations.Cemeteriesdivorcedfromthechurchareat-riskresources,andsomehavebeenlostcompletelythroughurbanrenewalornaturaldisasters.Urbancemeteriesmayalsodemonstrateintrusionsintotheiredgesasaresultoflandlosttosaleortaking.PROCESSIONSANDLANDSCAPECONNECTIVITYProcessionslinkingelementsofthelandscape,suchaschurchesandcemeteries,areacommonfeatureofRussianOrthodoxliturgicalpractice.Thisisofparticularimportanceinlinkingfeaturesindiscontiguousurbansites,suchasSitka.Liturgicalpracticeincludesprocessionalvisitstocemeteriesortositeswherewaterisblessed.Certainoccasionsspecifyprocessionsaroundtheperimeterofthechurch.Forthesereasonsevenanurbanchurchyardislikelytocontainanareaoutsidethewesterndoorforassemblingaprocessionandprovideaclearprocessionalpathwayaroundthebuildings.Iftheprocessiontakesplaceatnight,lightshiningoutfromchurchwindowshelpstoprovideillumination.Banners,icons,across,largecandles,andsmallercandlesheldbyparishionersareassociatedwithprocessionalpractice.VISUALCONNECTIVITYRussianOrthodoxchurchesinAlaskaarealmostinvariablysetonahighpoint,andtheadditionofacharacteristictowerordomeextendsvisibility.Visualconnectionsbetweenthecommunitychurchorcathedralandotherecclesiasticalsitesmaynothavebeenintentional,buttheconnectionsareclear,especiallyinmorecomplexsitessuchasSitka,



KodiakandUnalaska.Flagpolesarealsofoundatmanylocations,butthesignificanceofthisisunclear.AURALCONNECTIVITYBellsareanimportantfeatureofRussianOrthodoxchurchesinAlaska,and,withtheexceptionofSts.SergiusandHermanofValaamonSpruceIsland(ahermitageratherthanavillageorurbanchurch)2,eachchurchhadatleastone,andusuallymore.Bellsextendliturgicalpracticeintothelandscape.CROSSESTherearefourstylesofcrossestypicallyfoundatRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalsitesinAlaska.

• TraditionalRussianthreebarcross• Floweringcross• Latincross• Cappedcross

Anothercross–tomarkthegraveofanunbaptizedbaby-isfoundonlyatNapaskiak.

Figure 4.00. 3. Typical cross styles.

Ofthese,thethreebarcrossismostoftenseeninRussianOrthodoxcemeteries.Thiscrosshasthreehorizontalcrossbeams—thetoponerepresentsthenotice“JesusofNazareth,KingoftheJews”thatwasputinplaceontheordersofPilateatthecrucifixion.Thebottomoneisafootrest.Christwascrucifiedbetweentwothieves.Thethiefontheleftcursedandrejectedhim,whilethethiefontherightrepentedandwasadmittedtoparadise.WhenfacingtheRussianthreebarcross,thefootrestishigherontheleftside(thesideofthepenitentthief),whichprovidesacluetotheorientationofthegraveorthechurch.Traditionalpracticeistosetthecrossatthefootofthegrave,

2 This site has acquired a set of bells during recent renovations.



whichisorientedtotheeast(oftentheliturgicaleastofthechurch,asdistinctfromtruegeographiceast).DOCUMENTATIONFORMATOFSITEVISITSThedocumentationofeachecclesiasticalsitevisitedduringthecourseoftheprojectisorganizedintothreesections:3

• GeographicContext–adiscussionoflocation,orientationandclusterarrangements

• BriefHistory–anabridgedhistoriccontextusuallydrawnfromavailableHistoricAmericanBuildingsSurveysorfromNationalRegisterNominationforms;alsoananalysisofhistoricphotos

• FieldVisitSummary–discussionandphotographicdocumentationofvisitedsites

RESEARCHPROCEDURENotesweretakenoncharacteristicfeaturesofindividualsites.Eachsitewasextensivelyphotographed.Thesenotesandphotographsprovidematerialsatthelevelrequiredforcompletionofashort-formHistoricAmericanLandscapesSurvey(HALS),althoughthesefieldnotesarenotintendedasareplacementforasurvey.Boundarieshavenotbeendeterminedinthemajorityofcases.Historicphotographswereresearchedandanalyzed.Becauseoftheprevailingfocusonthearchitectureofthechurchbuildingitself,informationaboutancillarybuildings,cemeteriesandchurchyardswasforthemostpartsparse;butataminimumthesephotosprovidedbaselineinformation.ThegreatmajorityofphotographsincludedinthissectionareavailablefromVILDA(Alaska’sDigitalArchives)ortheLibraryofCongress(HABSphotography).Completedocumentationofhistoricphotographsislocatedinatableattheendofeachsectiontoavoidlongandpotentiallyconfusingcaptionsforindividualfigures.Itshouldbenotedthatthesephotosareintendedtobeusedforresearchonly;noefforthasbeenmadetosecurepublicationrights.Allphotographydated2014,2015,and2016isbyHelenErickson.DocumentationthroughNationalRegisterInventory–NominationFormsandHistoricAmericanBuildingsSurveysisavailableformostofthefieldsitesvisited.Withinthestudysitestherearetwoexceptions:thechurchatOldHarborisnotlistedintheNationalRegister(althoughitiseligible),andthereisnoHABSdocumentationfortheoldchurchatKwethluk.

3 Eklutna/Knik and Sitka are organized differently to accommodate the unique complement of resources at those sites.



Location NationalRegister HABS Eklutna KretaandMongin1979 Hoagland1990Kwethluk KretaandMongin1979;AntonsonandLane1992 NANapaskiak KretaandMongin1979 Hoagland1990Ninilchik Kreta1977 Hoagland1990OldHarbor Eligiblebutnotlisted Hoagland1989Ouzinkie Kreta1979 Hoagland1989Seldovia Kreta1979 Hoagland1990Juneau Wallace1973 Hoagland1989Kenai Smith1985 Hoagland1990Kodiak [Kreta]1977 Hoagland1989Sitka Smith1985 Hoagland1989Unalaska Smith1984 Hoagland1989and1990SpruceIsland Kreta1979 Hoagland1989

Figure 4.00. 4. Table of available National Register Nomination Forms and HABS documentation.

CharacteristicsitecomponentsweremappedonabaseadaptedfromGoogleEarth,as,withsomeexceptionsnotedinthefieldnotes,nootherreadilyavailablesourcewaslocatedfororthophotos.GPSVisualizerwasusedasabasisfortheSitkaschematicdiagram,astherewasnoreasonablyscaledGoogleEarthimageavailable.Theuseofthesematerialsinanypublicationmusttakecopyrightissuesintoconsideration.

Theorientationofthechurcheswasdocumentedusingthesourcesmentionedabove.Commontoallthevisitedsiteswasaltarorientationtotheeast,whichrangedfrom~59°inKodiakto~141°inKenai-approximatelya90°range,butgenerallyfacingeast,northeastorsoutheast.Somepotentialcorrelationswerenotedwiththedirectionofsunriseonthedateofconstruction,butthisneedstobestudiedfurther.Magneticdeclinationmaybeamoreimportantfactor.Oncetheorientationwasselected,however,ittypicallydeterminedthelayoutofstreetsandpropertylinesinthesurroundingarea.

Location Dedication OrientationKodiak HolyResurrection ~59°Sitka St.Michael ~60°OldHarbor ThreeSaints ~72°Ouzinkie NativityofOurLord ~80°Seldovia St.Nicholas ~92°Knik Cemeteryonly ~97°Eklutna NewSt.Nicholas ~102°Eklutna OldSt.Nicholas ~111°Kwethluk St.Nicholas ~113°Napaskiak St.James/Jacob ~114°

Figure 4.00. 5. Range of altar orientation of visited sites.



Location Dedication OrientationJuneau StNicholas ~119°Ninilchik HolyTransfiguration ~127°Unalaska HolyAscension ~134°Kenai HolyAssumption ~139°Kenai St.Nicholas ~141°

Figure 4.00. 6. Altar orientation of visited sites in order from northeast to southeast.

Cemeteriesusuallyfollowedtheeasternorientationoftheassociatedchurch,withcrossesmarkingthefootofthegravetotheeast.Ninilchikisasignificantexception,withmostgravesorientedperpendiculartothechurch.Herethecrossisplacedatthefootofthegravetothenorth.Theredoesnotappeartobeanexplanationforthisuniquepractice.Othervariantorientationsappeartobetheresultofaccommodationtotopography.Toavoidconfusionindirectionalterminologywhendiscussingindividualsites,eachsite’sliturgicaleastwasadoptedforreferenceratherthandeterminationsofexactdirection.Withfiguresandmaps,however,theindicatednorthistruenorth.GENERALTYPOLOGIESOFVISITEDSITESThevisitedsitesfellintothreebasiccategories–villageorurban,asoutlinedabove-andmonastic/pilgrimage.Whileclergywithamonasticbackground(priest-monks,deacon-monks)werecommon,forthemostpartthesecamefromRussia.AnddespitemultipleattemptstoestablishmonasteriesorhermitagesinAlaskaduringthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,monasticcommunitieswerenotcommonamongtheRussianOrthodoxinAlaskaduringthestudyperiod.ThusthedocumentationofthepilgrimagesiteofMonk’sLagoon/SpruceIslandfallsintoacategoryofitsown.VillageSites

o Eklutna(Knik)o Kwethluko Napaskiako Ninilchiko OldHarboro Ouzinkieo Seldovia

UrbanSites

o Juneauo Kenai(whichhascharacteristicfeaturesofbothvillageandurbansites)o Kodiako Sitkao Unalaska



Monastic/PilgrimageSite

o Monk’sLagoon/SpruceIsland


Chapter4.01-Eklutna/Knik 85

ST.NICHOLASCHURCH,EKLUTNA/KNIK(APRILANDAUGUST2015)

OVERVIEWOFGEOGRAPHICCONTEXTThestoryofachurchmovingwithitspeopleisnotunfamiliarinAlaska,forachangingecologicaloreconomicsituationmayresultinanentirevillagemovingtoanewsite–inthiscasefromKniktoEklutna.Inthiscase,itappearstohavebeenanopportunityforemploymentinacannerynewlyestablishedontheeasternshoreoftheKnikArmthatledthepopulationofKniktopickupandmovetoEklutna.Itseemsthattheybroughttheirchurchwiththem.Thesitesofboththeformerandnewchurchesaresimilarinthatbotharelocatedonaslightriseabovesealevel(Figure4.01.1).

Figure4.01.1.LocationofKnikandEklutna.

KNIK:GEOGRAPHICCONTEXTTheformerlocationofthevillageinKnik(Figure4.01.2),adjacenttotheIditarodTrail,retainsacemeterywithcharacteristicspirithouses(Figure4.01.3).Gravesinthecemeteryareorientedtotheeast(Figure4.01.4),asistraditionalwithRussianOrthodoxcemeteries.Inadditiontothegroupedgravesfoundinthecemetery,remainsofadditionalspirithousesarescatteredbetweentheIditarodTrailandtheKnik-GoosebayRoad,suggestingpossiblevandalismoraconstructiondisturbance.Theownershipofthiscemeterypropertyisnotknownatthistime.


Chapter4.01-Eklutna/Knik86

Figure4.01.2.LocationofKnikcemetery.

Figure4.01.3.SchematicplanofspirithousesatKnikcemetery.

Figure4.01.4.GeneralorientationofspirithousesatKnikcemetery.

Thegeneralorientationofthegravesatthecemeteryisclosetoeast,suggestingthepossibilitythatthismayhavebeentheorientationofthechurchwhenitwassitedhere.


PartIII–Chapter7.01-Eklutna/Knik 87

EKLUTNA:GEOGRAPHICCONTEXTEklutnaVillageHistoricParkislocatedat26612EklutnaVillageRd,Chugiak,AK99567(Figure4.01.5).ItisnotonlyamajortouristattractionbutalsoanactiveOrthodoxparishandcemetery.Theareasurroundingthecemeteryisheavilyforested.

Figure4.01.5.SchematicplanofEklutnachurchesandcemetery.

Figure4.01.6.OrientationofEklutnachurches.

Eklutnaoffersanexcellentexampleofthecommonpracticeofbuildinganewchurchadjacenttoanolderone.IntheAlaskanclimate,woodenRussianOrthodoxChurchesfrequentlydeterioratepastthepointofrepair.Insuchcases,theformerchurchmaybeminedformaterialstobuildthenewchurchorotherecclesiasticalbuildingssuchasrectoriesorschools,oritmaybelefttodeteriorateinplace.InEklutna,however,theoldchurchwasrepairedandmaintainedinrecognitionofitshistoricsignificance.Althoughbothchurchesareorientedroughlytotheeast/southeast,theirorientationvariesslightly,withtheoldchurchat~111°andthenewchurchat~102°degrees(Figure4.01.6).

EKLUTNA:BRIEFHISTORY(Hanable1972,Hoagland1989c,Hoagland1993,106-107)ListedintheNationalRegisterin1972,theoldSt.NicholasChurchisamongthemostvisitedRussianOrthodoxchurchesinAlaska–perhapsbetterknownforitscolorful


PartIII–Chapter7.01-Eklutna/Knik88

cemeterythanforthechurchitself.Thelogchurchisconservativelydatedat1870,andtheadjacentnewSt.Nicholaschurchcameintoactiveusein1962.ItisbelievedthattheoldSt.Nicholaschurchwasmovedtothislocationin1897whenagroupofDena’inarelocatedherefromthevillageofKnik,ontheothersideoftheKnikArm.OraltraditionreportsthatthechurchatKnikwasdismantledandbroughttoEklutnawhenthevillagemoved.1Inthe1960sthenewSt.Nicholas(notlistedintheNationalRegister)wasbuiltnexttotheoldonebyMikeAlex(1907-1977),aDena’inachief,andhissons.MikeAlex’scabin(Hoagland1993,107)islocatedacrosstheroadfromthechurchesandcemetery,allofwhicharenowpartofEklutnaVillageHistoricalPark,aprivately-ownedresource.TheEklutnacemeteryismadeupofbrightly-coloredspirithouses,theresultofanassimilationofRussianandnativetraditions.

Today,thedeadareburiedandthegravecoveredwithablanket–whosecolorsoftendenoteclanassociations–forfortydays.2Thenthesmallgable-roofedstructureknownasaspirithouseiserected.Thecolorschemeisselectedbythefamilyandoftenisconsistentwithinafamilygrouping;colorandshapeoftheridgeornamentareparticulartotheindividual.ThefencesaroundthegravesareaRussianinfluence,asaretheOrthodoxCrossesatthefootofthegraveandthetraditionofgraveslookingeast(Hoagland1993,106-107).

There is some evidence that spirit houses indicate a connection with Old Believers, Russian religious dissidents who refused to accept the Russian Orthodox liturgical reforms instituted by Nikon, Patriarch of Moscow (1652–58) (Currier 1999). Further research is needed in this area. Theearliestdiscoveredphotographsoftheoldlogchurcharefrom1923(Figure4.01.7),atwhichpointtherewasnoporchorbelltower.Thechurchisencircledbyawhitepicketfence,creatingadefinedprocessionalspace.Thenativevegetationhasnotbeenmown,atypicalAlaskanpractice.By1940(Figure4.01.8),thechurchhadacquiredabelltowerandporch,andthefencehadbeenremoved.A1952photograph(Figure4.01.9)showsunmownnativevegetationsurroundingthechurch,withaclearlytrampledcircularprocessionalpatharoundthechurch.By1954(Figure4.01.10),thesurroundingsofthechurchappearmuchastheyaretoday,andsignageindicatesitspositionasatouristattraction.TheareaaroundthechurchisneatlymownintheEuropean/Americanmanner. Sourcesforallhistoricphotographsarelistedinatableattheendofthissection(Figure4.01.16).

1 AfieldvisittoKnikinApril2015revealedacemeterysimilarinstyletoEklutna(seeabove). 2 The fortieth day is, by Orthodox tradition, the culmination of the separation of soul and body.



Figure4.01.7.OldSt.Nicholaschurch,lookingnorth/northeast,1923.

Figure4.01.8.OldSt.Nicholaschurch,lookingnorth,1940.



Figure4.01.9.OldSt.Nicholaschurch,lookingnortheast,1952.

Figure4.01.10.OldSt.Nicholaschurch,lookingnorthwest,1954.



KNIKANDEKLUTNACEMETERIESItisdifficulttodeterminewhethercertainhistoricphotographs(Figures4.01.11and12)weretakenatOldKnikoratEklutna(“NewKnik”),whichisalsooccasionallyandconfusinglyreferredtoas“Old”Knik.Forthisreasonitispossiblethattheearliestphotosfoundinthecourseofthisresearchdocumentaregionalstyleratherthanachronologicaldevelopment.The1918photographssuggestthatthespirithousesmaybeintendedtoserveassheltersoverthegraves(Figure4.01.11);thecrossesatthefootofthegravesaretraditionallyorientedtotheeast.ThesurroundingfencesaretypicalofRussianpractice,hereintegratedwithnativecustom.Thegrasssurroundingthegravesisunmown(Figures4.01.12and15).After1946(Figures4.01.13and14)spirithousesbecamemoreindividualisticinstyle,apparentlypayingtributetotheinterestsofindividuals.Inthesephotosthecrossesappeartobetraditionallyoriented,ratherthanreversedasissometimesseentodayatbothKnikandEklutna.Itcouldbetheorizedthatthereversalofthecrossatthefootofthegravedemonstratesanalignmentappropriateforavisitorstandingorprayingatthefootofthegrave,whereasformerlythecrosswasalignedinsuchawaytopermitthedead,standingarightattheresurrection,toseethecrossasitwasliturgicallyintendedtobeseen.Churcheswithastrongandcontinuousliturgicalpracticearemorelikelytomaintaineasternorientationthanthoseexperiencingdiscontinuity.

Figure4.01.11.IndiangravesatOldKnick[sic],1918.



Figure4.01.12.Indiangraves,OldKnick[sic],1918.

Figure4.01.13.Indiangraveyard,Eklutna,1923.



Figure4.01.14.RussianOrthodoxcemetery,Eklutna,1946.

Figure4.01.15.RussianOrthodoxcemetery,Eklutna,lookingwest,1949/1950.



Figure Caption Date Photographer Collection IdentIfier Source

Figure7.7

OldRussianChurchEklutna 1923

TheAlaskaRailroadTourLanternSlideCollection,1923.ASL-PCA-198 ASL_P198-20


Figure7.8

OldRussianchurch,Eklutna,Alaska 1940

OliverT.Edwards

OliverT.Edwardspapers,ArchivesandSpecialCollections,ConsortiumLibrary,UniversityofAlaskaAnchorage.

uaa-hmc-0105-S3-T2-56


Figure7.9

ARussianOrthodoxChurch,Ukrutna[Eklutna]Village,Alaska 1952

WilliamO.L.Chinn

WilliamO.L.Chinnphotographs,ArchivesandSpecialCollections,ConsortiumLibrary,UniversityofAlaskaAnchorage.

UAA-hmc-0620-series1-f2-60


Figure7.10

EklutnaChurch 1954

SteveMcCutcheon

AMRC.SteveMcCutcheonCollection

AMRC-AMRC-B1990-014-5-AKNative-28-57


Figure7.11

Indiangraves,OldKnick[sic] 1918 H.G.Kaiser

AlaskaEngineeringCommissionCollection

AMRC-aec-g935


Figure7.12

Indiangrave,OldKnick[sic] 1918 H.G.Kaiser

AlaskaEngineeringCommissionCollection

AMRC-aec-g936


Figure7.13

Indiangraveyard,Eklutna 6-Apr-05

TheAlaskaRailroadTourLanternSlideCollection,1923.ASL-PCA-198 ASL-P198-21


Figure7.14

Eklutnagraveyard c.1946

AMRC.JohnsCollection

AMRC-b89-20-154




Figure Caption Date Photographer Collection IdentIfier Source

Figure7.15

NativecemeteryatEklutna

1949?-1950?

GeorgeA.Morlander

GeorgeA.MorlanderPhotographs

UAF-1997-108-68


Figure4.01.16.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs.

APRIL2015ANDAUGUST2015FIELDVISITSSUMMARYTwovisitsweremadetotheStNicholasEklutnasite,inAprilandinAugust.TheKniksite–formerlocationoftheoldSt.Nicholaschurch–wasvisitedinApril.OldKnikCemeteryLocatedbehindtheKnikMuseum(9668SouthKnikGooseBayRd,Wasilla,AK99654),northoftheIditarodTrail,thissiteremainsanactivecemetery(Figure4.01.18).ComparedtothespirithousesfoundatEklutna,thesearelowerandmoreconsistentinstyle,withaslopedroofandadecorativefeatureprotrudingfromthepeakoftheroof(Figure4.01.16).Oneexampleofanunusualraisedgravefence(Figure4.01.17)suggestsamorerecentlinkbetweentheKnikandEklutnacemetery,whereasimilarraisedfencemarksthegraveofChiefMikeAlex(Figure4.01.27).RemainsofadditionalspirithousesaretobefoundbetweentheIditarodTrailandtheKnik–GoosebayRoad,suggestingthatthecemeterymayoriginallyhaveoccupiedmoreareathanitdoestoday,andthatitmayhavebeenimpactedbyconstruction.ThegravesatKnikaremoreorless–andwithanoccasionalexception-orientedtotheeast(Figure4.01.3).Themajorityofthemarenotmarkedbycrosses(Figure4.01.17),butwhenacrossispresentitislocatedatthefootofthegrave.Thereisnofencetosetthecemeteryapartfromthelargerlandscape,andthegrasssurroundingthegravesisunmown,withvisitor’sfootpathswindingfromburialtoburial(Figure4.01.17).



Figure4.01.17.SpirithousesatKnikcemetery,lookingwest/southwest,April2015.

Figure4.01.18.RecentburialatKnikcemetery,lookingsoutheast,April2015.



Figure4.01.19,RaisedgravefencesatKnikcemetery,April2015.

Figure4.01.20.NewSt.Nicholaschurch(left)andoldSt.Nicholaschurch(right),withcemeteryinthebackground,lookingwest/northwestfromEklutnaVillageRoad,April2015.



St.NicholasChurchesandCemetery,EklutnaTwochurchesandacemeterycomprisetheEklutnaHistoricPark,whichismanagedbytheOrthodoxChurchinAmerica,successortotheRussianOrthodoxChurchinAlaska.Agiftshopoffersguidedtoursandsouvenirs.Awhitepicketfencerunsalongtheeasternsideoftheproperty.Thetwochurchesarelocatedneartheroad,butseparatedfromitbyaparkinglot(Figure4.01.20).ThecabinofMikeAlex,thechiefwhowasresponsiblefortherestorationoftheoldchurchatthissiteandtheconstructionofthenewchurch,islocatedacrossthestreettotheeast.Thecemeteryliestothewestofthechurches(Figure4.01.21).Theoldandnewchurchesarelocatedadjacenttoeachother,atypicalAlaskanpatternofsitinganewchurchnexttoanearlierone(Figure4.01.5).Openprocessionalspacesurroundsbothchurches.Todaythegroundsarekeptmuchlikeapark,inkeepingwiththemultiplepurposesofthesite.Herethefenceclearlymarksapropertyline,apatternnotfoundelsewhereamongthestudysites.

Figure4.01.21.ThetwochurchesatEklutnawiththecemeteryintheforeground,lookingsoutheast,April2015.



Aninterestingfeatureoftheoldchurchisthepresenceofwindowcandelabras(Figures4.01.22and23)toprovidelightingfortheprocessionsthatcircledthechurchatnight.(Foranotherexampleofthiskindofexternallightinginadifferentstyle,seethesectiononSeldovia,Chapter4.07.)EklutnaCemeteryLikemanyAlaskanRussianOrthodoxChurchcemeteries,thevegetationsurroundingthegravesisnotmown,butpathwaysareimprintedasvisitorswalkbetweenthem(Figure4.01.25).ThereisabackgroundofspruceinterspersedwithpoplarstothewestofthecemeteryFigure4.01.24).Mostofthegravesarelocateddirectlywestoftheoldchurch,althoughthecemeteryhasspreadsouthwardtotheareawestofthenewchurch.Thegravesinthecemeteryshowconsiderablevariation(Figure4.01.25),rangingfromthetraditionalstylefoundatKniktofarmoreelaborateconstructions.Someincludefootstones(Figure4.01.29).Somearecraftedwithreferencetotheskillsorinterestsoftheindividualsburiedthere(Figures4.01.30and31).Colorsfrequentlyindicateclanaffiliation.Smallspirithousesindicatethegravesofyoungchildren(Figure4.01.26).Manyrecentgravesaredecoratedwithplasticflowers(Figure4.01.27).ThereisaJewishgrave,markedwithasix-pointedstar,atthefarsouthwesternedgeofthecemetery–thehusbandofanOrthodoxwomanburiednearby.Agravewitharaisedfence(Figure4.01.28))isidentifiedasthatofMikeAlex,thechiefresponsiblefortherehabilitationoftheoldchurchandthebuildingofthenewone.AgravewithasimilarraisedfenceisfoundatKnik(Figure4.01.19).Theconditionofthespirithousesrangesfrompristinetodilapidated(Figure4.01.26and27).

Inadditiontothetraditionalthreebarcross,therearesimplewestern-stylecrossesandfloweringcrosses(Figure4.01.24).Alargethreebarcrossstandstothewestoftheold

churchsurroundedbyarockborder.Mostofthethreebarcrossesinthiscemeteryarereversed,buttheyareplacedinthetraditionalpositionatthefootofthegrave.Sometimesboth

Figure4.01.22.InteriorviewofoldSt.Nicholaschurchcandelabra,lookingnortheast,August2015.

Figure4.01.23.Exteriorviewofcandelabra,lookingnortheast,April2015.



orientationsoccurnexttooneanother(Figure4.01.25).Twoburialsatthewesternedgeofthecemeteryaremarkedwiththreebarcrosses,traditionallyoriented(Figure4.01.32).

Figure4.01.24.Eklutnacemetery,lookingnorthwest,April2015.

Figure4.01.25.Eklutnacemetery,lookingsouthwest,April2015.



Figure4.01.26.Spirithousesforchildren(leftfront)atEklutnacemetery,lookingnortheast,April2015.

Figure4.01.27.SpirithousesatEklutnacemetery,lookingwest/southwest,April2015.



Figure4.01.28.GraveofChiefMikeAlexatEklutnacemetery,lookingnorthwest,April2015.

Figure4.01.29.Footstone,Eklutnacemetery,lookingwest/southwest,April2015.



Figure4.01.30.Spirithouseforacarpenter,Eklutnacemetery,lookingsouthwest,April2015.

Figure4.01.31.Fencedgravewithpick,Eklutnacemetery,lookingnorthwest,April2015.



Figure4.01.32.BurialsattheedgeofEklutnacemeterywithtraditionalcrossesatthefootofthegrave,lookingnorthwest,April2015.


Chapter4.02-Kwethluk 105

ST.NICHOLASCHURCH,KWETHLUK(AUGUST2015)

GEOGRAPHICCONTEXTKwethlukislocatedattheconfluenceofKuskokwimandKwethlukRivers,somesixteenmilesnortheastofBethel(60.811872°,-161.437575).Thereisadirectroutefromthebeachtotheentranceoftheoldchurch,usedasaprocessionalwaywhenneeded;forexample,whenabishopvisitsorduringtheTheophanyblessingofthewater.Thechurchissetonabluffthirteenfeetabovetheleveloftheriver.Theoldchurchisorientedto113°southeast,definingaliturgicaleast.Thisalignmentdoesnotconformtotherectangleofthechurchyard.Whenthenewchurchwasbuilt,itadoptedanidenticalorientation.Agentleascent

fromanarrowbeachalongtheriverleadstotheentranceoftheoldchurch,providingwaterconnectivity.RoadsinKwethlukaremadeofcompactedearthorboardwalk,andthemostcommonmeansoftransportationisbyfour-wheelers.Pathwayslinktheoldandnewchurchestoeachotherandtothewater.Today’schurchislocatedapproximately250feetsouthoftheoldchurchandmaintainsanidenticalorientation(Figure4.02.23).BRIEFHISTORYTheoldSt.NicholasChurchwasbuiltin1935atthesiteofoneormoreearlierstructures,includingalogbuildingconstructedca.1901-1918.Thisformerchurchwasdemolishedin1936.Thelocationofanyotherearlierchurchesisunknown.Afencedchurchyardandcemeterysurroundsthechurch,andsomeofitsgravesaresaidtopredatethe1935church(AntonsonandLane1992,§7).Amorerecentgrave,thatofMatushka1OlgaMichael(+1979),nowwidelyveneratedasasaint(Oleksa1992,203),liestothenorthwestofthechurchnexttothegraveofherhusband,Fr.NikolaiO.Michael. 1 Matushka (little mother in Russian) is a frequently used form of address for the wife of a priest.

Figure4.02.2.SchematicplanofKwethlukchurchesandcemetery.

Figure4.02.1.OrientationofKwethlukchurches.


Chapter4.02-Kwethluk106

Althoughinrelativelypoorcondition,thehistoricchurchhasnotbeendemolished,andvillagerswanttopreserveit(AntonsonandLane1992,§8:6).Itsdeterioratingdomeandbelfrywereremovedin1984or1985toavoidongoingweatherdamage(AntonsonandLane1992,§7:4).ThechurchwaslistedintheNationalRegisterin1991.Theboundaryincludesthechurchyard.Anewchurchcurrentlyinuseissitedslightlyfurthersouth,withinwalkingdistanceoftheoldchurch.Fewhistoricphotographsofthechurchhavebeenlocatedduringthecourseofthisproject,andnopictureofthefrontofthechurchhasbeendiscovered.TofillthislacunaawatercolorbyAlaskaartistSamMcClain2(Figure4.02.4)hasbeenincludedhere.However,manyofMcClain’sdrawingswerenottakenfromlife,andconsequentlytheycannotbeconsideredconclusiveinmattersofdetailorsetting.AnolderchurchissaidtohaveexistedwhentheoldSt.Nicholaschurchwasbuiltin1935(AntonsonandLane1992,§8:5).Aphotographoftheformer(non-extant)churchisincludedbyFernWallaceinTheFlameoftheCandle(Wallace1974,Plate99),butthisphotographdoesnotrevealmuchaboutcontext.AphotographoftheextantoldSt.Nicholasindicatesthatitoriginallyhadthreedomesandanattachedbelltower(Figure4.02.5).Sourcesforallhistoricphotographsarelistedinatableattheendofthissection(Figure4.02.10).Historicphotographsindicatethatasignificantnumberofthegravesinthecemeteryhadelaboratefences,indicatingatraditiondatingbacktoatleastthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury(Figures4.02.3and7).Asectionoffencingimmediatelyoppositethechurchentrancewascomposedofpickets,whiletherestofthecemeterywasfencedwithweldedwirefencingsupportedbywoodenposts(Figure4.02.6).Thedomewasremovedby1987(AntonsonandLane1992,§7:4),andcanbeseenontheground(Figures4.02.5and6)tothesouthofthechurch.Threebarcrossesinthehistoricphotosarelocatedatthefootofthegravesandareorientedinthetraditionalmanner,withtheslantedbarhigherontheleftthanontheright.

2 For more information about McClain, see Appendix 7.09.



Figure4.02.3.Kwethlukcemetery,1948/50.

Figure4.02.4.WatercolorofKwethlukchurchbySamMcClain.

Figure4.02.5.KwethlukchurchpredatingoldSt.Nicholaschurch,n.d.



Figure4.02.6.OldSt.Nicholaschurch,lookingnorthwest,before1974.

Figure4.02.7.Kwethlukchurch,lookingeast,1987.



Figure4.02.8.Kwethlukchurch,lookingnorth,1987.

Figure4.02.9.Kwethlukchurch,lookingsouth,1987.




7.02.3 Kwethlukcemetery

1948/50 GeorgeA.Morlander

GeorgeA.MorlanderPhotographs

UAF-1997-108-242


7.02.4 St.NicholasRussianOrthodoxChurch,Kwethluk

n.d. Artist,SamMcClain

RussianOrthodoxChurchesinAlaska,Watercolors.ASL-PCA-548

ASL-P548-015


7.02.5 St.NicholasChurch,Kwethluk

Dec-87 NickN.Epchook

NationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces

91000385

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/AssetDetail?assetID=e1ae2c5f-2b01-4dfa-a221-5c22661281b4

7.02.6 PreviousKwethlukchurch

Before1935?

Unknown Plate93 Wallace,FernA.1974.TheFlameoftheCandle:apictorialhistoryofRussianOrthodoxChurchesinAlaska.Chilliwack,BC:Sts.KyrilandMethodySociety.

7.02.7 OldSt.NicholasChurch

Before1972

Unknown Plate94 Wallace,FernA.1974.TheFlameoftheCandle:apictorialhistoryofRussianOrthodoxChurchesinAlaska.Chilliwack,BC:Sts.KyrilandMethodySociety.




91000385





91000385





AUGUST2015FIELDVISITSUMMARYTheKwethlukchurchliesclosetotheriver,approachedbymeansofaslopingpathleadingupwardsfromanarrowbeach(Figure4.02.11).Eventoday,despiteasignificantnumberofsurroundingbuildings,thechurchiseasilyvisiblefromthewater(Figure4.02.10).Locatedonahighpoint(Figure4.02.12)inarelativelyflatarea,thechurchyard/cemeteryissurroundedbyafence.Arowofpicketsrunsalongthecenterofthefront(west)side;awirefenceenclosestherestofthearea(Figure4.02.13).Theopentowerofthechurchoriginallyheldfivebells(AntonsonandLane1992,§7:4),threeofwhichhavecracked.Theremainingtwohavebeentransferredtothenewchurch,wheretheyareinstalledinafreestandingtower.3

Thegravesarelocatedclosetogetherinacrowdedchurchyard.Gravesaretypicallymarkedbyfootcrosses,eitherthethreebarcrossoravariantofthefloweringcross(Figure4.02.9).Frequentlythenameofthedeadiswrittenonthelowercrossbar,alongwiththedateof

deathorofbirthanddeath.Anumberofthegravesarefenced,somewithpickets,otherswithplywoodpiercedbysymbols(Figures4.02.16through19).Theeasternareaofthechurchyardisfilledwithwhitecrosses,almostallofwhichhavethetraditionalthreebars(Figure4.02.20through22),althoughsomeareofthefloweringcrossdesign.SomeofthecrosseshavefallenoverduetodeteriorationcausedbytheAlaskanweather;someofthesehavebeenrestoredtoanuprightpositionbytheadditionofapieceofwoodatthebase.Allgravesandcrossesareorientedtothechurch.Thechurchyardismowed,althoughpathwayshavealsobeentrampledbetweenthegraves(Figure4.02.18).Attheeastendofthechurchyardalargecrossismountedonapolesupportedbyafencepost(Figure4.02.21).Manyofthefencedgravesformclustersdirectlynorthorsouthofthechurchbuilding,withthegreatestconcentrationtothenorthandnortheast,adjacenttotheporch(Figures4.02.16through18).Mostoftheseappeartobethegravesofpeopledirectlyconnectedtothechurch–clergyandtheirwives,readers,psalmleadersandchurchwardens.AmongthesegravesisthatofMatushka4OlgaMichael,nowwidelyveneratedasasaint(Figures4.02.18and19).Herhusband,ArchpriestNicolaiMichael,isalsoburiedinthisareaofthechurchyard.Awoodensignfoundinsidethechurchporchliststhose 3 Open bell towers are an ongoing maintenance problem for Alaskan churches as they permit water to enter the building, with resulting structural damage. One solution has been to hang the bells in an independent structure detached from the church building. 4 Matushka, the title given to the wife of a priest, literally means “little mother” in Russian. Priests are sometimes familiarly referred to as Batushka, which means “little father”.

Figure4.02.11.Floweringcrossvariantabovethechurch.



responsibleforthechurchservices:Fr.NicolaiMichael,Pastor;Y.Fisher,ChoirLeader;andE.Eyapan,Starostaorchurchwarden(Figure4.02.15).Thesearethenamesofpeoplewhosegravesarelocatedinthiscluster.AnativeYup’ikEskimo,MatuskaOlga(1916-1979)wasknownforherclairvoyance,compassionandcharitablework.Sheservedthecommunityasmidwifeandgenerousbenefactor,despiteherownlimitedcircumstances(Wigglesworth2008).

Figure4.02.12.Settingofthechurchonaraisedarea,facingsoutheast,August2015.



Figure4.02.13.Roadleadinguptothechurchfromthebeach,lookingsoutheast,August2015.

Figure4.02.14.Roadleadingtothechurch,lookingeast,August2015.



Figure4.02.15.Viewofthechurchshowingchurchyardfencing,lookingnortheast,August2015.Thebluedomeontherightsideofthechurchornamentsagrave.

Figure4.02.16.Processionalwaysurroundingthechurch,facingeast,August2015.



Figure4.02.17.Signfoundinsidethechurchporch,August2015.

Figure4.02.18.Plywoodgravesurroundssoutheastofthechurch,facingeast,August2015.

Figure4.02.19.Southchurchyard,facingeast,August2015.



Figure4.02.20.Burialstothesouthandsoutheastofthechurch;MatushkaOlga'sgrave,withcrossoutlinedinpink,isinthecenterbackground,facingeast,August2015.

Figure4.02.21.GraveofMatushkaOlga,facingeast,August2015.

Figure4.02.22.Easternareaofthechurchyard,facingeast,August2015.



Figure4.02.23.Raisedcrossateasternendofthechurchyard,facingeast,August2015.

Figure4.02.24.Churchyardfacingsouthwesttowardsthechurch,August2015.



Figure4.02.25.Pathleadingsouthfromtheoldchurchtowardsthenewchurch,facingsouthsoutheast,August2015.

HistoricEcclesiasticalLandscapesStudy-SitkaNationalHistoricalPark

Chapter4.03-Napaskiak 119

ST.JAMES’SCHURCH,NAPASKIAK(AUGUST2015)

GEOGRAPHICCONTEXT

NapaskiakislocatedonthesouthsideoftheKuskokwimRiver.Thealtitudeofthechurchsiteisonlyapproximatelysixfeetabouttheleveloftheriverinthisverylevelarea.Thereisadirectroutefromthebeachtothechurch,whichservesasaprocessionalwaywhenneeded.Itistraditionaltomeetthebishoptoescorthimtothechurchforaserviceofthanksgivingforhissafearrival.Hymnsaresungastheprocessionmovestothechurchwiththecrossandbanners.Thissiteincludesacemeterysurroundedbyachainlinkfence.Intherecentpastarectory,whichnolongerexists,waslocatedtothewestacrossfromtheoldchurch.St.James’churchiscalledSt.Jacob’schurchinsomedocuments(JamesandJacobbeingdifferentformsofthesamenameofthebrotherofJesus),but–accordingtolocalinformants–actuallydedicatedtothenot-yet-canonizedCreolemissionarySt.JacobNetsvetov.Thechurchisorientedtothesoutheast.Giventhealignmentofthestructureoverthealtaroftheoldchurch,itappearsthatthenewchurch

followedtheoldchurch’sorientationof~114°, significantlysouthofeast.The

coordinatesofthechurchare60.706885°,-161.766562°

Figure4.03.1.SchematicplanofNapaskiakchurchesandcemetery.

Figure4.03.2.OrientationofNapaskiakchurches.


Chapter4.03-Napaskiak120

BRIEFHISTORY(KretaandMongin1980,§7:9-10)TheearlierchurchwasbuiltinNapaskiakin1931(Figure4.03.3).In1979thepresentchurchwasbuiltapproximatelyninetyfeetsouthoftheearlierchurch,aparallelconstructionpractice

seeninanumberofsitesvisitedduringthisproject.The1931churchwasdemolishedin1989,andthesiteoftheformeraltartablewascoveredbyastructuretoppedwithacross(Hoagland1990).Theformerchurchwasdescribedasan“exampleofextension,enlargement,preservation,andappropriatemodernization”(KretaandMongin1980,§7:9).Thecurrentchurchcontinuesthistradition,havingremovedtwoofitsdomesandbelfryandinstallinganunenclosedstructuretosupportthebelloutsidetheporch.Anewbellwasblessedinsummer2015(Figure4.03.9).OneoftheveryfewavailablephotographsoftheoldchurchisfoundinFigure4.03.3.Notetheexternalbelltowertotheleft,andthefencewithgateinfrontofthechurch,suggestingthanthechurchandcemeterytogethercomprisedachurchyard.Todaythemainpartofthe

cemeteryissurroundedbyafencewhichseparatesitfromthechurch.Thefive-pointedstaronthefrontofthechurchisacommonfeatureofAlaskanRussianOrthodoxChurches,especiallyintheYukon-Kuskokwimregion,butitsspecificoriginandsymbolismisunknown.Inthecourseofreroofingthechurch,twoofthecupolasphotographedbyJettLowein1990(Figure4.03.4)wereremoved.Thewesterncupola(Figure4.03.11)remains.Untilatleast1990,arectorywaslocatedacrosstheboardwalktothewestofthechurch,(Figure4.03.5),providingathirdunittothechurchcomplex.

Inthecemetery,gravesareplacedclosetogether(Figure4.03.6).Threetypesofcrosses–amongthemthetraditionalthreebarcrossandthefloweringcross-arefoundinthecemeterytoday.Thethirdtypeofcross-essentiallyatriangle

onapost–wasnotedduringthe2015sitevisit.Thistypeofcrossisusedtomarkthegraveof

Figure4.03.3.Oldchurch,lookingeast,ca.1960.

Figure4.03.4.Newchurch,beforethetwodomestotherightwereremovedduringroofrepair,lookingnorthwest,1990.



unbaptizedbabies,andmayreflectapracticeinitiatedafter1990.Wireorwoodenfencessurroundthegraves.Withinthefences,variousmaterialsareusedtocoverthegravetopreventheavingduetofreezingandthawing.Sourcesforallhistoricphotographsarelistedinatableattheendofthissection(Figure4.03.7).

Figure4.03.5.Westfrontandsouthsideofnewchurchwithrectorytoleft,1990.

Figure4.03.6.Thecemetery,lookingeast,1990.




Figure4.03.3

Oldchurch,ca.1960,lookingeast 1963

WendellH.Oswalt

PublishedBook Page135

Oswalt,Wendell.1963.Napaskiak:AnAlaskanEskimoCommunity.Tucson,AZ:UniversityofArizonaPress.

Figure4.03.4

Newchurch,lookingnorthwest 1990 JetLowe

LibraryofCongress

HABS-AK-80

https://www.loc.gov/resource/hhh.ak0298.photos/?sp=2

Figure4.03.5

Westfrontandsouthsideofnewchurchwithrectorytoleft 1990 JetLowe

LibraryofCongress

HABS-AK-80


Figure4.03.6

Cemetery,lookingeast 1990 JetLowe

LibraryofCongress

HABS-AK-80



AUGUST2015FIELDVISITSUMMARYFigure4.03.8.Boardwalkleadingfromthechurchtotheriver,lookingnorth,August2015.

Thechurchislocatedashortdistancefromthebeach,onariseinalow,flatareaalongtheKuskwokwimRiver.Boardwalkslinkthebeachtothechurch(Figure4C–11)andtothevillageAboardwalkaroundthechurchprovidesaprocessionalway(Figure4C–12).Northeastofthechurchisalargecemetery,crowdedwithgraves,andforthemostpart

thesearetraditionallyalignedtotheeast.Atthenorthernendofthecemetery,however,therearesomegravesthatarenotalignedtotheeast,butratherpositionedatvarietyofangles(Figure4.03.15).NooneatNapaskiakwasabletoexplainthisunusualpositioning.A



numberofgravesonthesouthsideofthechurcharemarkedwithatriangularemblem,indicatingthegravesofunbaptizedbabies(Figure4.03.16).Gravesshowavarietyoffencingstylesandgravecoverings,rangingfromsimplewirefencingtoelaboratelycarvedgravecoversandsurrounds.Thecoversshouldnotbeseenasspirithousebutratherasapracticalsolutiontokeepbodiesfrombeingforcedoutofthegroundduringalternatingfreezesandthaws(Figure4.03.10).Someofthemorerecentgraveshaveelegantcovers(Figure4.03.17).Thereisaclearneedforbetterdocumentationofthisfolkarttraditionanditscraftsmen,bothhereandatKwethluk,andalso,nodoubt,elsewhereintheregion.

Inthecenterofthecemeteryisastructurecoveringthesiteofthealtartableoftheoldchurch(Figure4.03.18).Thisisapracticeseenatanumberofvisitedsites.Inaddition,thelineoftheolderchurch’sprocessionalpathremainsmarkedbyearliergraves(Figure4.03.14).Thecemeteryhastwogates:autilitygatealongtheboardwalktothenorthofthechurch,andtheotheraformalentrancenearthebelltower(Figure4.03.13).AnewbellwasinstalledinthefreestandingbelltowerdirectlywestofthechurchinAugust2015(Figure4.03.9).Forthemostpart,theareatothewestofthegraves,enclosedbythefence,andtheareaaroundtheoldergravesismowed(Figures4.03.10and11),whileareasaroundsomenewergravesshowpathwaystrampledintheunmowngrass(Figure4.03.17).

Figure4.03.10.Gravesshowingfencingandgravecoverstoavoiddisplacementofbodieswithalternatefreezingandthawing,lookingeast,August2015.Thecrossintheforegroundhasbeenmovedfromitsoriginalpositionatthefootofthegrave.

Figure4.03.9.Newbell,lookingwest,August2015.



Figure4.03.11.Boardwalkleadingtothechurch,lookingsouth,August2015.

Figure4.03.12.Boardwalkprocessionalwaysurroundingthechurch,lookingnorthwest,August2015.



Figure4.03.13.Cemeteryentrance,lookingnortheast,August2015.

Figure4.03.14.Gravesalignedalongprocessionalpathofformerchurch,lookingeast,August2015.



Figure4.03.15.Northernsectionofthecemeterywithunalignedgraves(crossatcenterrightistraditionallyaligned),lookingeast,August2015.

Figure4.03.16.Triangularcrossestothesouthofthechurchmarkgravesofunbaptizedbabies,lookingeast,August2015.



Figure4.03.17.Well-craftedrecentgraves,lookingeastandnortheast,respectively,August2015.

Figure4.03.18.Shrinecoveringaltarareaofformerchurch,lookingeast,August2015.


Chapter4.04-Ninilchik 129

HOLYTRANSFIGURATIONOFOURLORDCHURCH,NINILCHIK(JULY2015)

GEOGRAPHICCONTEXT

Figure4.04.1.SchematicplanofNinilchikchurchandcemetery.

NinilchikislocatedonthewestsideoftheKenaiPeninsulanearCookInletbetweenSoldatnaandHomer,atthemouthoftheNinilchikRiver.Thesiteofthepresentchurchisatanelevationof77’,standinghighabovethewaterandalsoabovetheoldandcurrenttownofNinilchik,whichisatanelevationof25’.Apathwaydescendsdownthesteepslopetothevillagetothesouthwestandfromtheretothewater.Thechurchisorientedto~127°-almostsoutheast,anoutlierinorientationamongthe

churchesvisited.Itmaybethatthisalignmentisresponsiblefortheorientationofthegravesinthesurroundingchurchyard,asmostareplacedatrightanglestothechurch(facingnorth),whichisnotacommonpractice.ThesiteisaccesseddirectlyfromtheCookHighway,theexitlocatedjustsouthofthevillage.Thereisnodirectconnectionformotorvehiclesbetweenthetwoentities.

Figure 4.04.2. Orientation of Ninilchik church.



BRIEFHISTORY(Hoagland1990b,Hoagland1993,KretaandMongin1979).Ninilchikwascreatedin1835asasettlementforRussian-AmericanCompanypensionerswhowishedtoremaininAlaskaas“colonialcitizens”alongwiththeirAlaskanwivesandchildren,ratherthanreturntoRussia,astheyhadpreviouslybeenexpectedtodo(Arndt[1996]).Thecommunitygrewpotatoesandturnipsandrancattletosupportretirement.ThefirstchurchatNinilchikwaslocatedinthevillagetothesouth.Constructedin1884asachapel(i.e.,withoutanaltar),analtarwasaddedin1893.Theexistingchurchwasbuiltinitspresentlocationontheblufftothenorthofthevillage(Figures4.04.3,4and9)in1900-01underthesupervisionofbuilderAlexiAndreevOskolofffromSitka,andwasconsecratedin1901.ThechurchisunusualinthatitisoneofonlyfourRussianOrthodoxchurchesinAlaskawithacruciformplan(Figures4.04.7and8).Lookingwestfromthechurch,thereisadramaticviewofMt.EdgecombacrosstheCookInlet(Figure4.04.8)).Aschoolwas,untilrecently,locatednearthechurch,replacinganearlierparochialschoolwhichburned(Figures4.04.3,4,and5).Arectoryissaidtohavebeenlocatedontheslopetowardsthesouthwest(Figure4.04.4),buthistoricaldocumentationislackingforthisbuilding.Theoriginallyopenbellchurchtowerwasclosedinby1977(Figure4.04.6).TheboardandwirefenceistypicalofthosesurroundingAlaskanchurchyards.Apicketgatemarkstheentranceonthewest(Figure4.04.6).ThechurchwaslistedintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesin1977.Thesurroundingchurchyardandcemeteryarenotmentionedinthenomination,butthisomissionwas

commonpracticeduringtheearlyperiodofNationalRegisterdocumentation.Twotypesofcrossesareseeninthesephotos:thetraditionalthreebarcrossandthefloweringcross.

Sourcesforallhistoricphotographsarelistedinatableattheendofthissection(Figure4.04.10).



Figure4.04.3.LocationofNinilchikchurchandschoolonbluffnorthofthevillage,facingnorthwest,1952.

Figure4.04.4.VillageofNinilchikchurch,school,andaccesspathfromacrosstheNinilchikRiver,lookingnorthwest,1952.



Figure4.04.5.Foundationofparochialschool,withnewschoolandchurchinbackground,facingnorthwest,1954.

Figure4.04.6.Entrancetochurchlookingeast/northeast,1977.



Figure4.04.7.Ninilchikchurchandpathleadingdowntothevillage,facingnorthwest,July7,1978.

Figure4.04.8.Ninilchikchurchandgraveyard,facingsouthwest,1990.



Figure4.04.9.LocationofNinilchikchurchonabluffnorthofthevillage,lookingnorth,1990.


Figure4.04.3

Ninilchikschoolandchurch 1952 Unknown

AMRC.SidneyHamiltonPhotographCollection

AMRC-B1976-82-179


Figure4.04.4

VillageofNinilchik 1952

RobertMounteer

AnnandRobertMounteerpapers,1901-1995

UAA-HMC-1019-AHS


Figure4.04.5

Foundationofparochialschool

9/6/54

ArnoldGranville

ArnoldGranvillephotographs

UAF-1991-18-65


Figure4.04.6

Westsideofchurch

5/30/05

V.Rev.J.P.Kreta NRN

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/AssetDetail?assetID=699a5cca-73b2-4907-8f0b-a28b8567750f

Figure4.04.7

RussianchurchofNinilchik

7/7/78 Unknown

DoloresMannSlides

uaa-hmc-0571-b1-f2-214





Figure4.04.8

TransfigurationofOurLordChapel,Ninilchik 1990 JetLowe HABS

HABSAK,9-NINI,1--2


Figure4.04.9

LocationofNinilchikchurch 1990 JetLowe HABS

HABSAK,9-NINI,1--2

http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/hhh.ak0311.photos.032932p/


FieldVisitSummary(July2015)NinilchikislocatedapproximatelyhalfwaybetweenKenaiandHomerontheKenaiPeninsula,justoffoftheCookHighway.Thedramaticsiteofthischurch(Figures4.04.11and12)makesthebuildingvisiblenotonlyfromhighwaybutalsofromthewater.AcrosstheCookInletaremagnificentviewsofMountEdgecomb(Figures4.04.13and14).ThisisoneofthemostpicturesqueoftheRussianOrthodoxchurchesinAlaska.Between1990andtodaythewirefencesurroundingthechurchyardhasbeenreplacedbyawhitepicketfence(Figure4.04.15).Theareaimmediatelyaroundthechurchismowedtopermitprocessions,butthegreaterpartofthechurchyardisnotmowedandismarkedbywalkingtrailsamongthegraves(Figures4.04.16and17).Twosprucetreesarewidelyspacedtoframethewesternentrance.Oneofthesemayhavebeenayoungtreein1990(Figure4.04.8).Thecemeteryisuniqueamongthesitesvisitedintheorientationofthegraves,manyofwhicharesetata90°angletothealignmentofthechurch.Whilethisalignmentisdependentonthechurch,itdoesnotfollowthemorecommoneast/westalignmentseeninothersites.Inmostcasesthegravesaresurroundedbyapicketfenceorbyacustom-designedfence(Figure4.04.19).Somegraveshaveheadstones,somehavefootstones(Figure4.04.19).Insome

instancesthecrossisplacedattheheadofthegrave.Amajorityofthethreebarcrossesarepositionedinsuchawayastobeviewedcorrectlyiflookingfromthechurch(Figure4.04.21).Mostcrossesareinthetraditionalthreebar

style,butsomethreebarcrosseswithfloweringendswerealsonoted(Figure4.04.19).

Twogroupsofgravesareworthyofspecialmention,astheyfollowthetraditionofburyingindividualscloselyassociatedwiththechurchincertainspeciallocations.Attheeastendofthechurchareagroupofclergygraves,traditionallyalignedwithcrossandfoottotheeast(Figures4.04.20and21).Nearby,atrightanglestothesegraves,isthegraveofastarosta,orchurchwarden(Figure4.04.21).Hereaheadstoneandfootcrossarefoundintraditionalpositions;however,thefootofthegraveispointednorth.



Alongthefenceatthewestendofthecemetery,northofthechurch,aredepressionsthatappeartoindicateunmarkedgraves(Figure4.04.18).Thestatusofthesegraves–iftheyareindeedgraves–isunclear.Acrosstheroadtothenorthwestisagiftshop.Thischurchisapopulartouristdestination;duringthefieldvisitapproximatelyahalfdozensightseeingvansbroughtvisitorstothesite.TothesoutheastisaVeterans’cemeterywithatleastoneOrthodoxgrave(Figure4.04.22).

Figure4.04.11.Viewofchurchlookingnorthfromthevillage,July2015.



Figure4.04.12.ViewofthevillageofNinilchik,lookingsouth,July2015.

Figure4.04.13.SettingofthechurchaboveCookInlet,facingsouthwest,July2015.



Figure4.04.14.ViewacrossCookInlet,lookingwesttoMountEdgecomb,July2015.

Figure4.04.15.Entrancetochurchyardandcemetery,lookingeast,July2015.



Figure4.04.16.Churchwithunmowedcemeteryinforeground,lookingsouthwest,July2015.

Figure4.04.17.Pathwayscreatedbyvisitorsamongthegraves,lookingsouthwest,July2015.



Figure4.04.18.Depressionssuggestingunmarkedgravesalongthefence,lookingnorthfromchurchentrance,July2015.

Figure4.04.19.Headstoneoutsidethefencedarea,crossatfootofgrave,lookingsouthtowardsthechurch,July2015.



Figure4.04.20.Recentclergygravesnearthenorthendofthechurchwithtraditionalorientation,facingsoutheast,July2015.

Figure4.04.21.Eastofthechurch,showingdifferentorientationbetweenrecentclergygraves(right)andcharacteristicNinilchikorientation(background),lookingnorth,July2015.



Figure4.04.22.AnorthodoxgraveintheVeteran'sCemeteryeastofthechurchyard,lookingsoutheast,July2015.


Chapter4.05-OldHarbor 143

THREESAINTSCHURCH,OLDHARBOR(APRIL2015)

GEOGRAPHICCONTEXT

Thechurchislocatedatthewestendoftown,lookingdownontheharbor(Figure4.05.1).Behindtheareaofthechurchandcemeterythelandrisessharply.Althoughwaterrosetothelevelofthechurchduringthe1962tsunami,thechurchitselfwasundamaged.

Thechurchhasageneralorientationtowardstheeastat~72°(Figure4.05.2),although,asisthecasewithmanyvisitedsites,nottothetrueeast.Incomparisonwiththestreetsofthetown,whicharealignedtotheshoreline,itisclearthatthechurchwasdeliberatelysetatthisangletoaccommodateeasternorientation.BRIEFHISTORY(Hoagland1989a)ThreeSaints1ChurchinOldHarborwasoneofthepropertiesconsideredbutdeterminedtobeineligiblefortheNationalRegisterin1979(AlaskaOfficeofHistoryandArchaeology,11/27/15).Becauselistingatthattimewaslargelydependentontheageofexistingarchitecture,thepresentchurch,builtin1953,wasineligibleduetoage.TwopreviouschurcheswereconstructedinOldHarbor–inthe1880sandin1911.The19th-centurychurchissaidtohavebeensituatedinthecemeterywherea

1 It is useful to know that the three saints are Sts. Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, and John Chrysostom. This explains why the shrine marking the site of the former church is dedicated to St. Basil, the first of the group.

Figure4.05.1.Schematicplanofchurchpropertyandharbor.

Figure4.05.2.OrientationofOldHarborchurchandshrines.

Figure4.05.3.Schematicplanofchurch,shrinesandvillagestreets.


Chapter4.05-OldHarbor144

shrinetoSt.Basilislocatedtoday,andthe1911churchwaslocatedjustsouthofthepresentchurch,itslocationalsomarkedbyashrinetoSt.Basil.Duringthe1964tsunamithechurchwasoneofthefewbuildingsofOldHarborleftundamaged,afactconsideredbysomemembersofthecongregation(KrumreyApril25,2015)asamiracle,butwhichmayalsobeduetoitselevatedlocation.Thereisarectoryimmediatelytothenorthofthechurch,whichcontainsaninterestingcollectionoficons,processionalbanners,andafoldingaltartobeusedbypriestswhentraveling.

Allcemeterycrossesareofthethreebarstyle.Theyareorientedtowardstheeastinthetraditionalway.


Figure4.05.4.Lookingsouthacrossthebay,1989.



Figure4.05.5.Lookingsoutheastacrossthebay,1989.

Figure4.05.6.Lookingeastfromthecemetery,1989.



Figure4.05.7.Lookingnorthtowardstherectory,1989.

Figure4.05.8.Eastendofchurch,lookingwest,1989.



Figure4.05.9.Lookingsouthwesttowardsthecemeterygate,1989.

Figure4.05.10.Lookingwesttowardsthecemeteryentrance.



Figure4.05.11.ShrineofSt.Basilatsiteof1911church,lookingeast,1989.




Figure4.05.4

Generalview 1989 JetLowe

LibraryofCongress HABSAK-53


Figure4.05.5

Northsideandwestfront 1989 JetLowe



Figure4.05.6 Westfront 1989 JetLowe



Figure4.05.7

Westfrontandsouthside 1989 JetLowe



Figure4.05.8

Southandeastsides 1989 JetLowe



Figure4.05.9

Eastandnorthsides 1989 JetLowe



Figure4.05.10

Pathtocemetery 1989 JetLowe



Figure4.05.11

St.BasilShrine 1989 JetLowe




April2015FieldVisitSummary2TherearetwoshrinesdedicatedtoSt.BasilneartheOldHarborchurch,bothofwhichwerebuilttoprotectthesiteofthealtarareaofanearlierchurchbyrestrictinginadvertentaccesstothem.St.Basil,asthefirstoftheThreeHierarchs,appearstoserveasashorthanddedicationforthesesites.Bothshrines,alongwiththegravesinthecemetery,areorientedtothealignmentofthepresentchurch.Thissuggeststhattheeasternorientationasoriginallydeterminedwasmaintainedduringthebuildingoftwonewchurcheshalfacenturyapart.Thisalignmentdoesnotconformthethatofthevillagestreets,whicharealignedtotheshoreline(Figure4.05.3).

2 It rained heavily throughout the field visit, which is reflected in the quality of the photos.



Thepresentchurchissitedatthehigherendofthetown(Figure4.05.16),visiblefromthewateraswellasfromthevillagestreets.The1911churchismarkedbytheshrineofSt.Basiladjacentto(justsouthof)today’schurch.AsimilarrelationshipbetweenformerandpresentchurchisseeninOuzinkieandNapaskiak.Thelocationofanothershrineinthecemeterysuggeststhatthenineteenthcenturychurchwassitedfurtherupthehill,surroundedbythecemetery(Figures4.05.22and23).Thecemeteryislocatedonabluffabovethesiteofthepresentchurch(Figure4.05.16);behindthecemeteryisasteephillside(Figures4.05.17and18).Somechangeshavebeenmadetothechurchsincethe1989photographsweretaken(Figure4.05.13).Onthewestfrontanaddedporchisinneedofrepair,andthebelltowerhasbeenenclosed.Presumablybothchangesresultfromweatherdamage.Amownareaaroundthepresentchurchindicatesprocessionaluse.Thechurchislinkeddirectlytothecentralpathwayofthecemetery,whichbeginsjustacrosstheroad(Figures4.05.14and15).Processionsfromchurchtocemeteryreflecttraditionalpractice.Nexttothechurchisarectory(tothenorth)whichmayalsodatetothe1950s.Thepresenceofthesethreelandscapeunits–church,rectoryandcemetery–wasnotedatanumberofotherfieldsites.Apathwayleadsfromthefrontdoorofthechurchtotherectory.Acrosstheroadfromthechurch,anornamentalgatewayformerlymarkedthecemeteryentrance(Figure4.05.10),butthishasbeenremovedforrepair/reconstruction(Figure4.05.14).Woodenbeamsprovideretainingwallstepsuptothecentralgravelpathwaythroughthecemetery.Furtheralong,stoneretainingstepsprovideaccesstoupperareas(Figure4.05.15).Thecemeteryisunfenced,butasignificantchangeinelevationprovidesaboundary(Figure4.05.16).Thevegetationhasnotbeenmown,andpathwayshavebeentroddenbetweenthegravesites(Figures4.05.19and20).Mostgravesaresurroundedbyalowlumberframesupportedonposts(Figures4.05.19and20)ratherthanbythemoretraditionalfences,althoughthereareseveralfencedgraves.Threebarcrossesareplacedatthefootofthegraveinthetraditionalway(Figure4.05.20),andsomegravesalsohaveheadstones(Figure4.05.24).Insomeinstancesthegravesareindividualizedbythepresenceofobjectsspecifictothedeceased(Figures4.05.16and21).



Figure4.05.13.Pathwayfromcemeterytochurch,lookingeast,July2015.



Figure4.05.14.Stepsleadingtothecemetery,lookingwest,July2015.

Figure4.05.15.Stepsleadingtouppercemetery,lookingwest,July2015.



Figure4.05.16.Cemetery,lookingeasttowardsvillage,July2015.

Figure4.05.17.Lookingeasttothechurchandvillagefromthecemetery,July2015.



Figure4.05.18.Cemetery,lookingsouthwesttothehillbeyond,July2015.

Figure4.05.19.Cemetery,lookingsoutheast,July2015.




Figure4.05.21.Cemetery,lookingnorthwesttowardsthehill,July2015.



Figure4.05.22.Cemetery,lookingsouthwesttowardshrine,July2015.

Figure4.05.23.ShrineofSt.Basil,lookingsouth/southeast,July2015.



Figure4.05.24.GraveofMayorSvenHaakansonwithcrossandfootstone,facingeast,July2015.


Chapter4.06-Ouzinkie 159

CHURCHOFTHENATIVITY,OUZINKIE(APRIL2015)

GEOGRAPHICCONTEXT

ThevillageofOuzinkiesurroundsabayonthesouthernsideofthenorthwestendofSpruceIsland.Thisareaisrelativelylevelonceitrisessharplyfromthewater.Thechurchisplacedonahighpointabovethebay;astreetuseableduringlowtide,namedChurchStreet,runsalongthebottomoftheincline.Theareaisheavilyforested.

Thechurchhasageneral

orientationtowardstheeastat~80°,althoughnottothetrueeast.Thegravestothenorthandsouthsidesofthechurchfollowthissameorientation.Sitedhighabovethebeach,thechurchisvisiblefromadistance.

BRIEFHISTORY(Hoagland1989b,KretaandMontain1979,§7:23-24)Thechurchwasbuiltin1906toreplaceanearlierchurchbuiltjusttothenorth,saidtohavebeenconstructedin1849or1855.Theoldchurchwaslefttodecay,andin1978itwasreportedthatthesiteoftheformeraltarwasmarkedbyacross.In1939or1940a

Figure4.06.1.Schematicplanofchurchlocation.

Figure4.06.2.OrientationofOuzinkiechurch.

Figure4.06.3.SchematicplanofOuzinkiechurchandcemetery.


Chapter4.06-Ouzinkie160

majorrenovationremovedthebelltowerofthecurrentchurch,whichisnowaseparatestructuresetslightlyatanangletothewestofthechurch.TheChurchoftheNativityofOurLordwasoriginallyachapelservedfromKodiak,anditretainsthisnomenclatureintheNationalRegister.Nothingisknownaboutadditionalecclesiasticalbuildingsatthesite,butithasbeensaidthattherewasahouseforthepsalmreaderatsomepoint.TatianaChichenoff,aformerreader,reportsthatherfamilylivedinKarlukuntilherfather,LarryEllinek,wasaskedtocometoOuzinkie,asKarlukhadtworeadersandOuzinkiehadnone.Theylivedinahouse‘nexttothechurch’whentheyarrived(ChichenoffApril23,2015).

Buildinganewchurchnexttotheoldoneisapracticeseeninmanyofthisproject’ssitevisits.Aframedphotographhanginginthechurchnarthex(Figure4.06.4)showstheoldchurchinpositiontotheleft(north)ofthecurrentchurch.Inthisphotographthebelltowerisstillattachedtothechurch,butthebridgewalktothewestofthechurchisasitistoday.Theevergreensinthebackgroundappearsimilartothesprucetreesonsitenow.Thesiteoftheoriginalchurchappearstohavebeenatthehighestpointabovethewater,andthesecondchurch,closertothewater,issetabitloweronthebluff.Itremainsinacommandingposition(Figure4.06.6).Photographsfromca.1975(Figure4.06.5)andfrom1989(Figure4.06.7)showawirefenceenclosingthechurchyardonthesouthandwestsides.Agateclosestheentrancefromthewestthroughthebelltower,whichhadbythenbeenremovedfromthechurchandrelocatedtothewest(Figure4.06.5).Gravesaresetfarenoughawayfromthechurchtopermitaprocessionalwayaroundit.Theareaaroundthechurchisunmowninthetraditionalmanner,andpathwayshavebeentroddenamongthegraves(Figures4.06.9,10and11).

Thegravesaresurroundedbywoodenorconcreteframes(Figures4.06.9,10,and11),withthreebarcrossesatthefoot.AsinglecappedorroofedcrossisseeninFigure4.06.8,dated1989.Additionalitemssuchas

flowers,astatueoralanternmaypersonalizethegraves.Sourcesforallhistoricphotographsarelistedinatableattheendofthissection(Figure4.06.15).



Figure4.06.4.Nineteenth-centurychurchontheleftand1906churchontheright.

Figure4.06.5.Church,lookinguphilltonortheast,ca.1975.



Figure4.06.6.Viewofchurch,lookingnorth,1989.

Figure4.06.7.Belltower/entrance,lookingeastfrombridge.



Figure4.06.8.Church,lookingnortheast,1989.

Figure4.06.9.Church,lookingsouth,1989.



Figure4.06.10.Church,lookingnorth,1989

Figure4.06.11.Churchandcemetery,lookingnorthwest,1989.



Figure4.06.12.Cemeterytonorthofchurch,facingnortheast,1989.

Figure4.06.13.Cemeterytonorthofchurch,facingnorth/northeast,1989.



Figure4.06.14.Cemeterynorthofchurch,facingnorth/northeast,1989.

Figure Caption Date Photographer Collection Identifier Source Figure4.06.4

Oldandnewchurches ? Unknown

HolyNativityofOurLordChurch n.a.

HolyNativityofOurLordChurchNarthex

Figure4.06.5

Lookingnortheastuphill

Ca.1975

Kreta/Merculief

NationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces 80004582

http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/AssetDetail?assetID=cedeb303-0b44-464d-a313-7d4f4fec2ccc

Figure4.06.6

Lookingnorthfromwater 1989 JetLowe



Figure4.06.7 Belltower 1989 JetLowe



Figure4.06.8

Lookingnortheast 1989 JetLowe






Figure4.06.9

Lookingsouth 1989 JetLowe



Figure4.06.10

Lookingnorth 1989 JetLowe



Figure4.06.11

Lookingnorthwest 1989 JetLowe



Figure4.06.12 Cemetery 1989 JetLowe



Figure4.06.13 Cemetery 1989 JetLowe



4.06.14 Cemetery 1989 JetLoweLibraryofCongress HABSAK-56



APRIL2015FIELDVISITSUMMARYThechurchislocatedonahighbluffabovethewater(Figure4.06.16).Fromthewestawoodenbridge/walkwaycrossesadrainagechanneltoconnecttothevillage(Figure4.06.18);tothenorthitisaccessiblefrom3rdStreetbyafootpath.Thereisverylittleopenspacesurroundingthechurch,especiallyatthewestend,wherethelanddropsoffsharply.However,aclearprocessionalpathsurroundsthechurch.Thefencethatisseeninhistoricphotographshasbeenremoved;initsplaceisafencealongthewaterline–aboundaryratherthanthedelineationofachurchyard(Figure4.06.17).AsisthecasewithanumberofotherAlaskanchurches,thebelltowerhasbeensetapartfromthechurchitself.Becauseopeningstotheoutsideareimportantforacousticreasons,anopenbelltowerisanadvantage,butanattachedopenbelltowercaneasilyleadtoweatherdamageofthechurchbuildingasawhole.Herethetowerissetslightlyaskewtothenorthwest,whereitformsanarchedentrancetothechurchitself(Figure4.06.18).Autilitystorageshedisadjacenttothebelltower.

Therearegravestothenorthandsouthofthechurch(Figures4.06.18,19and20).Theyfollowthetraditionalorientation(alignedwiththechurch)withthreebarcrossesatthefoot.Anumberofthetraditional



threebarcrossesare“roofed”or“capped”,apracticetoprotectthecrossfromweatheringthatisfoundinmanyplacesacrosstheglobe.Somegravesarefencedordelineatedbyconcreteframesor,morecommonly,by2x8or2x10lumber.Alevelterracetothenorthofthechurchisnodoubtthesiteofthenineteenthcenturychurch(Figure4.06.4and21).Awoodencross,notedintheNationalRegisterNominationof1979(KretaandMongin1979,§7:29)nodoubtindicatesthelocationoftheformeraltararea.Newgravesarearrangedinrowsjusttotheeastofthismarker,i.e.,justoutsidetheareaoftheformeraltar(Figure4.06.21).Thecemeteryextendsfromthenorthsideofthechurchto3rdStreet(Figure4.06.22).Apathfromthestreetleadsthroughthecemeterytothechurch.

Figure4.06.16.Siteofchurchabovethewater,lookingnorth,April2015.



Figure4.06.17.Bridgetothechurchacrossadrainage,lookingeast,April2015.

Figure4.06.18.Churchandcemeteryonsouthside,lookingnortheast,April2015.



Figure4.06.19.Cemeterytothesouthofthechurch,lookingsoutheast,April2015.

Figure4.06.20.Cemeterytothenorthofthechurch,facingsoutheast,April2015.



Figure4.06.21.Cemeterytonorthofchurchwithcrossmarkingaltarofformerchurch,April2015.

Figure4.06.22.Cemeteryfromintersectionof3rdandFStreets,lookingwest,April2015.


Chapter 4.07 - Seldovia 173

ST.NICHOLASCHAPEL,SELDOVIA(JULY2015)

GEOGRAPHICCONTEXTSeldoviaislocatedacrossfromHomeralongtheCookInletattheopeningofSeldoviaBay.Itisaccessiblebyboat.Thechurchstandshighabovethevillageatanelevationof 64’.Atonetimetherewasanassociatedcemeterynearby.This

cemeterywasseverelydamagedduringthe1964tsunami,andsubsequentlybulldozedduringharbor stabilization.Whilesomebodieswereremoved,otherswerenot,andfromtimetotimehumanboneswashuponthebeach(GruberJuly20,2015).Forthisreason,thebeachiscalledCemeteryBeach.

Figure4.07.1.Schematicplanofchurchlocation.

Figure4.07.2.Schematicplanofimmediatesurroundingsofthechurch.



Thechurchisorientedalmosttrueeastat~92°.Amongthesitesvisitedinthisstudy,theorientationofthischurchistheclosedtotrueeast.Itselevationof64’placesithighabovetheharbor.BRIEFHISTORY(Hoagland1993,126)Informationaboutthischurchissurprisinglysparse,giventhatitistheoldestchurchontheKenaiPeninsula.Theexistingchurchwasconstructedin1891,replacinganearlier19th-centurylogchapelservedfromKenai.Itwasexpandedandgivenabelltoweraround1896.In1997itgottwonewbells,bringthetotaltothree.Attheendofthenineteenthcenturyithadanactiveschoolandabrotherhoodassociation(AndreiZnamenski2003,40-41).Anaturaldisasterfollowedbyurbanrenewalsignificantlytransformedthesettingofthischurch.

The1964earthquakecausedthetowntodropalmost4feet.Thesubsequenturbanrenewalprojectencompassestheareabelowa32-footelevationandcalledforamajorreconstructionofthewaterfront.AlthoughplannersLutesandAndersonencouragedresidentstoretainsomeofSeldovia’smorecharmingcharacteristics,suchassteepslopes,pilingfoundationandboardwalks,manyofthemwerelostinfavorofeconomicrevitalization.Ahillwasleveledtoprovideasiteforresidentialdevelopmentintheheartofthecity,andtheboardwalkthathadconstitutedthemainstreetwasreplacedwithasphalt(Hoagland1993,125-126).

Anearlyphotograph(1906)showsthesiteofthechurchsetbacksomedistancefromtheedgeofabluffabovethetown(Figures4.07.4and6).Afterthe1964tsunami,thisbluffwascutbacktowardsthechurchentrance,eitherbytsunamierosionorbysubsequentharborstabilization(Figure4.07.11).Anotherearlyphotograph(Figure4.07.7)indicatesthatthedistancebetweenthewaterandthebluffonwhichthechurchwassitedwasconsiderablygreaterthatitistoday.Theoriginalascentfromthebeachtothechurchwouldappeartobemoregradualthanitistoday,suggestingpossibleprocessionalroutestoandfromthewaterandtothecemetery(Figures4.07.8and9).Remnantsofthepathtothenorthwest(Figure4.07.9)

Figure4.07.3.OrientationofSeldoviachurch.



remain,althoughthelanddropsoffabruptlyasitleadsdowntothestreetbelow(Figure4.07.25).Theroadorpathtothesouthwest(Figure4.07.8)nolongerexists,andtodaythechurchisdifficulttoreachfromthewest.Aphotographofthechurchdatedbefore1913showsanopenbelltowerandapicketfencesurroundingtheprocessionalareaofthechurch(Figure4.07.6).Today’sfenceisinmuchthesamelocation,althoughthepicketshadbeenreplacedbyachainlinkfenceby1989(Figure4.07.13).Thepositionofanoiltank(Figure4.07.14)atthenortheasteastcornerofthechurchblockedtheprocessionalrouteby1989,suggestingthatprocessionalpracticeshadbeenmodifiedordiscontinuedatthatpoint.Thefunctionofthepoleinfrontofthechurchisunknown(Figure4.07.5),but–aswithanumberofothervisitedchurches-itisassumedtobeaflagpole.Sourcesforallhistoricphotographsarelistedinatableattheendofthissection(Figure4.07.10).

Figure4.07.4.LookingsouthoverSeldoviawithchurchincenter,July6,1906.



Figure4.07.5.Seldoviachurch,lookingnortheast,before1913.



Figure4.07.6.Seldoviachurch,lookingnortheast,1900(?).



Figure4.07.7.ViewoftheSeldoviachurchfromthewater,lookingsoutheast,before1913.



Figure4.07.8.LookingsouthovertheSeldoviachurch,before1939.



Figure4.07.9.LookingnortheasttowardstheSeldoviachurch,mid-20thcentury(before1964earthquake).



Figure4.07.10.Seldoviachurchlookinguphilltosoutheast,April1964(justaftertheearthquakeofMarch27).

Figure4.07.11.Lookingeastfrombelowthebluff,1990.



Figure4.07.12.Seldoviachurch,lookingnortheast,1990.

Figure4.07.13.Seldoviachurch,lookingnorth,1990.



Figure4.07.14.Seldoviachurch,lookingsouthwest,1990.


Figure4.07.4

Church,lookingnortheast 1900(?) Gordons

FrankandFrancesCarpentercollection(LibraryofCongress) 99614803

https://www.loc.gov/item/99614803/

Figure4.07.5

ViewoverSeldovia 1904-10 Case&Draper

EricWilliamYoungPhotoCollection ASL-P111-09


Figure4.07.6

Lookingnotheast

Before1913

PhinneyS.Hunt

Crary-HendersonCollection

AMRC-b62-1-a-501


Figure4.07.7

Viewofthechurchfromthewater

Before1913

PhinneyS.Hunt

Crary-HendersonCollection

AMRC-b62-1-1392


Figure4.07.8

LookingSouthovertheChurch

Before1939

LaurenceSydney

PyattOriginalNegativeCollection

AMRC-b83-146-210





Figure4.07.9

Lookingnortheasttowardsthechurch

Before1964

JamesEdwinMorrow

JamesEdwinMorrowPhotographs

UAF-1977-59-103


Figure4.07.10

Lookingsoutheast

April1964 U.S.Army

BettyBannonCollection.

AMRC-b70-15-31


Figure4.07.11

Lookingeast 1990 JetLowe



Figure4.07.12

Lookingnortheast 1990 JetLowe



Figure4.07.13

Lookingnorth 1990 JetLowe



Figure4.07.14

Lookingsouthwest 1990 JetLowe




JULY2015FIELDVISITSUMMARYThesiteofthechurchhasbeenmuchalteredsincethefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,andtheassociatedcemeterywasremovedmoreorlesscompletelyafterthe1962tsunamiandtherebuildingoftheharbor.Thechurchretainsitsdominantpositionabovethewaterandvillage(Figures4.07.16and17),butthepathsorroadsthatlinkedittothevillageandwaterfrontweredestroyedeitherbythetsunamiorbythepost-tsunamiurbanrenewal.Thereisanabruptdropfromtheareawestofthechurch(Figure4.07.18),andtheedgeofthebluffismuchclosertothewestendofthechurchthanitwashistorically(Figure4.07.19).Todaythechurchismoreeasilyreachedfromthesouth,andthelikelyformerprocessionallinktothesiteoftheformercemeteryhasbecomeasteepfootpath(Figure4.07.25).Thechurchissurroundedbyachainlinkfenceinmuchthesamepositionasthepicketfenceofhistoricphotographs(Figures4.07.20and21).ADAaccesshasbeenaddedbymeansofarampleadingtothewestdoor(Figure4.07.20).Thefencedoesnotdelineatethechurchproperty,whichextendssomedistancetotheeast,butrathermarkstheformerprocessionalroutearoundthechurch(whichisnowobstructedbytheoiltankatthenortheastcorner).Windowcandelabrasweredesignedtoprovidelight



forsuchprocessions(Figure4.07.23),andcobblesoutlinethepathwayattherecessedcornersbetweentheporchandchurchnave(Figure4.07.24).Thethreeoriginalbellsremainintheopenbelltower(Figures4.07.20and22).Becauseofthechangescausedbythetsunamiandurbanrenewal,thelocationofthecemeteryisknownonlythroughthememoryofSeldoviaresidents(GruberJuly20,2015).HumanboneshavebeenknowntowashupatCemeteryBeach,locatedsome400yardsnortheastofthechurch,whichsuggeststhatthecemeterywasinthisarea(Figures4.07.26and27).Anironframeforafive-pointedprocessionalstar(Figure4.07.28)wasdiscoveredonthenorthsideofthechurch,andamorecommonly-foundsixortwelve-pointedstarwas

foundinsidethechurch(Figure4.07.29),indicatingthatatsomepointstarringwasapracticefollowedinthiscommunity.Starring,orSelaviq(Slava,meaning“glory”or“praise”inRussian),beginswithablessinginthechurch,afterwhichaprocessionformstobringthestartothehouseholdsofthecommunity.Ineachhouseasmallserviceisheldandfoodisserved(Inouye1987,159).Thisextra-liturgicalpracticetakesplaceinmanyRussianOrthodoxcommunitiesinAlaska.

Figure4.07.16.LookingsoutheasttowardtheSeldoviachurch,July2015.



Figure4.07.17.LookingsouthtowardstheSeldoviachurchfromthereinforcedbeach,July2015.

Figure4.07.18.ViewoftheSeldoviachurchfromMainStreet,lookingeast,July2015.



Figure4.07.19.ViewfromthedooroftheSeldoviachurch,lookingwest,July2015.

Figure4.07.20.Seldoviachurch,lookingnortheast,July2015.



Figure4.07.21.Seldoviachurch,lookingnorthwest,July2015.

Figure4.07.22.Seldoviachurchbells,lookingnorthwest,July2015.



Figure4.07.23.Candelabraatthewindowprovidedlightforprocessionsaroundthechurch,frominteriorlookingnorthwest,July2015.



Figure4.07.24.Outlineofformerprocessionalroutearoundchurch,southwestcorner,facingsoutheast,July2015.

Figure4.07.25.PathwaytoSeldoviachurchfromMainStreet,fromthenorth,lookingeast,July2015.



Figure4.07.26.CemeteryBeach,lookingnorth,July2015.

Figure4.07.27.CemeteryBeach,lookingsouth,July2015.



Figure4.07.28.Processionalstar,northsideofSeldoviachurch,July2015.



Figure4.07.29.StarfoundinnortheastcornerofinteriorofSeldoviachurch,July2015.


Chapter4.08-Juneau 195

ST.NICHOLASCHURCH,JUNEAU(SEPTEMBER2014)

GEOGRAPHICCONTEXTSt.NicholasChurchissetatanelevationof131’feet,highabovetheharbor.ThesiteofJuneauitselfisinarelativelynarrowlevelareaalongtheGastineauChannel,withdevelopmentspreadingupthesteephillstothenortheast.Thechurchislocatednearthetopofthe

settledarea.Itsorientationis~119°south/southeast.Setatanangleonitsrectangularlot,itisorientedtotheliturgicaleast.Theadjacentchurchhouse,tothenortheast,isalignedwiththestreet.Thecemeteryislocatedapproximatelyahalfmilewestofthechurch.ASerbianOrthodoxsectionwaslocatedduringthefieldvisit,buttheRussianOrthodoxsectionofthecemeterywasnotvisitedduetolackofinformationonitslocation.Itsconditionissaidtobepoor(MartinFebruary17,2010).AcrosstheGastineauChannel,onDouglasIsland,burialswithOrthodoxthreebarcrossesarefoundalongThirdStreet,whichrunsalongthewater.ASerbianOrthodoxchurchwaslocatedinDouglas,andRussianandSerbianOrthodoxgravesaresimilar(JanesandHughesSeptember1995).BasemapsforschematicdesignsinthissectionaretakenfromtheCity/BoroughofJuneauGIS.

Figure4.08.1.OrientationofJuneauchurch.


Chapter4.08-Juneau196

Figure4.08.2.LocationofecclesiasticallandscapeelementsinJuneau,AK.

Figure4.08.3.SchematicplanofJuneauchurchcomplex.



Figure4.08.4.LocationofRussianandSerbianOrthodoxCemeterieswithinEvergreenCemetery(City/BuroughofJuneauGIS).

Figure4.08.5.3-DmodelofJuneauchurchcreatedfortheHistoricAmericanBuildingsSurvey(MauroandSchara2013).



BRIEFHISTORY(Oleksaetal.1994,6-10,Wallace1973)

LedbyaTlingit,YeesGaanaaly,withlandsuppliedbyanotherTlinget,constructionofachurchandrectorywascompletedin1893.Threeacresadjacentwereacquiredforacemeteryin1894;thisareawasfencedin1915.Atsomepoint,thecemeterywassoldoff,andanoncontiguousareatothewestacquiredforacemetery(Figure4.08.4).Theconditionofthiscemeteryissaidtobepoor(MartinFebruary17,2010).Shortlyaftertheconstructionofthechurch,aschoolbuilding(whichnolongerexists)wasaddedtothecomplex(Figures4.08.7and8).Abelfrywasaddedtothechurchin1905or1906(Figure4.08.9).Historicphotosindicateaprocessionalboardwalkaroundthechurch.Aswithmostchurches,naturalvegetationboardersthepathwaysandisnottrimmedelsewhere(Figure4.08.9).Thechurchappearstohavebeenconstructedfollowinganineteenth-centurychurchplanbook(Figure4.08.6),similartoonefoundatSt.Herman’sSeminaryinKodiak(Unknown1855).TheJuneauchurchistheonlyremainingoctagonalRussianOrthodoxchurchinAlaska(Hoagland1989c,175).AcrossthechannelinDouglas,severalsequentialSerbianOrthodoxchurchesdedicatedtoSt.SavaofSerbiawereconstructedbeginningin1903,onlytobedestroyedbyfire.Thelastchurchatthesite(Figure4.08.10)burnedin1937.SebastianDabovich,whofoundedthischurchalong

withmanyotherSerbianchurchesinNorthAmerica,wascanonizedbytheSerbianOrthodoxChurchin2015.Thetwochurchesenjoyedacordialrelationshipandweremutuallysupportive.

Figure4.08.6.IllustrationofJuneauchurchfromRussianOrthodoxChurchPlanBookatSt.Herman’sSeminaryArchivesinKodiak.




Figure4.08.7.Juneauchurchandschool(right),lookingsoutheastoverGastineauChannel,before1905/06.

Figure4.08.8.Juneauschool(left),church,andrectory(right),lookingwestacrossFifthStreet,probablyearly20thcentury.



Figure4.08.9.Juneauchurchwithbelltower,lookingsoutheast,after1905/06.



Figure4.08.10.St.SavaSerbianOrthodoxChurchonDouglasIsland,locationunidentified,before1937.

Figure4.08.11.Churchandrectory,lookingnorthwest,1989




Figure4.08.7

Churchandschool

Before1905/6

WilliamR.Norton.Photographs,ca.1890-1920.ASL-PCA-226

ASL-P226-225


Figure4.08.8

Church,schoolandrectory

Early20thCentury


ASL-P243-2-031


Figure4.08.9

Church,schoolandrectory

Early20thCentury,after1905/6

WinterandPond


ASL-P243-2-030


Figure4.08.10

SerbianChurch,Douglas

Between1903and1937

AlaskaStateLibraryPlaceFile.Photographs.ASL.

ASL-Douglas-Churches-5b


Figure4.08.11

Churchandrectory 1989 JetLowe

LibraryofCongress

HABSAK-59


Figure4.08.12.SourcesofHistoricPhotographs.

SEPTEMBER2014FIELDVISITSUMMARYThechurchislocatedhighabovethewateronasteeplyslopinglot,astiffclimbupfromtheharbor.Becauseoftheslope,therectoryandthechurcharesetondifferentlevels,andapathwaywithstepstothesouthoftherectorylinksthesetworemainingbuildingsoftheoriginalcomplex(Figures13-19),whichoriginallyincludedaschool.Duringthevisitthefoundationandthesteepleofthechurchwereunderrepair.Theorientationofthechurchonthepropertyreflectsthetraditionalpracticeofplacingthealtarattheliturgicaleast.Bycontrast,therectoryandtheformerschoolarealignedwiththeJuneaustreetgrid(Figures4.08.13and17).Indicationsofanoriginalprocessionalpathwayaroundthechurchremainonsite(Figure4.08.19),butatsomepointthiswasinterruptedbyafenceandplantingsasseenina1989photo(Figure4.08.12).Thissuggestsadiscontinuedpractice.Thepathwayonthenorthsideofthe



churchremains,providingtheconnectiontotherectoryandthestreet(Figures4.08.16,17and18).Theslopinglotiscoveredwithturf.Tothesouthwestoftheentrancetothechurchisamaturesprucetree.AsearchforthecemeteryledtotheSerbiansectionoftheEvergreenCemetery(Figure4.08.20).Herethegravesarealignedfacingeastinthetraditionalmanner.WewereunawareofthelocationoftheRussiancemetery,whichshouldbedocumentedandaconditionassessmentcompleted.Somepreliminaryworkhasbeendoneonthisproject(MartinFebruary17,2010).AcrosstheGastineauChannelonDouglasIslandanumberofisolatedcemeteriesandsmallgroupsofgraveswerenotedalongtheDouglasHighway(Figure4.08.21).Thesegravesappeartohavebeenorientedinrelationshiptothehighwayorinresponsetotopography,butthesurveywasnotcomprehensive.DocumentationofcemeteriesonDouglasIslandhasbeeninitiated(JanesandHughesSeptember1995).

Figure4.08.13.Viewofthechurch,lookingnortheast,September2014.



Figure4.08.14.Therectory,lookingsouthwestalongFifthStreet,September2014.

Figure4.08.15.TherectoryfromFifthStreet,lookingsouthwest,September2014.



Figure4.08.16.Viewofthechurchwiththerectoryinleftbackground,lookingsoutheast,September2014.

Figure4.08.17.Pathwayalongthenorthsideofthechurchleadingtotherectoryandstreet,facingeast,September2014.



Figure4.08.18.Northsideofthechurchandpathwayleadingtotheentrancefromthestreet,lookingsouthwest,September2014.



Figure4.08.19.Remnantofanearlierprocessionalpathalongthesouthwallofthechurch,lookingeast,September2014.



Figure4.08.20.SerbiansectionofEvergreenCemetery,lookingeast,September2014.

Figure4.08.21.SmallmemorialchapelbehindgravealongDouglasHighway,lookingnorth,September2014.


Chapter4.09-Kenai 209

HOLYASSUMPTIONCHURCH/ST.NICHOLASCHAPEL,KENAI(JULY2015ANDSEPTEMBER2016)

GEOGRAPHICCONTEXTTheKenaichurchcomplexissitedonabluffapproximately75feetabovetheCookInlet,onthewestsideoftheKenaiPeninsulajustnorthoftheKenaiRiver.ThisdefensivepositionwaschosenbytheLebedev–LastochinCompanyforestablishmentoftheNikolaevskiiRedoubtinthislocationjustsomewhatlessthanamiletothewestofalargeKahtnuht'anaDena'inasettlement.Thebluff(Figure4.09.16)fallsawaysharplytothenorthandwest-toafreshwaterdrainageonthenorthandtothebeachonthewest.FromthispointitispossibletomonitorthemouthoftheKenaiRiveraswellasanyshiptrafficfromtheInlet.Asteeptraillinksthesitetothebeach.

TheAssumptionchurchisorientedtothesouth/southeastat~139°–anoutlieramongthesitesvisitedin2014-16.TheSt.NicholasChapelhasasimilarorientationat~141°.Thechapel,theoldcemetery,thechurch,therectoryandthenewcemeteryformagroup,whichinthepastincludedaschool,onthesiteofwhichareplicaofFortKenaywasbuiltin1967.TherewasacemeteryintheareaoftheSt.Nicholaschapel,referredtoastheoldcemetery.Thenewcemeteryislocatedapproximately200yardsnorthwestoftheAssumptionchurch.

Figure4.09.1.SchematicplanofKenaichurchcomplex.

Figure4.09.2.OrientationofAssumptionChurch.


Chapter4.09-Kenai210

BRIEFHISTORY(Hoagland1990f,Smith1985b)Thefirstchapelwasbuiltin1841aspartoftheNikolaevskiiRedoubt.In1849,achurchwasconstructedatthesite,whichwasdescribedin1867(atthetimeofthesaleoftheUnitedStatestoAlaska)aslocatedinsidethenorthwestcornerofthepalisade.Ahouseforthepriestwasintheimmediatevicinity.In1881additionalworkwasdoneonthechurchunderthedirectionofHegumenNikitaMarchenko,whowastheKenaipriestatthetime.Alsoin1881constructionbeganontherectoryaspartofaprojectforclergyhousinginitiatedbyBishopNestor(Zass).In1895-96today’sAssumptionchurchwasconstructed(Figure4.09.5),andabelltowerwasaddedin1900(Figure4.09.6).In1897materialsfromtheoldchurchwereusedtoexpandacabinpreviouslyusedasanorphanagetoconstructaschool.Thelocationoftheschoolwaschosentobeclosetotherectory,thechurch,andthehouseoftheparishpsalmleader,whowasoftenalsotheteacher.In1906theSt.NicholasChapelwasbuiltoverthegraveofHegumenNikolaiMilitov,thefirstpriestassignedtoKenai,ofhisassistantthechurchreaderMakariiIvanov,andofanadditionalunnamedmonk.Itdoesnotappearthatthischapelmarksthealtarareaoftheearlierchurches,butitsorientationmayhavebeentakenfromthem,or,ifthegravesmaintainedtheorientationofthechurch,fromthegraves.Anaerialoverviewfromthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury(Figure4.09.3)showstherelationshipbetweentheelementsoftheecclesiasticallandscape.TheorientationofthechurchdeterminedtheorientationofthegridofstreetsandlotlinesinthisareaofKenai.Aroadrunsbetweentherectoryandthechurch,butonlyafootpathrunstothewestofthechurch.Fencessurroundthechurch,chapel,rectoryandschool.Aplowedfieldisseentothesouthofthechurch(Figure4.09.6).After1913,amixtureofmaturedeciduousandevergreentreesisseenaroundthechurchandrectory,buttheareaaroundtheSt.Nicholaschapelandtheoldcemeterywasclearoftrees(Figure4.09.3).Thearchholdingthesignabovethegatetothechurchyarddoesnotappearinphotosuntilafter1959(Figure4.09.12).Ahistoricphotofrom1940(Figure4.09.10)showsacemeterywitharangeofburial

styles,includinggravefencesandspirithouses.Theorientationofallthegravesisidentical,whichsuggeststhattheyfollowtraditionandfaceeast.Atsomepointduringthemiddleofthetwentiethcenturythesememorialsortheirremnantswereclearedbyprisonlabor(GrayJuly2015)withoutpermissionorknowledgeofthechurch.Asecondhistoricphotoshowsasinglegrave,neararailfence,suggestingalocationintheoldcemetery(comparetoFigure4.09.11).Thecrosses

arethetraditionalRussianOrthodoxthreebarsetonanorb;thecrossinFigure4.09.11hasaweatherroof.



In1972thechurch,chapel,rectoryandnewcemeterywerelistedasaNationalHistoricLandmark.Sourcesforallhistoricphotographsarelistedinatableattheendofthissection(Figure4.09.14).

Figure4.09.3.ArialoverviewofKenaichurchcomplex,lookingsouth,1919.

Figure4.09.4.Assumptionchurch(left)andschool(right)withrectorybehind,facingwest,1949.



Figure4.09.5.Assumptionchurch,facingeast,beforetheadditionofthebelltowerin1900.

Figure4.09.6.Assumptionchurchwithbelltower,lookingnorthacrossaplowedfield,1896-1913.



Figure4.09.7.Therectory(left)andAssumptionchurch,lookingnortheast,1939-1959.

Figure4.09.8.TheSt.Nicholaschapel,lookingsouthwest,1949.



Figure4.09.9.Therectory,lookingnorthwest,May2,1963.

Figure4.09.10.Cemetery,lookingsouth,May21,1940.



Figure4.09.11.Singlegrave,lookingnortheast,1867-1913.

Figure4.09.12.Kenaichurch,lookingsouthwest,after1959.



Figure4.09.13.St.Nicholaschapel,lookingnorthwest,1952.


Figure4.09.3 Overview 1919 BettyLande


http://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp/GetAsset?assetID=f7e391f9-89b5-47de-a250-dae88986a6d4

Figure4.09.4 Church 1905/10 MaryFord



Figure4.09.5

Church&schoolinwinter 1949

AllenL.Peterson



Figure4.09.6 Assumption

Before1900

MichaelZ.VinokouroffPhotographCollection,ca.1880’s-1970’s.PC243.ASL

ASL-P243-2-013





Figure4.09.7

Churchwithfieldtosouth

1896-1913

CordeliaL.M.NobleCollection

UAF-1973-203-21


Figure4.09.8 St.Nicholas

1939-1959

SteveMcCutcheon

AMRC.SteveMcCutcheonCollection.

AMRC-AMRC-B1990-014-5-TV-090-15


Figure4.09.9 Rectory

May2,1963

SteveMcCutcheon

AMRC.SteveMcCutcheonCollection.

AMRC-B1990-014-5-TV-090-10


Figure4.09.10 Cemetery

May21,1940

AMRC.HowardHansenCollection.

AMRC-b82-181-1


Figure4.09.11 Singlegrave

1867-1913

KateR.GompertzPhotographCollection,1895-1903.ASL-PCA-16.

ASL-P-16-21


Figure4.09.12 Churchgate

After1959

JamesEdwinMorrow

JamesEdwinMorrowPhotographs

UAF-1977-59-90


Figure4.09.13

St.NicholasChapel 1952

AnnChandonnet

AMRC.KemptonCollection

AMRC-b74-4-8



APRIL2015,AUGUST2015ANDSEPTEMBER2016FIELDVISITSSUMMARYA2015aerialviewofmuchoftheecclesiasticallandscapeofKenairevealshowtheelementsofthechurchcomplexarerelatedtooneanother(Figure4.09.15).TheoriginaltradingpostwasplacedonahighbluffabovetheCookInlet,andachapelwasbuiltintoitswall.Today,theSt.Nicholaschapel,whichwasconstructedabovethegravesofAbbotNicholasandhisassistantstothenorthofthefort,isjustvisiblefromthebeachbelow(Figure4.09.16).Inthevalleytothewest,afreshwaterstreamflowsdowntothebeach(Figures4.09.20and21).Todaythechapelisfencedinbyprivatepropertyontwosidesandaccessedbyafencedalleyway.Alandlockedhouse,seeninahistoricphoto(Figure4.09.8),sitstothenorthofthechapel.Currentlyarestaurant,this



house(Figure4.09.22)takesadvantageofthechurch’sparkingareaoffSpruceStreet,withoutwhichitcouldnotremaininbusiness.Theecclesiasticalbuildingsconstructedattheturnofthetwentiethcentury–Assumptionchurch,rectoryandschool-maintainwhatispresumedtobetheorientationoftheoriginalchurchandcemetery.Thisorientationinturnimpactedthepropertyandstreetgridofthearea.Allelements–oldcemetery,chapel,church,rectory,schoolsiteandnewcemetery-arevisuallylinkedtoatleastoneotherelementinthegroup(Figures4.09.20,23,24,27,28and29).Agiftshopwasbuilttothewestofthechurchin2013.AnADApathlinksittotheAssumptionchurch(Figure4.09.25).Thechurchyardfencewasbeingrepairedduringthe2015sitevisit;thiswascompletedbythetimeofthe2016visit.Intraditionalpracticethisfencedoesnotindicateapropertyboundary,butratherasecondaryliturgicalspacesurroundingthechurch.Ascanbeseenfromhistoricphotographs,thestyleofthefencehaschangedovertime(Figures4.09.6and7),butitslocationhasremainedconstant.Anarchwithsignageabove(Figures4.09.12and26)spanstheentrancegateatthewestendofthechurchyard.Thisdecorativearchdoesnotappearinphotographsbeforethe1950s.Duringthe2015sitevisit,itwasobservedthatthelargecottonwoodsinthechurchyardhadbeenseverelypruned;bySeptember2016theyhadbeenremoved.Ascanbeseenfromhistoricphotographs,fromanearlydatethechurchhadtreesnearby–oftenalongthefenceline(Figures4.09.3,4and7).Thepavedwalkbetweentherectoryandthechurchlikelymarksawillpath,createdasthepriestandhisfamilywalkedbackandforthforliturgicalservices.Agateinthechurchfenceprovidesadirectentranceintothechurchyardfromtherectory(Figure4.09.24).TheformersiteoftheschoolisnowoccupiedbyareconstructionofFortKenay.Whileitisdifficulttoassessfullytheimpactofthisbuilding’spresencewithoutmoreinformationaboutthehistoricschoolbuilding,itdoessupportthesenseofalargerRussianOrthodoxpresenceinthelandscape(Figure4.09.23).Thereisnovisualindicationthatgravesarepresentintheareaoftheoldcemetery,but,inadditiontotheretainednomenclature,thepresenceofthechapelbuiltabovethegravesofAbbotNicholasandhisassistantssuggeststhatothergravesarelocatedintheimmediatearea(Figures4.09.18and19).Thenewcemeteryisreachedbyaroadservingarearesidences,whiletheplattedroaditselfisnowanovergrownfootpath.Ifthisroadweretoberelocated,therewouldbeastrongvisualconnectionbetweenthecemeteryandtheAssumptionchurch.Atthis



point,however,theviewislimitedduetointerveningvegetation(Figures4.09.29and30).Thecemeteryitselfcoversalargearea,butgravesappeartobeconcentratedinanareaofapproximatelyanacreneartheentranceroad(Figure4.09.31).Tothewest,alongthestreamvalley,therearelargematuresprucetrees,andsprucesanddeciduoustreeshavevolunteeredinsomeplacesbetweenthegraves(Figures4.09.32and33).Traditionallythecemeteryisnotmowed,andinsummeritisfilledwithwildflowers(Figure4.09.33),withpathwaystroddenbyvisitorstothegraves(Figures4.09.34and35).DuringtheAugust2015fieldvisititwasnotedthatsomeofthesewillpathshadbeentracedbyalawnmower.Onesectionofthecemetery–forveterans–iskeptmowedinthemannerusuallyfoundinwesterncemeteries.Herearefoundbothheadstonesandfootcrosses(Figure4.09.36).

Gravesareinvariablyorientedtotheeast;i.e.,thefootisattheeastend.Mostofthegravesaremarkedbyacrosssetattheeast,butsomealsohaveheadstones(Figure4.09.37).Shellsareassociatedwithsomeofthegraves,

butthesymbolismofthishasnotbeenstudied.Floweringcrossesandtraditionalthreebarcrossesarefoundhere.Somegravesorgroupsofgraves(Figure4.09.36)arefencedintheRussianmanner.Somerepairshavebeenmadetorestoredeterioratedcrosses,butothersgravesareinpoorcondition(Figure4.09.39).Somegravesaredecoratedwithartificialflowersorwithotherpersonalizingobjects(Figure4.09.38).



Figure4.09.15.AerialviewofKenaichurchcomplex,facingeast,August2015.

Figure4.09.16.BluffwheretheearliestKenaichurchandcemeterywerebuilt,lookingnorthwest,September2016.



Figure4.09.17.ViewofCookInletfromtheSt.Nicholaschapelsite,lookingsouthtowardsMt.Iliamna,August2015.

Figure4.09.18.Thesiteofthefirstchurchandoldcemetery,lookingsouthfromtheSt.Nicholaschapel,August2015.



Figure4.09.19.TheSt.Nicholaschapel,lookingnorthwestfromthesiteoftheRussianfort,August2016.

Figure4.09.20.AssumptionChurchinbackground,lookingacrossfencedlotsandparkinglotfromthesoutheastcorneroftheSt.Nicholaschapel,August2015.



Figure4.09.21.St.NicholasChapel,lookingsouthwestacrossfencedlot,August2015.

Figure4.09.22.LandlockedrestaurantnorthofSt.Nicholaschapel,lookingnorthwest,August2015.



Figure4.09.23.Assumptionchurchwithrectory(left)andreconstructedFortKenayatformerschoolsite(right),lookingnortheast,August2015.

Figure4.09.24.PavedpathtorectoryfromAssumptionchurch,lookingnorth,August2015.



Figure4.09.25.ADApathfromgiftshoptoAssumptionchurch,lookingnorth,August2015.

Figure4.09.26.Archwithsignabovewestgateintochurchyard,lookingsoutheast,August2015.



Figure4.09.27.ViewthroughwestgateofchurchyardtoSt.Nicholaschapel,lookingsouthwest,September2016.



Figure4.09.28.Rectorywithovergrownroadtocemeteryinbackground,lookingnorthwest,August2015.

Figure4.09.29.ViewofAssumptionchurchalongovergrownpathtocemetery,facingsouth,August2015.



Figure4.09.30.ViewofAssumptionchurchfromovergrownpathtonewcemetery,lookingsoutheast,August2015.

Figure4.09.31.Signidentifyingthenewcemetery,facingnorth,August2015.



Figure4.09.32.Gravecrosseswithunmownmeadowinforegroundandsprucetreesinbackground,facingwest,August2015.



Figure4.09.33.Gravemarkerswithunmownmeadowinforegroundandsprucesinbackground,August2015.

Figure4.09.34.Pathwaytrodthroughunmownmeadowbyvisitorstograves,facingeast,September2016.



Figure4.09.35.Pathwaymowninmeadowfollowingpathwaystograves,lookingsoutheast,August2015.

Figure4.09.36.Singleanddoublegravessurroundedbyfences,lookingeast,August2015.



Figure4.09.37.Militaryareaofcemeterywithheadstonesandfootcrossses,lookingnorthwest,August2015.

Figure4.09.38.Recentgravesornamentedwithflowers,lookingsouthwest,August2015.



Figure4.09.39.Gravefenceinneedofrepair,lookingsouthwest,August2015.


Chapter4.10-Kodiak 1

HOLYRESURRECTIONCHURCH,KODIAK(APRIL2015)

GEOGRAPHICCONTEXT

Kodiakislocatedonastripoflandprotectedbyanouterisland(Figure4.10.1).Behindthetownthemountainsrisesharply.Thechurch,aswasthecasewithanearlierchurch,issetonahighpoint,clearlyvisiblefromthewater.Severalfreshwaterlagoonsdottedthelandscape,butthesewerefilledinaftertheKatmaieruptionof1912.AclusterofbuildingsservingchurchfunctionswereconstructedalongthelineofthechannelthatseparatesKodiakfromNearIsland(Figure4.10.2).Theseincludedthechurch,arectoryandanorphanage.Anearlierchurchhadbeensitednearertothetowncenter,alsoalongthechannel.Theoldcemeterywaslocatedonaslopetothewestofthetown(Figure4.10.13),inanareanodoubtconsideredimpracticalfor

Figure4.10.1.SchematicplanofthelocationoftheSitkachurchcomplex.

Figure4.10.2.SchematicdiagramofecclesiasticalresourcesinSitka.


Chapter4.10-Kodiak2

construction.Thiscemeterywasessentiallyremovedduringurbanrenewal,perhapsevenbeforethe1964earthquake.AnewcemeterywasdevelopedfurtherinlandonanotherslopingsitebeforetheKatmaieruptionof1912(Figures4.10.4,5and6).TodaySt.Herman’sSeminary–aclusterincludingdormitories,offices,refectory,classroomsandachapel–islocatedjusttothenortheastoftheformerorphanage(Figure4.10.26).

Fromthebeginning,theChurchoftheResurrection,atanelevationof~40’,dominatedtheKodiakskyline.Thechurchisoriented~60°northeast(Figure4.10.3),themostnortherlyaltarorientationofthesitesvisited.

BRIEFHISTORY([Kreta]11977a,Hoagland1989d,Hoagland1993,282-285)ThefirstchurchinKodiakwasconsecratedin1796,sometwelveyearsafterthefirstRussiansettlementinAlaskawasestablished150milestothesouthwestatThreeSaintsBayandfouryearsafterKodiak(calledPavlovskorSt.Paul’sHarborbytheRussians)wasestablishedatthislocation.Thefirstchurchwaslocatedclosertothebay,butamapmadeatthetimeofthe1867Cessionshowsachurchintoday’slocation.Theexistingstructuredatesfrom1945,followingafirein1943thatcompletelydestroyedthechurch.Reconstructed,itwaslistedintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesin1979.Originallythechurchhadanenclosedbelltower(Figure4.10.9),butatsomepointafter1920theimpactofAlaska’sweatheronthechurchasawholeledtotheconstructionofaseparatebelltowertothesouth(Figure4.10.10).2Thebellswerereinstalledintheintegratedchurchbelltowerlaterinthetwentiethcentury(Figure4.10.18).Anorphanage(Figure4.10.12)wasfoundedin1894(Luehrmann2008).Therectory(Figure4.10.7)wassimilarinplantothoseconstructedinKenaiandKodiakunderBishopNestorinthe1880s,butmuchlessgrandthanthe“bishop’shouse”inUnalaska.Ofthesebuildings,onlythechurchremains,beingrebuiltin1945inthesamelocationastheoriginalchurch,whichwasdestroyedbyfirein1943.Theformeroldcemeterysite(Figure4.10.13)nowcontainsaninnandshops,althoughasmallportionontheslopetothenorthmayremainunimpacted.Anewcemeteryestablishedfurtherfromthecenteroftowncontainsburialsdatingfromatleastthebeginningofthetwentieth

1ThecopyoftheNationalRegisterformfoundonlineattheNationalRegisterDigitalAssetswebsiteisincomplete.AcompletedraftcopywasfoundattheBaranovMuseuminKodiak.2Anumberofchurchesinthisstudyhavemovedtheirbellsintoaseparatestructureforthisreason.

Figure4.10.3.OrientationofSitkachurch.



century(Figures4.10.13,14and15).AnotherKodiakcemeterydatesfromtheCivilWarandcontainsafewOrthodoxgravesamongmanyothers.Sourcesforallhistoricphotographsarelistedinatableattheendofthissection(Figure4.10.16).

Figure4.10.4.AerialviewofKodiak,lookingsoutheast,April1913.

Figure4.10.5.Detailofaerialviewwithorphanageatleft,churchincenterandrectoryatright.


Chapter4.10-Kodiak4

Figure4.10.6.Theschooner"Hunter"atdockintheNearIslandChannelwithrectory,churchandorphanageinthebackground,lookingsouth,1912.

Figure4.10.7.Roadwithrectoryonleftandchurchonright,lookingeast,before1913.



Figure4.10.8.HolyFridayprocessionenteringthechurch,lookingsoutheast,earlytwentiethcentury.


Chapter4.10-Kodiak6

Figure4.10.9.Churchwithbellsintower,lookingeast,1917.

Figure4.10.10.Churchwithseparatebelltowertoright,lookingeast,after1945.



Figure4.10.11.Churchwithoiltankstoleft,lookingwest,duringWorldWarII.


Chapter4.10-Kodiak8

Figure4.10.12.Themissionhouseororphanage,lookingsouth,1919.

Figure4.10.13.Oldcemetery,lookingsoutheastacrossKodiak,likelybefore1912.



Figure4.10.14.ThenewcemeteryaftertheKatmaieruption,lookingeast,1913.

Figure4.10.15.Thenewcemetery,lookingwest,1915.


Kodiakaerial

April1903


UAF-1973-203-27



Chapter4.10-Kodiak10


DetailfromKodiakaerial

April1903


UAF-1973-203-27


Figure07.10.6

Schooner“Hunter”lyingatanchor”

1912 AlaskaStateLibraryCollection

unknown BaranovMuseum(Kodiak)Notebooks

Figure07.10.7

Roadtothechurch

1896-1913

AMRC.FredHentonCollection

AMRC-b65-18-495


Figure07.10.8

HolyFridayprocession

Before1943


ASL-P243-2-059


Figure07.10.9

Church 1917 PaulRareyHagelbarger




Figure07.10.10

Churchandoiltanks

WorldWarII

H.MarionThornton

H.MarionThornton.Photographs,1942-1945.ASL-PCA-338

ASL-P338-0626


Figure07.10.11

Missionhouseandchurch

1919 WilliamLewisHenning


UAA-hmc-0186-volume6-H404


Figure07.10.12

Oldcemetery

Before1943


ASL-P243-2-040





Newcemetery

1915 RobertFiskeGriggs




Figure07.10.14

NewcemeteryinashfromKatmai

1913 NationalGeographicSocietyKatmaiexpeditionsphotographs,1913-1919.UAA-HMC-0186




APRIL2015FIELDVISITSUMMARYAbriskwalkupMissionRoadleadstoafencedchurchyardandaflightofstepsuptothechurchentrance(Figure4.10.18).Surroundingthechurchisapavedwalkway(Figure4.10.19)toacommodatetheliturgicalprocessionsthattakeplaceatcertaintimesofyear(suchastheHolyFridayprocessioninFigure4.10.8).Totherighttheformerexternalbelltowerservesasstorage.Arowoftreestothesouthislargelyintact,butstumpsandindentationsinfrontofthechurchandtothenorthindicateanumberofmissingtrees.Astumptotheleftoftheentrancestairmarksthelocationofaformertree(Figure4.10.19),perhapsthatseeninFigure4.10.8.Early20thcenturyphotosshowpoplarssurroundingthechurch(Figures4.10.7,8,9,and10),butnow,asidefromoneontheeastsideofthechurch,thetreesarespruces.Itmaybethatevergreenswereplantedtoscreenthefueltanksimmediatelytothesouth(Figure4.10.11),whichwereinstalledduringWorldWarII.TodaythereisasignificantdifferenceingradebetweenthenarrowsidewalkalongMissionAvenuetotheleftofthechurchandthechurchyard.Comparisonwithhistoricphotographs(Figures4.10.7,11and18)confirmthatthisistheresultof20thcenturystreetconstruction.Todayapicketfencesurroundsthechurchyard(Figure4.10.18),butfencesinotherstyleshavemarkedthesameareainthepast(Figures4.10.9,11and18).GravestotheeastofthechurcharevisibleinhistoricphotographsbythetimeofWorldWarII(Figure4.10.11).Todaygravescanbeseeninthisarea,somedatingfromthemid-nineteenthcentury(Figure4.10.20),butthereisnoindicationthatthereweregraveslocatedanywhereelseinthechurchyard.Themostrecentgravesarethoseofclergy(Figure4.10.21),buriedaccordingtotraditionoutsidetheeastendofthechurch.



AtthebeginningofthetwentiethcenturytwoRussianOrthodoxcemeterieswerelocatedonslopinglandawayfromthecenteroftown(Figure4.10.17).ACivilWarera

cemeteryincludesseveralOrthodoxgraves,asindicatedbythecharacteristicthreebarcross.Inaddition,thereareanumberofsmallercemeteriesinKodiak,suchasthatonMadsenStreetoffMapleStreet(Figure4.10.25).Thesearedistinguishedbythepresencethreebarcrosses,butnoneofthemwerefullydocumentedduringthisfieldstudy.TheoldcemeteryneartheintersectionofRezanofWayand

AlderDrive(Figure4.10.13)hasbeensubsumedbydevelopment.Itmayhavesufferedsignificantdamageinthe1964tsunami,or,asinsomanyplacesmayhavefallenavictimtourbanrenewal.Theupperedgeofthiscemetery,tothenorth,maystillcontaingraves.

ThenewcemeteryislocatedalongMillBayRoadnorthofErskineAvenue(Figures4.10.14,15,22,23and24).Thegravesinthiscemeteryaretraditionallyorientedtothenortheastorliturgicaleast

assetbytheorientationofthechurch.Gravesaremarkedbythreebarcrosses,cappedcrosses,andfloweringcrosses.SimilartowhatwasseeninNapaskiak(Chapter4.03)inthisfieldstudy,someofthecrossesarepaintedcolorsotherthanwhite.SomegravesaresurroundedbyfencesintheRussianstyle;somearemarkedwithstonemonuments.Therearebothheadstonesandfootstones.Thereisnodefiningboundarybetweenthecemeteryandtheadjacentareasofhousing.Wherethegroundfallsoffsharplytothenorthwest,somegravesarebeinglosttoerosion.TheexcavationrequiredtobuildhousingbelowthecemeteryonLowerMillBayRoadmayhaveinitiatedorcontributedtothisproblem.TotheeastofthechurchislocatedSt.Herman’sSeminary,whichwasmovedherein1974fromtemporaryquartersatWildwoodStation.TheSeminaryincludesachapel(Figure4.10.26),classroombuildings,offices,andhousingforstudentsandfaculty.

Figure4.10.17.SchematicplanofKodiakcemeterylocations.



Figure4.10.18.HolyResurrectionChurch,lookingsoutheast,April2015.

Figure4.10.19.Northsideofprocessionalpath,lookingeast,April2015.



Figure4.10.21.Nineteenthcenturygraveeastofchurch,lookingeast,April2015.

Figure4.10.20.GraveofFatherandMatushkaKing,lookingeast,April2015.



Figure4.10.22.Newcemetery,lookingeast,April2015.

Figure4.10.23.Fencedfamilyplotwithstonemonumentsinnewcemetery,lookingeast,April2015.



Figure4.10.24.Erosionofthenorthernslopeofthenewcemetery,lookingwest,April2015.

Figure4.10.25.AsmallcemeteryonMadsenStreetoffMapleStreet,containingbothmarkedandunmarkedgraves,lookingeast,April2015.



Figure4.10.26.ThechapelatSt.Herman'sSeminary,lookingnortheastfromtheadministrationbuilding,April2015.


Chapter4.11-Sitka 253

RUSSIANORTHODOXSITESINSITKA,ALASKA(SEPTEMBER2014,APRIL2015ANDSEPTEMBER2016)

WhentheRussiansestablishedapostnearSitkain1799,theydedicatedittotheArchangelMichael.AnolderRussiancity–ArkhangelskorArchangel–wasanimportantseaport,andsoSitkabecameknownasNovo-Arkhangelsk,orNewArchangel.Giventhisdedication,thetwoinitialchurchesandthepresentcathedralwerededicatedtoSt.MichaeltheArchangel.ThenameSitkaistakenfromtheTlingitlanguage.Forconvenienceinthisreport,thenameSitkaisusedforthecity,andSt.Michaelisusedtodenotethechurchesandthecathedral.GEOGRAPHICCONTEXTSitkaislocatedonBaranofIslandintheAlexanderArchipelago(Figure4.11.1).SomeprotectionfromtheopenoceanisaffordedbyJaponskiIsland(directlytothewest)andbyKruzofIsland(approximatelytenmilestothewest).SitkaisthesouthernmosturbancenteroftheRussianexpansionintoAlaska.

Figure4.11.1.LocationofSitkaintheAlexanderArchipelago.

Figure4.11.2.LocationofRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalsitesinSitka.

ThedistributionofSitka’shistoricRussianOrthodoxresourcesthroughouttheurbanmatrix(Figure4.11.2)issimilartothepatternfoundinKodiak,Unalaskaand(tosomeextent)Kenai,wherehistoricresourcesareseparatedfromoneanotherbynon-ecclesiasticalbuildingsandstructures.St.Michael’sCathedral,theRussianBishop’sHouseandtheSchoolhousehavebeenperceivedaspartofanecclesiasticalensemble,butthesiteoftheearlierSt.Michael’s,thesiteoftheformerTrinityChurch,andtheRussianCemeteryshouldbeincludedinthegroup.Diverselandownership(Figures4.11.3and4)hasbeenanobstacleindevelopingacohesivegroupinterpretiveprogramforthesesites.


Chapter4.11-Sitka254

TheOrthodoxChurchinAmerica(OCA)ownsthecemeterytractandtheTrinityChurchsite(Figure4.11.3),bothofwhichhavebeenconsiderablyimpactedbyroadprojectsandpropertyintrusionsalongMarineStreet.AsmallsectionofthecemeteryisownedbytheLutheranChurch(theareaofPrincessMaksutov’sgrave).Thefarsouthwestcornerofthestockade/memorialadjacenttotheTrinityChurchsiteisownedbytheCityofSitka,butitshistoricinterpretationismanagedbytheAlaskaBureauofLandManagement.TheRussianBishop’sHouseisownedbytheNationalParkService.ThesiteoftheearlierSt.Michael’sChurchesmaypossiblybeconsideredanintertidalzoneand/orbemadeupofresidentiallotsinthearea(Figure4.11.3).

Figure4.11.4.PropertyownershipofhistoricresourcesinSitka(City&BoroughofSitka,Alaska,WebGISMaps).

TheorientationofSt.Michael’sCathedralis~60°northeast(Figure4.11.5).This,alongwiththeorientationofHolyResurrectioninKodiak(~59°)isthemostnortherlyorientationofallthechurchesvisitedduringthisfieldstudy.IftheorientationoftheformerTrinityChurchiscorrectlyindicatedbytheorientationoftheshrinenowatthatsiteandbytheCessionmap(Figure4.11.6),itsorientationwouldhavebeenessentiallyidenticaltothatofthecathedral.AnnunciationChurchintheRussianBishop’sHouseis

Figure4.11.3.PropertyownershipatsiteofthefirstandsecondSt.Michael’sChurches(City&BoroughofSitka,Alaska,WebGISMaps).



~80°east,wellwithintherangeofvisitedsites,althoughthisorientationappearstohavebeendeterminedbytherelationshipofthebuildingtotheshorelineratherthanbyliturgicalorientation.Atthesametime,iconcornersintheBishop’shouseareoriented~125°east(~30°southofeast),i.e.,determinedbyreferencetotrueeast.

Thecathedralisonaslightrisetothesouthwestabovethelowertownat~31’abovesealevel.TheslopecontinuestorisebeyondthenorthsideoftheCathedral.TheBishop’sHouseisatalowerelevationof~19’.Thecemeteryslopesupwardintothehillstothenorth,risingto~100’atitshighestpoint.TheformersiteoftheTrinityChurchisatan~40’elevation.

BRIEFHISTORY(Hoagland1989f,Smith1986,Welzenbach2012)TheearliestSt.MichaelChurchprobablydatesfrom1816orshortlythereafter,whenthefirstOrthodoxpriest–Fr.AlekseiSokolov–arrivedinSitka.1Itwasatwo-storyoctagonalbuildinglocatedsome300feettothesouthofthepresentsiteofSt.Michael’sCathedral(Figure4.11.2).In1831GovernorWrangellorderedasecondchurchtobebuiltonthesamesite(ArndtandPierce2003,52).Thissecondchurchwasreplacedbythecathedralin1848andthentorndownbecauseofitsdeterioratedcondition.In1840SitkabecametheseatofanOrthodoxdiocesewhichgovernedalloftheRussianOrthodoxchurchesinNorthAmericaandpartsofeasternSiberia.UnderthedirectionofBishopInnocentVeniaminovanewchurch–builttobeacathedral-wasconstructedatthepresentsite.Thisbuildingburnedin1966butwassubsequentlyreconstructedby1978followingthemeasureddrawingscreatedbytheHistoricAmericanBuildingsSurvey(HABS)in1961.Liketheoriginalchurchbuilding,thereconstructedbuildingcontainstwosidechapelsinadditiontothemainaltar.TheRussianBishop’sHousewasconstructedbetween1841and1843toserveasaresidenceandadministrativeheadquarters,andalsoasaschool.Theon-goingtensionsbetweenoftheneedsoftheRussian-AmericanCompanyandtheRussianOrthodoxChurcharereflectedinthedevelopmentofwhatwasessentiallyasuburbanchurchcompound,locatedatadistanceacrosstheMalyshevkaRiverwhichmarkedtheouterlimitsofthetown.In1846aseminarybuildingwascompletedtotheeastoftheRussianBishop’sHouse.In1858thisbuildingwastransferredtotheRussian-AmericanCompanyforuseasahospital,andaftertheCessionitcontinuedtobeusedasahospitalandfor

1AnearlierprayerhouseorchapeldedicatedtoSt.Michaelwasconstructedca.1808nearerCastleHill(Black2004,241).

Figure4.11.5.OrientationofSt.Michael'sCathedral.



variousotherpurposesuntilitburnedin1882.In1897anewschoolhousewasbuiltbetweenthesiteoftheoldseminary/hospitalandtheBishop’sHouse.

Figure4.11.6.1867Cessionmap.

AnadditionalRussianOrthodoxchurch–nolongerextant-wasbuiltinSitkaduringthenineteenthcenturytoservetheTlingitpopulation.Thestoryofthischurchislesswell-documentedthanthatofthecathedral.TrinityChurch,alsocalledthe‘native’orKoloshchurch,wasbuiltintothewallofthestockadein1849andconsecratedbyBishopInnocent.OnMarch11,1855,adisputebetweentheTlingitandtheRussiansoverfirewoodledtothedesecrationofthechurch,whichwasseverelydamagedbothbytheTlingitandbyRussiancannonfire.ItwasrepairedandreconsecratedonFebruary2,1857,withblessingofBishopInnocent(Kan1999a,129).Overtimethebuildingdeteriorated,andin1875onordersgivenearlierbyBishopJohnMitropol’skii(Kliment2009,402)itwastakenapart,anditslumberwasusedforrepairsofSt.Michael’sCathedral(Kan1999a,192).Ashrinewasbuiltoverthealtarareainthetraditionalmanner.InDecember6,1908,theSt.NicholasBrotherhoodbuiltanew‘chapel’orshrinetoreplacetheformershrineonthesite(Chubarov1908).Thisisnottheshrineonthesitetoday.



TheCessionmap(Figure4.11.6)introducesanelementofconfusionwithregardtothenameoftheTrinityChurchbyidentifyingitastheChurchoftheResurrection.Thisappearstobetheonlyinstanceofthiserrorinearlyhistoricrecords.ReferenceChronologyDate RussianEcclesiasticalBuildingsandSitesinSitka

1804 RussianfortestablishedatSitka1816 FirstSt.Michael’sChurchconstructed1831 SecondSt.Michael’sChurchconstructed(Wrangell)1843 RussianBishop’sHousecompleted(Etholen)1846 SeminaryBuildingeastofRussianBishop’sHousecompleted1848 St.Michael’sCathedralconsecrated1849 TrinityChurchconsecratedBy1850 SecondSt.Michael’sChurchtakendown1855 TrinityChurchdesecratedduringTlingitinsurrection1857 TrinityChurchreconsecrated1858 SeminarybuildingbecomesRussian-AmericanCompanyHospital1867 AlaskapurchasedbyU.S.1867 Formerseminarybuilding/RACHospitalbecomesU.S.property1875 TrinityChurchtakendown1882 Formerseminarybuildingdestroyedbyfire1897 SchoolhousebuilteastoftheRussianBishop’sHouse1936 BuildingNo.105movedtopresentlocation1961 HABSdocumentationofSt.Michael’sCathedralcompleted1966 St.Michael’sCathedraldestroyedbyfire1973 RussianBishop’sHousepurchasedbyNPS1978 ReconstructedSt.Michael’sCathedralreconsecratedFigure4.11.7.ChronologyofsignificantdatesinRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalhistoryinSitka.

SEPTEMBER2014,APRIL2015,ANDSEPTEMBER2016FIELDVISITSSUMMARYOrganizationoftheSitkaFieldVisitsSummaryBecauseofthediversecharacterandgeographicseparationoftheelementsthatcomposetheRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalresourcesofSitka,andbecauseSitkaprovidestheimmediateinterpretivecontextoftheRussianBishop’sHouse,eachsiteisexaminedinaseparatesection.Unliketheorganizationofmaterialfromothervisitedsites,thefieldanalysisisdividedintofiveindividualsections.Thefivesitesare2:

1. CathedralofSt.MichaeltheArchangel2. ThesiteoftwoformerSt.Michael’sChurches3. ThesiteoftheTrinityorKoloshchurch

2TherewerealsoanumberofadditionalschoolslocatedaroundSitka,mostlyRAC,butalsoatleastonechurchschoolforTlingitstudentsonchurchlandneartheTrinitycemetery(Kan1999a,189).Morestudyisneededtodeterminethelocationsoftheseresources,providinginformationnotincludedhere.



4. Thecemeteries5. TheRussianBishop’sHouse

TheRussianBishop’sHousewillbediscussedseparatelyinChapter8.Sourcesforallhistoricphotographsarelistedinatableattheendofeachsection(Figures4.11.24,35,57and68).AllotherphotographsweretakenbyHelenErickson.SchematicdiagramsforSitka(unlikeothervisitedsites)arebasedonmapsfromCity&BoroughofSitka,Alaska,WebGISMapsandOnlinePropertyInformation(http://www.mainstreetmaps.com/ak/sitka/public.asp).CathedralofSt.MichaeltheArchangelSt.Michael’sCathedralstandsinthemiddleofthecity(Figure4.11.2),attheheadofthemainstreet(LincolnStreet),onasmallrise,surroundedbystreetsandframedbyotherbuildings(Figures4.11.9,10,11and12).Earlyphotographsrevealdirtstreetsandboardwalks(Figures4.11.11and20).Incontrasttothefencedchurchyardsseeninthemajorityoffieldsitesvisitedinthisstudy,herethereisnodistinctionmadeherebetweenchurchyardandstreet(Figures4.11.11and13),exceptforanentrancefence(Figures4.11.11and13)–whichmayserveasprotectionfortheporchofthesidechapel.Adjacentpropertiesarefenced(Figures4.11.13and15),butnottheareaimmediatelysurroundingthecathedral.St.Michael’sprocessionalpathmakesuseofthepublicstreet(Figures4.11.11,13and16).Nogravesarevisiblearoundthechurchinthehistoricphotosexamined.Sincethereconstructionofthecathedral,however,thegraveofSergeiKostromitinov(+1915),long-timechurchwardenandlatercathedralarchpriest,whohadbeenburiedbeneaththefloorofthecathedralporch,wasrelocatedtothesouthwestcornerofthecathedral.Hisgraveismarkedbyacross.Todayrolledcurbingsetsoffasmallareafordecorativeplantingsaroundthesouth,eastandnorthsidesoftheCathedral(Figures4.11.16and18).LincolnStreet–themainstreetofSitka–leadsupwardfromtheharbortothehighpointofthecathedral(Figures4.11.11and12).Herethestreetsplitstorightandleftaroundthebuilding,anddescendsdownwardstothe Figure4.11.8.ProcessionalroutesinSitka.



waterontheotherside(Figures4.11.17and18).Thecathedralisbuiltonasloperunningnorth/south(Figures4.11.12and13),whichfallsrathersharplysouthwardstowardsthewaterandascendssteeplynorthwardstowardsthecemetery,whichisslightlylessthanhalfamiledistantbymeansofcitystreets.Processionsthroughthestreets(Figures4.11.19and20)linkedSt.Michael’sCathedralandtheAnnunciationhousechurchtothecemeteries,theTrinityChurchandtheharbor(Figure4.11.8).BannerswithiconsofAnnunciationandSt.NicholasDay(Figure4.11.21)inthecathedralandintheRussianBishop’sHousesuggestthatthesefeastswereprocessionaloccasions.Processionsprovidedawaytolinkdisparategeographicelementsofthetowntothechurch.Bellsareanotherwayinwhichthepresenceofthechurchisbroadcasttothewiderworld.St.Michael’sCathedralhasanoutstandingsetofbells,todayrungbytrainedbellringerAnaDittmar(Figures4.11.22and23).

Figure4.11.9.Sitka,lookingeast,ca.1890.

Figure4.11.10.SitkafromCastleHill,lookingeast,September2016.



Figure4.11.11.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingeast,1890.

Figure4.11.12.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingeast,September2016.



Figure4.11.13.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingsouth,1886.

Figure4.11.14.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingsouth,1897.



Figure4.11.15.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingsouthwest,before1896.

Figure4.11.16.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingsouthwest,September2016.



Figure4.11.17.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingwest,1898.

Figure4.11.18.St.Michael'sCathedral,lookingwest,September2016.



Figure4.11.19.AnnunciationDayprocession,facingwest,ca.1890s.

Figure4.11.20.Religiousprocession,ca.1886-1890.



Figure4.11.21.ProcessionalbannerofSt.Nicholas,locatedintheRussianBishop'sHouse,September2014.

Figure4.11.22.St.Michael'sCathedralbells,September2016.

Figure4.11.23.St.Michael'sCathedralbells,September2016.




Figure4.11.6 Cessionmap 1867

Alaska.MapofsettlementatNewArchangel,Sitka,accompanyingaletterfromGen.L.H.RousseauofDec.5,1867.

U.S.NationalArchives

W.O.D.C.-SIT-9002

ArndtandPierce2003,170-271

Figure4.11.9 Sitka

Ca.1890

ThomasJacksonandAnnaRuthChandler

ThomasJacksonandAnnaRuthChandlerLanternSlides,ca.1890.ASL-PCA-581

ASL-P581-07


Figure4.11.11

St.Michael’sCathedral 1890

EarlyPrintsofAlaska.Photograph,ca.1870-1920.ASL-PCA-297

ASL-P297-028


Figure4.11.13


WilliamHowardCase

WilliamR.Norton.Photographs,ca.1890-1920

ASL-P226-361


Figure4.11.14

St.Michael’sCathedral 1897 Winter&Pond

WilliamSmithCollection,ca.1897-1900.ASL-PCA-339

ASL-P339-15


Figure4.11.15

St.Michael’sCathedral

1867-1896

RubenAlbertstone

PhotographersinAlaska,ca.1878-1919.ASL-PCA-341

ASL-P341-Alberstone-3


Figure4.11.17


Cook’sInletExploringExpeditionledbyEdwinF.GlennonbehalfoftheU.S.Army

EdwinF.Glennpapers,1889-1917.UAA-HMC-0116

UAA-hmc-0116-48-1





Figure4.11.19

AnnunciationDayprocession

Ca.1890s

LymanE.Knapp.Photographs,ca.1890s.ASL-PCA-438

ASL-P438-24


Figure4.11.20

Religiousprocession

Ca.1886-1890

EdwardDeGroff.Photographs,ca.1886-1890.ASL-PCA-91

ASL-P91-52


Figure4.11.24.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs(St.Michael’sCathedral).

SiteofFormerSt.Michael’sChurches

ThefirstandsecondRussianOrthodoxchurchesinSitka,bothdedicatedtoSt.MichaeltheArchangel,wereerectedinthesamelocation,some200yardsfromtheBaranovCastleonthenexthighpointtotheeastalongtheshoreline(Figures4.11.25,26,27and29).Thesketchofthefirstchurchatthesite(Figure4.11.28)suggeststhatitwasraised,perhapstoavoidfloodingathightides.Theraisedwalkwayalsowouldhaveprovideda

processionalroutearoundthebuilding.Thesecondchurchonthesamesite,builtonordersofGovernorWrangell,waslikewiseraised(Figures4.11.30and31).Thechurchyardwasnotsurroundedbyafence,althoughthereweregravesnearby(notethecrossinFigure4.11.33).

AfterSt.Michael’sCathedralwasconsecratedin1848,theoldchurchwasremoved(Figure4.11.32)andthealtararea

coveredbyatypicalshrine(Figure4.11.33).Whenthisshrinewasremovedisunknown,butphotographicevidencesuggeststhatitorasubsequentreplacementremainedonsiteintothelate19thcentury.

St.Michael’sCathedralwasbuiltapproximately100yardstothenorth,asiteeasilyvisiblefromtheolderchurch(Figure4.11.34).Asurveyofthisstudy’sfieldvisitsitesrevealsthatnewchurcheswereusuallybuiltclosetoolderones,sothelocationoftheCathedralneartheoldSt.Michael’sChurchisatypicalpracticenotedinRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalresourcesinAlaskaasawhole.

Figure4.11.25.LocationoftheformersiteoftheSt.Michael’sChurches.



Figure4.11.26.ViewofthesiteoftheSt.Michael’sChurchesfromCastleHill,lookingeast,September2016.

Figure4.11.27.ViewofthesiteoftheSt.Michael’sChurches,fromHarborDrive,lookingeast,September2016.



Figure4.11.28.SketchofthefirstSt.Michael’sChurch,probablylookingeast,JuneorJuly1827.

Figure4.11.29.PlanofSitka,ca.1836.



Figure4.11.30.ViewofSitkawithCastleatleftandSt.Michael’sChurchatright,lookingnorthwest,between1833and1835.

Figure4.11.31.ViewofSitka,withSt.Michael’sChurchmiddlerightandCastlefarright,lookingsouth,between1843and1845.



Figure4.11.32.ViewofSitkawithemptyareawheresecondSt.Michael’sChurchstood,Cathedralinbackground,lookingnorth,noearlierthan1850.

Figure4.11.33.ShrineatsiteofearlySt.Michael’sChurches,lookingwest/southwesttowardstheCastle,before1894.



Figure4.11.34.St.Michael'sCathedralfromthelocationofearlierSt.Michael’sChurches,lookingnorth,September2016.

Figure Caption Date Creator Collection Identifier Source

Figure4.11.28

SketchoffirstSt.Michael’sChurch

JuneorJuly1827

FriedrichHeinrichvonKittlitz

ArndtandPierce2003,16

Figure4.11.29 Sitkaplan Ca.1836 Unknown


Figure4.11.30

ViewofSitka

Between1833and1835

UnidentifiedArtist

WrangellFamily


Figure4.11.31

ViewofSitka

Between1843and1845

PossiblyJohnBartram

EtholenFamily


Figure4.11.32

ViewofSitka

Noearlierthan1850 Unknown

Hudson’sBayCompanyArchives





Figure4.11.33

ShrineatsiteofsecondandthirdSitkachurches

Before1894

ClarenceLeroyAndrews


ASL-P243-2-074


Figure4.11.35.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs(St.Michael’sChurchsite).

SiteofHolyTrinity(Kolosh)ChurchThechurchoftheHolyTrinitywasdedicatedbyBishopInnocentin1849toaccommodateTlingitOrthodox,prudentlyavoidinglargegatheringsofpotentiallyhostilenativesincentrallylocatedSt.Michael’sCathedral.SitedonthebluffbehindtheTlingitvillage(Figures4.11.2,46,47,48,49and50)thesmallchurchstraddledtheRussianpalisadetothenorthofthetown,sothatthewestdoorledintotheTlingitvillage,andthesouthdoorledintothefortifiedRussiantown.Afterthereconsecrationofthechurchin1857,thewesterndoorleadingtotheTlingitvillagewaskeptclosed–atleastforatime,presumablyforsecurityreasons-andallvisitorsenteredfromthesouth(Kan1999a,144).Followingcomplaintsaboutitscondition,thechurchwasremovedin1875.Becausethechurchwasessentiallybuiltintothewallofthepalisade,therecouldbenoprocessionalroutearoundthechurch,anddrawings(Figures4.11.6,38and39)indicatethatinadditionthechurchyardwasnotsetoffbyafence,atypicalpracticenotedatmanyothersitesvisitedinthisstudy.Thereisscatteredevidenceofacemeteryinthisareaantedatingthechurch,andburialsapparentlycontinuedtotakeplacebothinsideandousidethewalls.Drawingsandonephotograph(Figures4.11.38,39,40and41)revealthatthethesmallsymmetricalchurchhadadoortothewestandanaltarareatotheeast.Ithadatleasttwodoors–onewithasinglepaneltothewestandonewithadoublepaneltothesouth.Therewasaporchroofabovethesouthdoor.Tothenorthwestofthewestdoor

Figure4.11.36.SchematicplanoftheTrinityChurchsitetoday.



wasafreestandingbelltower.Historicphotographsanddrawingsofthehighbluffonwhichthechurchwassited(Figures4.11.38and39)indicatearelativelygentledescenttosouthandeast.Todaytheseslopesfalloffmoresharply(Figures4.11.45,46,47and48)duetoexcavationtoprovidelevelgroundfortheconstructionofabuildingandparkingonSewardStreetandtheintroductionand/orwideningofaroad(MarineStreet).Theremainingflatareaonthetopoftheridgeprovidedalevellocationforthechurch(Figure4.11.50).Whenthechurchwastakendown,thealtarareawascoveredbyashrine(Chubarov1908)3.Thisoriginalshrinewasreplacedwithanewonein1907bytheSt.Nikolaichurchbrotherhood(Figure4.11.43).

Then,in1871[1872?],HisGraceIoann[JohnMitropol’skii]hadittakenapartduetoitsageanduselessnessandusedthelumbertorenovateSt.MichaeltheArchangelCathedral,andwherethealtarofthedismantledchurchhadstood,heplacedasmallchapelasamemorialandplacedacross[Figure4.11.42]init,whichhadbeenunderthealtaroftheformerchurchandwhichattestedtotheeventsofitssecondconsecration.Theinscriptiononitread:"ThisHolyAltarandTempleintheNameoftheMostHolyandLivingTrinity,byGod'sSufferance,wasdestroyedanddesecratedbytheKoloshonMarch11,1855.WiththeBlessingoftheArchpastor,HisEminence,ArchbishopInnokentii,byGod'sGrace,itwasoncemoreConsecratedonFebruary2,1857,onthedayofPresentationofourLordattheTemple,onSaturday.CathedralProtopriestPetrLitvintsev,HieromonkVonifatii,PriestGeorgiiVinokouroff,ProtodeaconPetrBerdennikovandSubdeaconNikolaiChechentsevperformedtheSacredRiteofConsecration."Thispastsummer,theSt.NikolaiBrotherhoodtookuponitselfthelaborofreplacingthedecrepitchapelwithanewone(Chubarov1908,tr.NinaBogdan).

Bythe1950sanothershrinehadbeenraisedonthesite,thisonetakingtheformofachurch(Figure4.11.44).Atsomelaterpointthisthirdshrinewasprovidedwitharoof(Figures4.11.50and51).ItsorientationisidenticaltothatoftheCathedral,suggestingthatitmaywellmarkthesiteofthe1907shrineandhencethelocationoftheformerTrinityChurchaltar.Thepresentshrine(Figure4.11.51),however,doesnotappeartorepresentanyoftheformerSt.Michael’sChurches,theTrinityChurch,ortheCathedral,anditisquitedifferentfromtheusualcubicshrinesdesignedtocoverformeraltarareas.Furtherinvestigationofitsprovenanceisneeded.Acemeterysurroundedthischurch,probablystretchingnorthwestandnortheastacrosstoday’sMarineStreet.The1836graveofAnnaNetsvetov,wifeoftheCreolepriestJacobNetsvetov,islocatedsome140yardsnorthwest(Figure4.11.56).Totheeastoftheshrineisthe1862graveofNadezhdaVinokouroff(Figures4.11.44and55),wifeofRussianpriestFr.GeorgiiVinokouroff,residentoftheRussianBishop’sHouse(Pierce1990,528-529).Tothesouthisthe1848graveofAleksandrGavrilov(Figures4.11.53and54),aRussiannavigatorrelatedthroughmarriagetoAmericannaturalistJohnBartram(Pierce1990,157-158).Thereisoneothermarkedgraveinthisareawitha3Thetwophotographsincludedinthisarticle(Figures4.11.42and43)weretakenbyE.W.MerrillandpublishedintheRussianOrthodoxAmericanMessenger.



fadedinscriptionremainingtobedeciphered,andanother(Figure4.11.52)insuchpoorconditionastobeundeciperhable.Othergraves,markedbycrosses,appearinthephotographofthe1907shrine(Figure4.11.43).IfFr.Netsvetovwasburied“attheentrytothechurch”(Netsvetov1984,xx)in1863,itwasamarkofdistinction.Aswehavenotedatotherfieldsites,clergyandotherscloselyinvolvedwiththechurchareoftenburiedneartheentrance,oroutsidetheeastendofthebuilding(nearestthealtararea).Giventhedate,thiswouldmeanthesouthentrance.Whenmoreislearnedabouttheconstructionandpositionoftheshrinenowonthesite-inparticularwhetherornotitwasbuiltonthelocationofthe1907shrine-itwillprovideimportantinformationaboutthelocationoftheTrinityChurchaltar,thechurchitself,andNetsvetov’sgrave.In2015aninvestigationofthisareaemployedground-penetratingradarwasbegun,butotherthandeterminingthatthereareburialspresentonthissite,resultswereinconclusive(Urban2015).IftheshrinepresentonthesitetodaydoesinfactmarkthesiteofthealtaroftheTrinityChurch,Netsvetov’sgravemaylietothesouth.

Figure4.11.37.FacadedesignapprovedfortheTrinityChurch,lookingnorth,1846.



Figure4.11.38.Voznesenski'sdrawingoftheTrinityChurch,lookingnortheast,1843-45.

Figure4.11.39.TheTrinityChurchandpalisade,lookingnorth,1868.



Figure4.11.40.TheTrinityChurchin1855reproducedaccordingtothememoriesoflong-timeresidents(showingholesonthesouthsidefromRussiancannonballs),facingnorth,1855.

Figure4.11.41.OnlyknownphotoofTrinityChurch,fromBLMsignageatBlockhousesite,facingnorth,1868.



Figure4.11.42.WoodencrossattestingtotherestorationoftheTrinityChurchin1857.

Figure4.11.43.ShrinemarkingthealtarlocationofTrinityChurch,putinplacebytheSt.NikolaiBrotherhood,lookingsoutheastwithCathedralinbackground,1907.



Figure4.11.44.ViewofthegraveofNadezhdaVinokouroff(+1862)attheTrinityChurchsitewithshrineatupperleft,lookingnorthwest,ca.1950s.

Figure4.11.45.ViewdownMarineStreet,pastthesiteofNadezhdaVinokouroff'sgrave,lookingnorth,September2016.



Figure4.11.46.ViewofTrinityChurchsitefromMarineStreet,lookingnorthwest,September2016.

Figure4.11.47.ViewofTrinityChurchsite,lookingnorthfromCastleHill,April2015.



Figure4.11.48.ViewofTrinityChurchsite,reconstructedblockhouseatupperleft,lookingnorthfromSewardStreet,April2015.

Figure4.11.49.ViewfromTrinityChurchsitetoharbor,reconstructedblockhouseonright,lookingsouthwest,September2016.



Figure4.11.50.TrinityChurchsitewithshrineincenter,Cathedralinbackgroundright,lookingeast/southeast,September2016.

Figure4.11.51.ShrineatTrinityChurchsite,lookingnorthwest,April2015.



Figure4.11.52.DamagedgravemarkeratTrinityChurchsite,lookingwest,April2015.

Figure4.11.53.GraveofAleksandrGavrilov(+1848)attheTrinityChurchsite,lookingwest,April2015.

Figure4.11.54.FencesurroundingAleksandrGavrilov'sgraveattheTrinityChurchsite,facingsouthwest,April2015.

HistoricEcclesiasticLandscapesStudy–SitkaNationalHistoricalPark


Figure4.11.55.GraveofNadezhdaVinokouroff(+1862),withTrinitysiteshrineinbackground,lookingwest,September2016.

Figure4.11.56.GraveofAnnaNetsvetov(+1836)inoldcemeteryareanorthoftheTrinityChurchsite,lookingeast,September2016.




Figure4.11.37

PlanandfacadefortheconstructionofawoodenchurchinNovo-arkhangelskfortheKolosh[Tlingits],April28,1846.Oversize5/12Sitka,AlaskanRussianChurchArchives,ManuscriptDivision(18)

BeforeApril28,1846

LibraryofCongress:AlaskaRussianChurchArchives,ManuscriptDivision

https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/russian/russch3.html

Figure4.11.38

Koloshchurch 1843-45 Voznesenskii Kan1999a,128

Figure4.11.39

Indianchurch,Sitka 1868


ASL-P243-2-225


Figure4.11.40

TrinityChurch 1855

Chubarov1908,110

Figure4.11.41

TrinityChurch 1868

BLMSignageatBlockhouseSite,Sitka4

Figure4.11.42

Woodencross 1857 E.W.Merrill

SitkaNationalHistoricalPark

Chubarov1908,111;STIK26160

Figure4.11.43 Shrine 1908 E.W.Merrill


Chubarov1908,112;STIK25601

4AttributedbyBLMtoBancroftLibrarycollection,butBancroftLibrarystaffreportthisisanerror.




Figure4.11.44

GraveofNadezhdaVinokouroff 1950s(?)

MichaelZ.VinokouroffPhotographCollection,ca.1880’s-1970’s.PCA243.

ASL-P243-a-13.


Figure4.11.57.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs(TrinityChurchsite).

TheCemeteriesEverychurchvisitedinthisfieldstudyhasanassociatedcemetery.Churchesinurbanlocationseventuallydevelopedburialgroundsawayfromthechurch,ofteninareasconsideredwastelandbecauseofthetopographyorotherwiseoutsidethebuilt-uparea.ThemajorpartofSitka’sRussiancemeteryislocatedinahillyareabehindtheoldTlingitVillagealongthewater(Figures4.11.58and59),andovertimethemorelevelandbuildableareas-alongMarineStreetandSewardstreet,forexample–werecarvedoutforbuildinglots.ThehistoryofpropertiesinitiallyownedbytheRussianOrthodoxChurchinSitkaandtheirdispossessioniscomplicated,rangingfromquestionablefinancialdealingstooutrightusurpation,anareaforfuturestudy.Aphotofromtheearlyyearsofthe20thcenturyrevealsgravesintheareaoftheformerSt.Michael’sChurch(Figure14.11.33).ItseemslikelythattheTrinityChurch(1849)was

constructedinanareawhichalreadycontainedburials,includingAnnaNetsvetov’s1836grave(Figure4.11.56).Therecognizablegravestothesouthandeastofthechurchpostdateitsconstruction(Figures4.11.52,53and54),buttheyfollowtheexpectedtraditionsofchurchyardburials.Thesegraves,likethemajorityofthoseinthelargerareaofthecemeterytotheeastofMarineStreet,appeartobeorientedmoretoaccommodatethehillytopographyratherthantofaceliturgicaleastasindicatedbythecathedral.

AsmallareaatthesouthendofthelargercemeteryeastofMarineStreetwassetasideforLutherans,whodedicateditin1841(Harjunpaa1968,136).ThegraveofPrincessMaksutov(Figure4.11.60),thefirstwifeofAlaska'slastRussianAmericangovernor,DmitriiMaksutov,islocatedhere.

Figure4.11.58.Schematicplanoftoday’scemeteriesinSika.



Theburialsinthemajorsectionofthecemeterytotheeast(Figures4.11.61-67)reflectavarietyofreligiouspractices.ThisistypicalofurbancemeteriesinplacessuchasSitka,JuneauandKodiak,reflectingthegreater

diversityofanurbanpopulation.OrthodoxandRomancrossesarecommon,andinadditiontopersonalizingitemssuchasflowersandteddybears,thereareclaninsigniasonanumberofthegraves(Figure4.11.66and67).SomegravesaresurroundedbyfencesintheRussianmanner,whileothersarenot.Theupheavalofthegroundcausedbyalternatefreezingandthawing,alongwiththeaggressiverootgrowthoftheenormoussprucetreesthatdominatethearea,hastoppledcrossesandheadstonesanddisruptedtheconcretebordersthatsurroundmanygraves(Figure4.11.65).

Figure4.11.59.ViewofTlingitvillagewithwoodedcemeteryandRussianblockhouseinthehillsbehind(right),lookingnorth,ca.1880.



Figure4.11.60.GraveofPrincessMaksutov(+1881),lookingwesttoblockhousereconstructionacrossMarineStreet,September2016.

Figure4.11.61.Cemeterywithcentralpathtoright,facingnorth,September2016.



Figure4.11.62.Cemetery,lookingnorthwest,September2016.

Figure4.11.63.Russiancrossmarkinggrave,September2014.

Figure4.11.64.GravemarkerofapresidentoftheSt.NicolasBrotherhood,Sitka,September2014.



Figure4.11.65.Conditionofoldergravesincemetery,September2014.

Figure4.11.66.Shellsongrave,suggestingaclanassociation,September2014.

Figure4.11.67.Figurinesoffrogsongrave,suggestingaclanassociation,September2014.




Figure4.11.59

Tlingitvillageandcemeterybeyond Ca.1880 PartridgePhoto

WilliamH.Partridge.Photographs,1886-1887.ASL-PCA-88.

ASL-P88-013


Figure4.11.68.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs(Cemeteries).


Chapter4.12-Unalaska 293

CATHEDRALOFTHEHOLYASCENSION,UNALASKA(JULY2015)

GEOGRAPHICCONTEXT

Figure4.11.1.SchematicplanoftheUnalaskachurchcomplex.

TheecclesiasticalpropertiesarelocatedbetweentheIlliliukRiverandIlliliukBayonanarrowstripoflandsomefewfeetabovesealevel(Figure4.11.1).Acrosstherivertothesouthwestahillrisessharplyto200’;tothenortheastisthebay.Thecathedralcanbeseenfromeverylocationintheimmediatelysurroundingarea.Tothenorthwestoftheformersiteoftheschoolisacommercialproperty;tothesoutheastisaresidentialarea(Figures4.11.3,4and5).

Thecathedralisorientedtothesoutheast,followingthegeographicformationofthenarrowstripofthelandbetweentheriverandthebay(Figure4.11.2).Thegravesinthechurchyardfollowtheorientationofthechurch.Importantgravesarelocatedneartheporch(atthenortheastcorneroftheentrance)andtotheeastofthebuilding.

Figure4.11.2.OrientationofUnalaskachurch.


Chapter4.12-Unalaska294

Inadditiontothecemeterysurroundingthecathedral,thereisasecondcemeteryonahillsideaboutahalfmiletotheeast(Figure4.11.4).ThiscemeterycontainsasignificantnumberofgravesmarkedwithOrthodoxcrossesalongwithburialmonumentsfromothertraditions.Heretopographyappearstobethemostimportantfactorintheorientationofthegraves,althoughahistoricphotograph(Figure4.11.16)indicatesthatgravesweremoretraditionallyorientedtotheeastinthepast.BRIEFHISTORY(Hoagland1989and1990,Smith1984)FedorBurenin,manageroftheRussian-AmericanCompany,constructedthefirstUnalaskachurchin1808,ontheeastsideoftown.Itispossiblethatthislocationiswherethesubsequentchurcheswerebuilt,butthisisunknown.Thisearlychurchwasreplacedin1825-26byachurchdesignedbyIoannVeniaminov(laterBishopInnocent).UndertheleadershipofpriestInnokentiiShaiashnikov,in1858theexistingchurchwasbuilt,tothesouthofVeniaminov’schurch(Figures4.11.6and7).PhotographsfromthisperiodshowtheburialmonumentofBishopNestor(Zass,+1882)inthecornerwherethechurchmeetstheporch.WiththeconstructionoftheShaiashnikovchurch,thelocationofVeniaminov’schurchwasmarkedbyanaltarshrinetoitsnorth(Figure7.11-6).Whenthechurchwaslaterexpandedtoacathedralwiththreealtarsin1894-96,thealtarofVeniaminov’searlierchurchwasincorporatedintoasidechapeldedicatedtoSt.InnocentofIrkutsk(Figure7.11.8).BythemidnineteenthcenturyUnalaskawasanextensiveparishwithsomeseventeenassociatedchapels,aplaceofimportance.Duringthe1880sBishopNestor(Zass)mountedacampaignforbetterclergyhousing.UnderhisleadershiptheAlaskaCommercialCompanybuiltbotharectory(alsocalledtheBishop’sHouse)andaschoolin1882(Figures7.11.9,13,14and15).BishopNestordiedatsealaterthatyear,andhisbodyisburiednorthofthechurchentrance(Figures4.11.6and7).Subsequentlytheschoolandrectorywerejoinedtocreatealargecomplexwhichincludedanorphanage/schoolhouse,alongwithhousingforteachersandthechurchreader(Figures7.11.13and14).A1908surveymap(Figure4.11.3)–erroneouslyincludedintheNationalRegisterNominationfortheKenaichurch(Smith1985)–mapsandidentifiesthestructurespresentatthatpointintime.PerhapsuntilWorldWarIItherewasnoroadalongtheIlliliukRiver,otherthantheroadorboardwalksrunninginfrontoftherectoryandschool(Figures7.11.9and10).Bankreinforcementssuggestthaterosionalongtheriverwasanongoingproblem.AboardwalkalsolinkedthechurchtotheroadalongIlliliukBay(Figure4.11.12).

In1960afiredestroyedtheschoolcomplextothewestoftherectory(Figure4.11.15).



Thechurchyardalsoservedasacemetery,althoughatsomepointalargercemeterywasestablishedahalfmileaway(Figures7.11.15and16).Beginningin1893,Alaskaconsistedoftwodeaneries–SitkaandUnalaska.Theparallelsbetweenthetwositesarestriking,includingastheydoacathedralandaschoolintendedasaseminary.WorldWarIIwasnotkindtothecathedral.TheUnalaskapopulationwasforciblyevacuatedtoSoutheasternAlaska,andthechurchwasconsiderablydamagedduringthewaryears.In1970thechurchwasdesignatedaNationalHistoricLandmark.Sourcesforallhistoricphotographsarelistedinatableattheendofthissection(Figure4.11.17).

Figure4.11.3.DetailfromU.S.SurveyMap,1908.



Figure4.11.4.Overviewofsite,lookingnorth,1983.

Figure4.11.5.Overviewofsite(detail),lookingnorth,1983.



Figure4.11.6.Shiashnikovchurch,lookingsoutheast,ca.1885.

Figure4.11.7.Shiashnikovchurch(left)andcustomshouse(right),facingsouth,1894.



Figure4.11.8.Cathedral,lookingsoutheast,ca.1910.

Figure4.11.9.Churchcomplex,lookingeast,ca.1910.



Figure4.11.10.Cathedral,lookingnortheast,ca.1910.

Figure4.11.11.Cathedral,lookingsouth,1917.



Figure4.11.12.Cathedralwithgateandboardwalk,lookingeast,1923.

Figure4.11.13.Frontofrectoryandschool,lookingnorthwest,ca.1907.



Figure4.11.14.Backofshed,rectoryandschool,lookingsouthwest,possibly1892-1883.

Figure4.11.15.Rectoryafter1960firewhichdestroyedtheschool,lookingsoutheast,1961.



Figure4.11.16.Cemetery,facingeast,1939.


4.11.3 Mapdetail 1908U.S.SurveyMap

NationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces Smith1985

4.11.4 Overview 1983BarbaraS.Smith


4.11.5 Overview 1983BarbaraS.Smith


4.11.6Shaiashnikovchurch

Ca.1885

HuntingtonLibrary Smith1985

4.11.7

Churchandcustomshouse

Before1894

CharlesE.BunnellColection

UAF-1958-1026-481





4.11.8 CathedralCa.1910 NowellPhoto

AnchorageHistoricalandFineArtsMuseum Smith1985

4.11.9

School,rectory,cathedral

Ca.1910 P.S.Hunt

ArchivesandPolarRegionsDept.,UniversityofAlaska,Fairbanks #64-92-449 Smith1985

4.11.10Cathedralandsite

Ca.1910

LuluFairbanksCollection.VerticalFilePhotographCollections-Towns-Unalaska

UAF-1968-69-2367


4.11.11

Cathedralwithfenceandgate 1917

ClarenceL.AndrewsPhotographCollection,ca.1892-1940.ASL-PCA-45

ASL-P45-0342


4.11.12

Cathedralwithgateandboardwalk 1923

U.S.RevenueCutterServicePhotographCollection,1905,1920s.ASL-PCA-79

ASL-P79-127


4.11.13

Rectoryandschoolwithboardwalks

Ca.1907 P.S.Hunt

AnchorageHistoricalandFineArtsMuseum

No.B62.1A.49 Smith1985

4.11.14

Rectoryandschoolwithfence

Possibly1882-83

MichaelZ.VinokouroffPhotographCollection,ca.1880’s-1970’s.PCA243

ASL-P243-2-027


4.11.15Rectoryafter1960fire

July28,1961 CharlesW.Snell NPS NPS-ARO Smith1985




4.11.16 Cemetery 1939

ClarenceL.AndrewsPhotographCollection,ca.1892-1940.ASL-PCA-45.

ASL-P45-0351.



APRIL2015FIELDVISITSUMMARYThechurchcomplexissetonalowrisebetweentheIlliliukBaytothenortheastandtheIlliliukRivertothesouth(Figures4.11.18and19).Acrosstheriverasteepslopeofferssomeprotectionfromtheweather,whichisnodoubtwhytherectoryandschoolturnedtheirbackstothesea.VisiblefrommostvantagepointsonthecoastandontheadjacentislandofDutchHarbor,thesettingisdramatic.Thechurchyardrisessharplyfromtheriverononesideandthebayontheother.Aparkinglotseparatesthechurchfromtherectorytothewest,takinguptheareaformerlyoccupiedbythecustomshouse.Oneachsideofthechurchpropertyisaroad;theroadtothesouthwasinstalledfairlyrecently–perhapsduringWorldWarIIandcertainlybythe1980s-althoughanexactdatehasnotbeendetermined.Theinstallationoftheroadrequiredaretainingwallthatrunsalongthesouthsideofthechurchyard(Figures7.11.26and27).Evenbeforetheconstructionoftheroad,theriverappearstohaveerodeditsbank,causingconcernsaboutthestabilityofthechurchsite(Figures7.11.9and10).Althoughtheroadhasnarrowedthechurchyardtothesouthofthecathedral,thereissufficientroomtomaintaintheprocessionalpathwayaroundthechurch.Thechurchyardissurroundedbyapicketfenceandarchedentrancegate(Figures7.11.20and27),whichhasbeenmovedwestbysome70feetwithinthelastfewyearstoincreasethechurchyardarea(theolderfencelineranalongtherowofsprucesplantedacrosstheentrancetothechurchyard;seeFigure4.11.18).Originallythechurchyardwasnotfenced(Figures7.11.6and7),butby1910photographs(Figure7.11.9)showafenceandanarchedgate.AboardwalkleadsuptothechurchfromBayviewAvenue(Figure4.11.12and13).Todaythechurchisenteredfromthenorthandsouthsidesoftheporch.TotherightarestepsandtotheleftisanADAramp(Figure4.11.21).Spruceslinethefenceonthenorthsideoftheproperty(4.11.31).Theareasurroundingthegravesismowed,andmownpathwaysmakeitpossibletowalkbetweenthem(Figures7.11.28,29and30).Thegravesthemselvesareovergrownwithwildroseandsalmonberry;andasmallmargueritedaisy,originallyplantedatonegravebyKathyGregory(GregoryJuly25,2015),hasnaturalizedandspreadthroughoutthechurchyard



(Figure4.11.32).Somegravesarefenced,butothersarenot.Aphotographfrom1894showsfencedgraves(Figure4.11.8).Crossesarethetypicalthreebarandthefloweringvarieties.Nocappedcrosseswereseenhere.The

burialsinthischurchyardhavebeencarefullydocumentedbyMartiMurray(Murray1997).Thegravesofimportantfiguresinthehistoryofthechurcharesituatedinplacesofhonornearthechurch.ThegraveofBishopNestor(Zass)ismarkedbyastonemonumentattheinsidecornerofthenorthsideofthebelltower(Figure4.11.34).Fr.InnokentiiShaiashnikov’sgraveisattheeastendofthechurchyard,outsidethemainaltarofthechurch(4.11.33).Neartheformerentrancegate(beforethefencewasmovedtothewest)isa2005monumentcommemoratingFr.PeterBourdukofsky–amonument,notagravemarker(Figure4.11.35).Fr.Peter,whowasmuchlovedbythisparish,isburiedonSt.PaulIsland.

Figure4.11.18.SchematicplanofecclesiasticalresourcesinUnalaska(GoogleEarth2005)



Sprucesgrowinginalineapproximate70feeteastoftoday’swesternfencelineindicatethatthechurchyardwasrecentlyexpandedinthatdirection(Figure4.11.18).Thiswasconfirmedbyseveraloftheparishioners.Acrosstheparkinglottothewestistherectory.Likethechurch,itissetontheelevatedisthmusabovethebeach(Figures4.11.23,24and25).Beyondtherectoryisanemptylotwheretheschoolformerlystood.ApproximatelyahalfmiletotheeastofthecathedralisacemeterythatcontainsasignificantnumberofgravesmarkedbyOrthodoxcrosses(Figure4.11.36).AsistypicaloftheRussianOrthodoxcemeteriesoutsidechurchyardsvisitedduringthisstudy,itissetonafairlysteephillside.Todaytheorientationofthegravesvaries–apparentlydeterminedbytopography-althoughmanyareorientedtotheeast.Ahistoricphotographsuggeststhatthiscemeteryismuchlargerthanitappearstobetoday,andthatthemajorityofcrossesatthattimewereorientedinthetraditionalmanner(Figure4.11.16).Theremaybeasignificantnumberofunmarkedgravesinthisarea.Thecemeteryandthecathedralarevisuallylinked(Figures7.11.19and37).NeartheendofSummerBayRoadisasolitarygravewithalargeboulderandcross(Figure4.11.38).AnotherresourceinthisareathathelpstotelltheUnalaskastoryistheSitkaSprucePlantation,aNationalHistoricLandmarklocatedacrossthebridgeinDutchHarbor(Figure4.11.39).WoodisascarecommodityonUnalaska,andeffortstocreateareserveofSitkasprucetreeswastypicaloftheRussianeffortstomaketheAlaskaventuremoresustainable.ThisprojectwouldhavebeenofgreatinteresttoVeniaminov,whoalmostcertainlyhadahandinit.



Figure4.11.19.Ecclesiasticalcomplex,withrectoryleft,cathedralrightandcemeteryinrightbackground,lookingeast,July2015.

Figure4.11.20.Cathedralandchurchyard,lookingeast,July2015.



Figure4.11.21.WestcathedralentrancewithADArampleftandstairsright,lookingeast,April2015.

Figure4.11.22.Viewofcathedralfrombeach,lookingsoutheast,July2015.



Figure4.11.23.RectoryfromBayviewRoad,lookingsouthwest,July2015.

Figure4.11.24.Viewofcathedralandrectory,lookingeastdownBayviewRoad,July2015.



Figure4.11.25.ViewofcathedralandrectoryfromSummerBayRoad,lookingsouth,July2015.

Figure4.11.26.Viewofrectory(left)andcathedral(right)withIlliliukRiverinforeground,lookingnorthwest,July2015.



Figure4.11.27.ViewofcathedralandchurchyardwithIlliliukBayinthebackground,lookingnortheast,July2015.

Figure4.11.28.Expandedchurchyardarea,lookingnortheast,July2015.



Figure4.11.29.Churchyardcemetery,lookingsoutheast,July2016.

Figure4.11.30.Churchyardcemetery,lookingnortheast,July2015.



Figure4.11.31.Sprucesliningthenorthsideofthechurchyard,lookingnortheast,July2015.

Figure4.11.32.Churchyardvegetation,July2015.



Figure4.11.33.GravemarkerforFr.InokentiiShiashnikov(+1883),July2015.

Figure4.11.34.GravemarkerforBishopNestor(Zass,+1882),July2015.



Figure4.11.35.MemorialforFr.PeterBourdukovsky(+2005),July2015.




Figure4.11.37.Cemetery,lookingwesttowardsthecathedral,July2015.

Figure4.11.38.Solitarygrave,lookingwest,neartheendofSummerBayRoad,July2015.



Figure4.11.39.Sitkaspruceplantation,lookingsouthwest,July2015.


Chapter4.13–SpruceIsland(MonksLagoon) 319

STS.SERGIUSANDHERMANOFVALAAM,MONKSLAGOON/SPRUCEISLAND(APRIL2015)

GEOGRAPHICCONTEXTThehermitageandSts.SergiusandHermanofValaamChapelarelocatedinthewoodsaboutahalfmileaboveabeach.LocatedsouthwestofOuzinkie,itisalmostduenorthofKodiak(Figure4.13.1).Unlikeotherecclesiasticallandscapesdescribedinthisstudy,thissiteisafocusofpilgrimageratherthanaparishchurch.ApilgrimmayreachthechapelbywaterfromeitherKodiakorOuzinkie,orbyfoot(~7miles)alongatrailfromOuzinkie.Ineithercasethejourneyisasignificantfactorintheperceptionofthislandscape.BRIEFHISTORY(Hoagland1989e,Korsun2012,KretaandMongin1979,Oleksa1992))OneoftheearliestmissionariestoAlaska,Fr.HermancametoKodiakin1794withnineothermonksfromtheValaammonasteryinRussiatobeginmissionaryworkwiththenativepopulation.Aftertenyearsofactiveservice,hewithdrewtoSpruceIsland,whichhecalled“NewValaam”(Oleksa1987,305),tofoundanorphanageandliveamonasticlife.Hediedin1836.HewascanonizedbytheOrthodoxChurchasAmerica’sfirstOrthodoxsaintin1970.Severalchapelshavebeenconstructedhere.In1857achapelwasbuiltbytheRussian-AmericanCompany,butby1895itwasinruins.In1898BishopTikhon(Bellavin)orderedtoday’schapeltobebuiltoverthegravesofFr.Hermanandanothermonk(HieromonkIoasaf).Inruinsattheturnofthecentury,itwaslaterrebuiltbyArchimandriteGerasimSchmaltz(Figures7.12-2and3).

Figure4.13.1.SchematicdiagramofMonksLagoonlocation.


Chapter4.13–SpruceIsland(MonksLagoon)320

BorninRussiain1888,Fr.GerasimservedatSitka,KodiakandAfognakbeforemovingtoSpruceIslandin1935todevotehislifetothememoryofFr.HermanandmaintainhisgraveHerenovatedthechapelandbuiltasmallhouseandasmallerprivatechapel.Inaddition,from1935to1967hewasthepriestattheChurchoftheNativityatOuzinkie,ontheothersideofSpruceIsland,leavingonlyin1967,whenhishealthfailed.Fr.Gerasimdiedin1969.WhenFr.Hermanwascanonized,hisremainsweremovedtoHolyResurrectionChurchinKodiak.Sourcesforallhistoricphotographsarelistedinatableattheendofthissection(Figure4.13.11).

Figure4.13.2.ChapelatSpruceIsland,southside.



Figure4.13.3.Earlyphotographofchapelattachedtophotographofremodeledchapel.



Figure4.13.4.Fr.Gerasim'schapel(left)andcell(right).

Figure4.13.5.Fr.GerasimstandingonthebeachatMonksLagoon.



Figure4.13.6.Fr.Gerasim'schapel,1989.

Figure4.13.7.Fr.Gerasim'scell,1989.



Figure4.13.8.Fr.Gerasim'scellandgrave.

Figure4.13.9.Wellhouse,1989.



Figure4.13.10.Chapelbefore2004renovation.




Figure4.13.2

ChapelatSpruceIsland

MichaelZ.VinokouroffPhotographCollection,ca.1880’s-1970’s.PCA243.

PCA243.ASL_P243-2-206.


Figure4.13.3

ChapelatSpruceIsland


ASL-P243-2-208andasl-p243-2-208a


Figure4.13.4

Fr.Gerasim’scellandchapel


ASL-P243-2-191


Figure4.13.5

Fr.GerasimonSpruceIslandbeach


ASL-P243-2-204


Figure4.13.6

Fr.Gerasim’schapel 1989 JetLowe

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HABSAK-52

https://www.loc.gov/item/ak0275/

Figure4.13.7

Fr.Gerasim’scell 1989 JetLowe

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HABSAK-52


Figure4.13.8

Fr.Gerasim’scellandgrave 1989 JetLowe

LibraryofCongress

HABSAK-52


Figure4.13.9 Wellhouse 1989 JetLowe

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HABSAK-52


Figure4.13.10

Chapelbefore2004renovation 1989 JetLowe

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HABSAK-52





APRIL2015FIELDVISITSUMMARYTraveltothesitewasbyskifffromKodiak,butasubsequentbriefexplorationofthetrailtoOuzinkiesuggestedthatitisaviablealternateroute(Figure4.13.26).Thejourney,eitherbyseaorbyland,isanimportantaspectofpilgrimage,forthereisnoimmediateaccesstothissite.Thissetsitapartfromthevillageorurbansitesvisitedinthecourseofthisstudy.Hermitages,likemonasteries,arenotacommonfeatureofRussianOrthodoxyinAlaskaduringthestudyperiod,despiteconsiderableeffortexpendedtowardstheirestablishmentbyecclesiasticalauthorities.Thissitediffersfromothersitesvisitedinthatitstwomainunitsarevisuallyseparatedbythetalltreesthatsurroundthem(Fr.Gerasim’scell,privatechapelandwell,andthemainchapel).Inaddition,unlikevillageorurbansites,thiscomplexbearstheimprintoftwoindividualswhochosetowithdrawfromthesecularworld.Landingwasonabeachscatteredwithdriftwoodatthehightideline(Figure4.13.13).Outcropsfromthemainlandandasmallisletprotectthiscurvingcoveorlagoon(Figure4.13.12)fromtheopensea.Ournavigator,Fr.InnocentDresdow,RectorofHolyResurrectionChurchinKodiak,wasconcernedaboutincomingweatherandremainedonthebeachwiththeskiffwhilewevisitedthesite.Hisdog,obviouslyfamiliarwiththetrail,accompaniedusinland.Thebuildingsareapproximatelyaquartermileupfromthebeach,alongatrailsurroundedbytallsprucetrees.Mossiseverywhere.ThevisitorfirstreachesaclearingcontainingasmallchapelandFr.Gerasim’scellorsmallhouse(Figure4.13.13and14).ThischapelwasintendedforFr.Gerasim’sprivateuseandislocatedadjacenttohiscell.Ashortwalkawayisawellhouse(Figure4.13.18)thatcoverstheflowfromthecreek.Boardwalkslinkthehouse,thesmallchapelandthespring,aclusterofthreebuildings/structures(Figures4.13.18-20).OutsideFr.Gerasim’scellisasmallfencedareathatwaslikelyagarden(Figures4.13.16and17).Acircularmetalringoutsidethedomesticchapelservedasabell(Figure4.13.20).Fr.Gerasim’sgraveislocatedeast1ofthehouse,markedbyacrossandamonumentstone(Figure4.13.17and21).TotherightofhisgraveisthatofFr.PeterKreta,sonofFr.JosephKreta,2markedinasimilarfashion.Ashortwalkfurtherintotheforestleadstothechapel,whichissetonahighpointinaclearinginthewoods(Figures4.13.22and24).Duetolackofforesightonthepartof

1 East in this case means liturgical east, since we had no working compass with us. 2 Fr. Joseph Kreta, along with Alfred Mongin, prepared the original survey of the Russian Orthodox Churches of Alaska in 1977-79.



thestudyteam–forgettingtobringamagneticcompass–itwasnotpossibletodetermineorientationorevenspecificlat/longdatahere.ThechapelwasbuiltabovethegraveofFr.Herman,althoughsubsequentlyhisremainswereremovedtoKodiak(Figure4.13.23).Asidefromrenovationstothemainchapelandtheinstallationoftheexteriorbellplatform(Figure4.13.25),littleappearstohavechangedsincethe1989HABSphotographsweretaken.

Figure4.13.12.ApproachtoSpruceIslandbywater,April2015.

Figure4.13.13.LookingtowardsthewaterfromthebeachofSpruceIsland,April2015.



Figure4.13.14.TrailfromthebeachtoFr.Gerasim'schapel(left)andcell(right),April2015.

Figure4.13.15.Fr.Gerasim'schapel(left)andcell(right),April2015.



Figure4.13.16.Fr.Gerasim'scell,withfencedareainfront(likelyagarden),April2015.

Figure4.13.17.FencedenclosureattachedtoFr.Gerasim'scell,withFr.Gerasim'sgrave(left)andFr.PeterKreta'sgrave(right),April2015.



Figure4.13.18.Creekandwellhouse,April2015.

Figure4.13.19.BoardwalklinkingFr.Gerasim’schapelandcell,April2015.



Figure4.13.20.BoardwalkoutsideFr.Gerasim'schapelwithmetalring,April2015.



Figure4.13.21.Fr.Gerasim'sgrave,April2015.



Figure4.13.22.ThetrailtotheChapelofSaintsSergiusandHermanofValaamwithrenovatedporch,April2015.



Figure4.13.23.CrawlspaceunderthechapelwhereSt.Hermanwasburied.

Figure4.13.24.Eastendofthechapelwithbelltoweratright,April2015.



Figure4.13.25.Bellsattachedtorenovatedporch,April2015.



Figure4.13.26.ThetrailoverlandtoOuzinkie,April2015.

PART TWO

THE RUSSIAN BISHOP’S HOUSE

CHAPTER 5 HISTORIC CONTEXT CHAPTER 6 FIELD NOTES


340



Chapter5–TheBishop’sHouse:HistoricContext 341

THERUSSIANBISHOP’SHOUSEHISTORICCONTEXT

ReferencesforallhistoricimagescontainedinthischapterarelistedinFigure5.00.15.Noreproductionrightshavebeenacquiredforthesematerials,whichareincludedhereforreferenceonly.5.0BACKGROUNDAcquisitionoftheRussianBishop’sHousein1973providedtheNationalParkServicewithaninvaluableopportunitytointerpretthelongRussianpresenceinNorthAmericaforapubliclargelyunawareofit.As“thelastsurvivingintactrelicofImperialRussia’sAmericanempire,”theBishop’sHousehadthepotentialtogivevisitors“astepbackintime,totheimperialcolonialcapitalofRussianAmerica,intothequartersofoneofthemostpowerfulindividualsinthecolony,theBishopofKamchatka,theKurilesandtheAleutianIslands”(Suazo1990,455).Thehouse,oncerestored,could“illustratethespecialroleoftheRussianOrthodoxChurch,statereligionofImperialRussia,inthecolonies,andinRussiansociety.”Itcould“describewhy,onthefarthestedgeofempire,greatdetailandexpensewaslavishedonthe‘Bishop’sPalace’”(Suazo1990,456).Giventheapproachtohistoricpreservationinfashioninthe1970s,itisunderstandablewhytheNationalParkServiceoptedforrestorationofthebuildingtoaperiod–indeedtoayear–ofparticularsignificance:1853,theyearinwhichthebuilding,beguninlate1842,wascompletedasintendedandnecessaryrepairsmade(Carper1990,461).(Ironically,thiswasalsotheyearinwhichthebuilding’smostfamousresident,BishopInnocentVeniaminovleftforhisnewhomeinYakutsk,Siberia.)Asrestored,thebuilding–or,morespecifically,itsmainfloor–suggestsitsroleasaseatofauthority,projectingpowerafterthefashionofWilliamsburg’sreconstructedGovernor’sPalace.Butinthecourseitshistory,theBishop’sHousehasbeenbothmoreandlessthanaseatofauthority.Thebuildingitselfwasintendedasamulti-usefacility.Overthedecadesithasservedavarietyofpurposes–somesimultaneously,somesequentially.Attimesithasbeentheofficialresidence–thoughnotnecessarilythedwelling-place–ofabishop.Attimesithashousedparochialclergyandprovidedmeetingspaceforparishandcommunityfunctions.Attimesithashousedanorphanageorpastoralschoolorseminary.Attimesitsspareroomshavebeenrentedoutforavarietyofpurposes.ThehistoricfunctionsoftheBishop’sHouseconnectittoawiderlandscape–“landscape”hereunderstoodintermsnotonlytopographicalbutalsoinstitutionalandmetaphorical.ThehousereflectsthedevelopmentofOrthodoxchurchlifeonmultiple


Chapter5–TheBishop’sHouse:HistoricContext342

scales,fromthevastexpanseoftheRussianEmpire,totheUnitedStates,toAlaska,tothecityofSitka.5.1BISHOPINNOCENTVENIAMINOVANDTHEBISHOP’SHOUSEThefirstandbyfarthemostfamousbishoptooccupytheBishop’sHousewasInnocentVeniaminov.OrdainedasbishopofthenewlycreatedDioceseofKamchatka,theKurileandAleutianIslandsinSt.PetersburginDecember1840,hearrivedinSitkaattheendofSeptember1841,aftertravelingfromEuropeanRussiaoverlandviaIrkutsktoOkhotskandthencebyshiptoAlaska.HeandhisentourageofelevenwereinitiallyaccommodatedinRussian-AmericanCompany(RAC)housingwhiletheChiefManagerandGovernorArvidEtholenundertookaconstructiontaskthathehadnotanticipatedwhenhetookofficeinMay1840(ArndtandPierce2003,98).UpontheappointmentofBishopInnocent,theRAC’sMainOfficeinSt.PetersburginstructedEtholentobuildthenewbishopasmallhousewithroomforahouseholdchurch(ArndtandPierce2003,99,109,110).Etholenbeganconstructionofasignificantlylargerstructure.Perhapshedidsobecauseofhispersonalesteemforthenewbishop,whomhehadknownsincethelatter’syearsaspriestinSitka(1834-38)andhisownasassistanttoChiefManagerandGovernorWrangel(1830-35).Perhapsheassumedthatalargerstructurewouldaccommodatealldiocesanfunctionsandpersonnel(ArndtandPierce2003,99).Ifso,hewasmistaken.ByDecember1843thenewhousewasreadyforoccupancy,saveforexteriorsheathingandinteriorfinishing.BishopInnocentmovedin,alongwithhisadministrativeassistant,orcell-attendant(kellenik),sixteenofthetwenty-fivestudentsenrolledintheecclesiasticalschool(theotherslivedwithrelativesinSitka),thedeanofclergy(whodoubledassupervisoroftheschool),thehousesteward,alaybrother,andfourservants–twenty-fivepersonsinall(Arndt2004,4;ArndtandPierce2003,123-124).Afewdayslater,ontheanniversaryofhisepiscopalordination(December15),BishopInnocentconsecratedthehousehold(krestovaia,orstavropegial)ChurchoftheAnnunciation.Thehouse,inBishopInnocent’sestimation,was“initsarchitectureandintheconvenienceofthepremises....oneofthebest,soundest,andmostbeautifulstructuresinNovo-Arkhangel’sk”(No.101,January20,1844,lettertoOverprokuratorProtasov,Arndt2004,4).Hisfirstmonthsinitwereperhapshishappiest.WritingtoMetropolitanFilaretDrozdovinMoscow,heexpressedhisjoyathavingaHouseofGodinhisownhouse,andhedescribedoneofhisusesforthehouseholdchurch:hehadbeguntogivereligiousinstructiontoboysandgirlsnototherwiseenrolledinSitkaschools,girlsonTuesdays,boysonWednesdays(No.44,April5,1844,ArndtandPierce2003,144;Arndt2004,109).



5.2NEWPROJECTSINSITKAThehouse,thoughmagnificentforitstimeandplace,wouldnotsufficeforallofBishopInnocent’sneeds.InOctober1844,heinformedEtholenofordersfromtheHolySynodtoestablishafull-fledgedseminaryinSitkathatwouldconsolidateoperationsoftheecclesiasticalschoolinPetropavlovsk,Kamchatka,withthoseoftheecclesiasticalschooloperatingintheBishop’sHouse(ArndtandPierce2003,99-100).Withflaggingenthusiasmforecclesiasticalprojects,EtholeninitiatedconstructionoftheseminarybuildingonasitejusttotheeastoftheBishop’sHouse(wheretheBaranofElementarySchoolnowstands–seeFigure6.8).InalettertothehomeofficeoftheRAC,Etholenwasalreadyexpressingconcernaboutprovisioningdifficultiesthattheseminary’spresenceinSitkawouldcreate(No.416,May15,1845,ArndtandPierce2003,144).Heleftcompletionoftheconstructionprojecttohissuccessor,MikhailD.Teben’kov,whotookoverasChiefManagerandGovernorinAugust1845.Teben’kovwasevenlessenthusiasticabouttheprojectthanEtholenhadbeen.Constructiondraggedonforoverayear.UntilcompletionofthenewseminarybuildinginOctober1846,studentsandstafffromKamchatkajoinedstudentsandotherpersonnelintheBishop’sHouse.Thisbroughtthetotalnumberofstudentsto55,ofwhom22wereRussiansand33werecreolesornatives(Arndt2004,151).Fornearlyayeartheentiregroundfloorandoneroomofthemainfloorwereusedforseminarypurposes.ChiefManagerTeben’kovfacedanumberofproblems,andthepresenceofthediocesanseeinSitkawasoneofthem.Inadditiontotheseminarybuilding,BishopInnocentwasrequestinganewcathedral(eventhough,asTeben’kovcomplained,thepresentonehadbeenconstructedonlyin1831);anewchurchspecificallyfortheTlingit;andahouseforsomeofthelocalclergy.Thechurchwouldbepayingfortheseconstructionprojects,nottheRAC,butthechurchprojectswouldinevitablydivertmaterialsandworkersfromcompanyprojects(ArndtandPierce2003,136).Teben’kovwasalarmed.Sitka’spopulationwasgrowing,notwithable-bodiedcompanyemployeesbutratherwiththeinfirmanddisabled,withpensioners,withwidowsandtheirchildren,and–now–withequallyunproductiveecclesiastics(ArndtandPierce2003,136-137).ProvisioningalsowasbecomingmoredifficultandmoreexpensiveforSitkaresidents,asevenBishopInnocentattested:“Atourleastobstinacyatthemarketthereimmediatelymayarise,ifnotaquarrel,thenanargumentoverapieceofvenison;andthereforemanyofourpeople,andespeciallytheseminarians,receivefreshfoodonlywhenitisabundantorwhentherearenobuyers”(No.67,May1,1848,lettertoProtasov,Arndt2004,111).LossofgardenplotsontheoutskirtsoftowntoecclesiasticalbuildingswasoneofseveralgrievancesthatTeben’kovcommunicatedtotheMainOffice(No.256,May5,1846,ArndtandPierce2003,153).Afirststeptoremedyingthis,hesuggested,wouldbe“togetridoftheseminarybeingestablishedhereandthemultiplicationoftheclergy,ofwhomtherearenowalreadyaboutahundredinthecolonies,whileonemust



expectseveralmorefortheseminaryandforthestaffthebishopproposesforthecathedral”(No.396,May5,1846,ArndtandPierce2003,157).Alongthesamelines,Teben’kovurgedtheMainOffice

topetitiontheproperquartertomovethebishopric,duetoashortageofprovisions,fromNovo-Arkhangel’sk[Sitka]tosomeotherveryconvenientplacewhichcouldcorrespondtoitsdemands...andtoleaveinNovo-Arkhangel’sknomorethantwopriests,onestrictlyforNovo-Arkhangel’skandtheotherfortheunforeseencircumstancethatreplacementofapriestshouldbeneededsomewhereinthecolonies.Entrustmissionizing,too,tothesepriests,butmovethebishoprictoYakutsk,asoneofthebestandclosestplacesforitsconvenientexistence,becauseneitherthecoloniesnorKamchatkaisinapositiontofurnishitsuchconveniencesasitneeds(No.424,May5,1846,ArndtandPierce2003,162-163).

5.3RELATIONSWITHTHERUSSIAN-AMERICANCOMPANYAsTeben’kov’sletterssuggest,relationsbetweenBishopInnocentandtheRussianAmericanCompany,asrepresentedbyitsChiefManager,werenotalwaysharmonious.AsapriestinSitka,InnocenthadveryamiablerelationswithChiefManagerandGovernorWrangel,withwhomhesharedscientificandethnographicinterests.HealsohadverycordialrelationswithEtholen,whoamongotherthingswassupportiveofhisearlyplansforeducatingacadreofcreoleandnativeboysforchurchservice(No.244,May9,1842,EtholentoVeniaminov,ArndtandPierce2003,114).ButwhenEtholeninvitedBishopInnocenttomoveintohisnewhousein1843,certainquestionswerenotaddressed–amongthemquestionsconcerningownershipandmaintenanceofthehouse.InnocentassumedthatthehousewasintendedasadonationbytheRACtothechurch(No.185,November15,1845,lettertoProtasov,Arndt2004,11;andNo.359,September28,1845,lettertoTeben’kov,ArndtandPierce2003,148-149).That,however,wasnotthecase.AsTeben’kovcurtlyexplainedtothebishoptwoyearslater,theMainOfficehadtransferredthehousetohimforuseonly;ownershipwasretainedbythecompany(Arndt,2004,10;ArndtandPierce2003,148).SubsequentcorrespondencebetweenInnocentandTeben’kovonthismatterwaspolite,butjustbarely.Especiallyannoyingwasdeterminationoffinancialresponsibilityforrepairsandmaintenance.Thedisaccordbetweenthesetwomenwassymptomaticofanunderlyingissue.TheinterestsoftheRussian-AmericanCompanyandoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchdidnotalwayscoincide.Thecompanywasastate-charteredmonopolywithexclusiverightstothefurtradeandotherresourcesinAlaskaandadjacentmaritimeregions.LiketheDutchEastIndiesCompany,theHudson’sBayCompanyandcomparableentities,itexercisedquasi-governmentalpower.Butasajoint-stockcompany-Russia’sfirst–its



shareholdersandboardofdirectorsexpectedittoturnaprofitandavoidunnecessaryexpenses.Ontheotherhand,althoughitwasastateinstitutiontheRussianOrthodoxChurchhaditsowndistinctmissionthatreachedbeyondthehorizonsofshareholdersintheRACandeventhehorizonsoftheRussianstate.AsarticulatedbyBishopInnocentandhisassociates,thismissionincluded,asitshighestpriority,evangelizationofthenativepopulations,notjustserviceofthereligiousneedsofcompanypersonnelorpromotionofimperialRussianinterests.5.4THEBISHOP’STRAVELSAlthoughtheBishop’sHouseinSitkawasBishopInnocent’sofficialresidence,hespentmuchofhistimetravelingaroundhisfar-flungdiocese.ThisiswhatanOrthodoxbishopwasexpectedtodo.In1842hetookanunexpectedlyarduoustriptoKodiak(February11-April5);becauseofadverseweathertheoutboundvoyagetook35days.Amonthlater(May4),heleftSitkaforaninspectiontourofhisdiocesethatwouldtakehimtoUnga,Unalaska,thePribilofs,Atka,theCommanderandKurileislands,andKamchatka,wherehewinteredbeforereturningtoSitka(September6,1843).Hissecondtour,fromfall1844tosummer1845,againtookhimtoKamchatka,wherehearrangedforthetransferoftheecclesiasticalschoolatPetropavlovsktoSitka.Histhirdtour,devotedlargelytotheSiberianportionofhisdiocese,stretchedfromJuly1846toAugust1847.OnMay22,1848,BishopInnocentbeganaleisurelyvoyageonacompanysupplyshipthattookhimtoUnalaska,thePribilofs,andMikhailovskiiRedoubt(SaintMichael)onNortonSound.ThereheraisedhisoldfriendFr.JacobNetsvetovtotherankofarchpriestandordainedoneofhisassistants,InnokentiiShaiashnikov,tothepriesthoodforassignmenttoUnalaska.AfterareturntripthattookhimtotheChukchiPeninsulaandKodiak,BishopInnocentarrivedbackinSitkaonSeptember26.HewastherelongenoughtoconsecratethenewCathedralofSt.MichaeltheArchangelonNovember20,1848(thefeastdayofSt.MichaelandAllAngels),andtheTlingitChurchoftheHolyTrinity,alsosometimescalledtheChurchoftheHolyResurrection,onApril24,1849(thesecondTuesdayafterEaster,celebratedbytheRussianOrthodoxas“Radonitsa,”orDayofRejoicing,anddevotedtotheremembranceofthedeparted).ThebishopleftforyetanotherSiberiantouronMay15,1849,sailingfirsttoAian,Russia’snewportontheSeaofOkhotsk.FromtherehetouredanenlargeddioceseinEasternSiberia.OnreturningtoAian,helearnedthatonApril30,1850,theHolySynodhadraisedhimtotherankofarchbishopandthathisdiocesehadbeenenlargedstillmoretoincludeYakutia.AftertravelingtoYakutsk,wheretheMonasteryoftheSaviorwouldbecomehisnewhome,hereturnedtoSitkainfall1852,forwhatwouldbehislastsojournthere.1 1InnocenthadperhapsintendedtovisitAlaskaforonelasttimein1861,butaftersufferingshipwreckhemadehiswaytoJapan,wherehecelebratedserviceswiththegiftedmissionaryNicholasKasatkin,nowcanonizedasSt.NicholasEqual-to-the-Apostles,ArchbishopofJapan(Black1997,28).



5.5THECONSISTORYDuringBishopInnocent’slongabsencesfromSitka,muchoftheday-to-dayworkofthediocesefelltotheconsistory–abodycomprisedofseniordiocesanclergyservinginassignmentsinornearthebishop’scathedralandresidence.IntheRussianOrthodoxChurchinthe19thcentury,theconsistoryplayedamajorroleinactualadministrationofthediocese,maintainingitsrecords,managinglegalandfinancialaffairs,runningtheofficeinthebishop’sabsenceonpastoralvisitations,and–inemergencysituations–communicatingdirectlywiththeOverprocuratorandotherrepresentativesoftheRussianstate(e.g.,followingtheAlaskaCession,theRussianconsulate)(Freeze1983,27etpassim).ArchimandriteMisael,deanofclergy,initiallyheadedtheSitkaconsistory,butforreasonsofhealthhewassentbacktoRussiain1845.Hissuccessor,ArchpriestPeterLitvintsev,wasalreadywellacquaintedwithAlaska,havingservedonKodiakforfiveyearsbeforebeingtransferredtoSitkain1846.Inadditiontohisadministrativework,theenergeticLitvintsevservedasdeanofthetheologicalseminaryandmissionarytotheTlingituntilhisdeparturein1858,whentheseminarywastransferredtoYakutsk.An1867inventoryofmaterialsintheconsistoryofficeoftheBishop’sHouse-themany-volumeCompleteCollectionofLawsoftheRussianEmpireandsupplements,theZertsalo,2aportraitofthereigningEmperorAlexanderII,filingcabinets,sealsandstampsandwritingmaterials–suggeststhespecializednatureofmuchoftheconsistory’swork(Arndt2004,79-80).FortheecclesiasticalcultureoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchinthe19thcentury,asmoothlyrunningconsistorycouldbeasimportantasadedicatedandcaringbishop.IntheDioceseofKamchatka,theKurileandAleutianIslands,theconsistory’sresponsibilitiesincludedvariousmattersrelatingtotheBishop’sHouse.Amongotherthings,correspondenceforthebishophadeithertobeheldforhisarrivalorforwardedtohimasexpeditiouslyaspossible,becausehisapprovalwasnecessarybeforeproceedingonalmostanyissue.ThiscorrespondenceincludednotonlyrequestsandreportsfromclergybutalsoinvoicesandmemorandafromtheRACconcerningsuchmattersascapitalrepairs(splitbetweenchargesformaterialandchargesforlabor(Arndt2004,23),utilityexpenses(firewood,Arndt2004,70-74;candles,Arndt2004,70),andshippingcosts(Arndt2004,66-69).BishopInnocent’sannotationsoncorrespondencerelatingtosuchfinancialmattersrevealhiswillingness–perhapsevenhiseagerness-todisputecharges(Arndt2004,23-26,68-69,etpassim).Hereagain,sometensionisevidentinrelationsbetweenthe 2TheZertsalo-athree-sidedstandsurmountedbytheimperialeagleandbearingthreemajordecreesofEmperorPetertheGreat–wasastandardfeatureineveryRussiangovernmentoffice(Arndt2004,80n.27),



RussianOrthodoxChurch(asrepresentedbyBishopInnocentandhisconsistory)andtheRussianAmericanCompany(asrepresentedbyitsGeneralManagerandhisofficestaff).Thebishop’sannotationsalsorevealhisconcernforcarefulseparationofaccounts.Consistoryexpenses,seminaryexpenses,clergystaffing,salaries,housingandmaintenance:AllhadtofitwithinthecategoriesandlimitssetbytheHolySynodonthebasisofrecommendationsbytheOverprocuratorandasinterpretedandcommunicatedbythefinanceoffice(Freeze1983,passim).TheRussianOrthodoxChurch’sbureaucraticpracticeswereintendedtoinsureaccountabilityatalllevels.Thistheymayhavedone,buttheywereinefficient.ThisishardlysurprisinggivendifficultiesincommunicationwithdistantoutpostslikeAlaska.Theturn-aroundtimeforofficialrequestsandpetitionscouldbeseveralyears.Forexample,inaletterdatedSeptember22,1847,BishopInnocentpetitionedforreimbursementforvariousexpensesrelatedtotheBishop’sHouse,includingfurniturehepurchasedoutofhisownfundsinSt.Petersburgaroundthetimeofhisordinationasbishopin1840.TheHolySynodconsideredtherequestand,withampledetail,approvedspecificamountsforreimbursement.TheSynod’sdecisionwasthenconfirmedbyimperialdecree(ukaz)andtransmittedbytheHolySynodtoBishopInnocentinofficialformonAugust14,1848.Thebishop’sofficeinSitkamarkedthisdecree“received”onSeptember17,1849.MeanwhiletheOverprocuratorcommunicatedwiththeMinisterofFinanceconcerningdetailsofthefinancialtransfersauthorizedbythedecree.Thestatetreasury’sapprovalofthefinancialtransferswasofficiallyconfirmedbyanimperialdecree,withacopytransmittedbytheHolySynodtoBishopInnocentonJune30,1849.Thebishop’sofficeinSitkadutifullymarkedthiscopy“received”onJune30,1850(Arndt2004,16-17;cf.14and65).5.6CAPITALREPAIRSANDSPATIALREORGANIZATIONBishopInnocent’searliestplansfortheBishop’sHouseseemtohaveenvisioneditasasmallmonastery,withitsownchurchandanecclesiasticalschool/seminaryonthepremises–anarrangementthatwouldnothavebeenatallunusualinSiberiaorevenpartsofEuropeanRussiaintheearly19thcentury.Itschurchstaffinglevel,proposedbyhimin1842andsubsequentlyapprovedbytheHolySynod,calledfortwomonasticpriests,onemonasticdeacon,andthreenovices(Arndt2004,65).Mapsthereafterrefertothehouseas“themonastery”or“cloisterinthenameoftheAnnunciation”(ArndtandPierce2003,29,194).Ofcoursethehousehadneverbeenexclusivelymonastic,norwasitintendedtobe.Itdid,however,constituteasingleextendedhousehold,followingapatterncommonthroughoutEuropeinmedievalandearlymoderntimes.Studentsattheecclesiasticalschool,orthereafterattheseminary,attendedclasses,buttheyalsoengagedinwhatmightbecalledvocationaltraining(e.g.,readingandsinginginthehousechurch)andinpracticaltasksthatbuiltreal-worldskillsandbenefitedthehouseholdasawhole(e.g.,gardening,smallcraftnavigation,fishing,gatheringwood).



WhenBishopInnocentwaselevatedtotherankofarchbishopandsoonthereaftergivennewresponsibilitiesstretchingoverEasternSiberia,itwasclearthathe–theheadoftheecclesiasticalhousehold-wouldbespendingevenlesstimeinSitkathanheretofore.ThismadeinevitablecertainchangesintheallocationofspacewithintheBishop’sHouse.InaSeptember4,1850,letterprobablysentfromAian,now-ArchbishopInnocentpresentedArchpriestPeterLitvintsevwithalonglistofcapitalrepairsneededontheBishop’sHouse.Theseincludedre-roofing;adjustmentoffloors,doorsandwindowstoaccommodatesettlingofthestructure;layingofnewstoves;re-siding;andrefurbishmentofinteriorwallpaperandpaint.Thelistalsorequestedreconfigurationofspaceonbothfloors,though“theupperfloorcanremainasitis”ifworkersareinshortsupply.“TheAdministration[consistory]canbemovedupstairsandforittwowindowscanbepartitionedofffromthelivingroom[receptionroom];downstairsthereremainsfortheArchbishopasmallplaceforakitchenandpantry,butotherwiseall[rooms]areforthequartersofthepriests,[just]sothatthereisnosleepingroomunderthealtarandsothattheentrancestomyroomswillbeseparated,wherepossible,fromthepriests”(Arndt2004,20).Fr.LitvintsevreportedthislettertothefullconsistoryonFebruary13,1851,anditssubstancewascommunicatedtoChiefManagerRozenbergonMarch28(Arndt2004,20-21).Delaysincompletingthesecapitalrepairswereonlytobeexpected,butRozenberg,writingtothehomeoffice,declaredhisintentiontohavetheBishop’sHouserepairsdonesothat“itwouldbepossibletoliveinitbythetimeofHisGrace’sarrivalfromKamchatka”(ArndtandPierce2003,208).Intheend,theupperfloorremainedunchanged,savethattheconsistorymovedintotheroomformerlyoccupiedbythebishop’ssecretary/personalassistant(kellenik).Thissparedthelivingroomfrompartitionwhilestillallowing,withminimalalteration,morespaceforaccommodationofclergyonthelowerlevel.ButbeforeHisGracearrived(ayearlaterthanpreviouslyanticipated),andbeforetheclergyfamiliescouldmovein,thelowerlevelofthehousewastemporarilyoccupiedbysurpriseguests.TheRussiannavalcorvetteOlivutsawinteredinSitkaNovember1851–April1852.BecauseofthescarcityofhousinginSitka,thecommandingofficer,hissecond-in-commandandtheirthreeservantswerelodgedonthelowerflooroftheBishop’sHouse.Onehundredtenofhiscrewwereputupinspaceotherwiseoccupiedbycompany’sschoolforboys,andthedisplacedschoolboys,alongwiththeirsupervisorandhisfamily,forty-fourpersonsinall,wereshiftedtotheremaininglowerfloorroomsoftheBishop’sHouse(Arndt2004,22).Itisnotsurprisingthat,afterthedepartureoftheOlivutsa,thewholelowerfloorhadtoberepaintedbeforetheclergyandtheirfamiliescouldmovein(ArndtandPierce2003,225).



5.7TRANSFEROFAUTHORITYTOTHERUSSIAN-AMERICANCOMPANYDuringhisfinalmonthsinSitka,ArchbishopInnocentbadefarewelltohisclergyandfaithfulandpreparedfordeparturetohisnewhomeinYakutsk.InaMay15,1853,lettertoActingChiefManagerRudakov,hetransferredtheBishop’sHouse–andresponsibilityforitsfurthermaintenance–totheRAC.Intheletterheexplainshow,inviewofthehousingshortageinSitka,hesoughtandreceivedtheHolySynod’spermissiontogivelodginginthehousetosomemembersofthecathedralclergywhoaremarriedandhavefamilies.“Inconsequence,”hecontinues,“threefamiliesarenowhousedinitandonmydeparturemorecanbeaccommodated.IntendingtoleavenowforAianforanundeterminedperiodandperhapsforaverylongtime,IconsideritforthebestandfairtotransfertotheauthorityandfulldisposalofthecolonialauthoritiesthehouseInowoccupy,asthecompany’sproperty,untilmypossiblereturn,andthennotbeyond1855.(Idonotmentionthechurch,whichundoubtedlywillremaininviolable).”(No.604,May15,1853,ArndtandPierce2003,229-230)Laterthesameday,InnocentdepartedforAianontheNikolaiI,newestofRussia’sround-the-worldsteamers.Aninventorydrawnupsoonafterhisdeparturedescribesthehouse,itsfittingsandcontentinsomedetail,distinguishingclearly–asthearchbishophadinsisted–betweenitemsthatwereprocuredwithchurchfundsanditemsthatwereinthehousewhenhemovedinandhencecompanyproperty(Arndt2004,26-29).Fornowatleast,allotmentofspacewithinthehouseremainedasitwaswhenthearchbishopleftforYakutsk:ontheupperfloor,sevenrooms,withthechurchinoneofthem,theconsistoryofficeinanother,andtheremainingfiveleftforoccupationbythearchbishop;onthelowerfloor,eightrooms,oneofthemthekitchenandtheothersforclergyhousing(Arndt2004,26).Fornowalso,theseminaryremainedinSitka,initsnearlynewbuildingjustnorthoftheBishop’sHouse.Thatchangedin1858,when–atlast-thearchdiocesanseewasofficiallytransferredtoYakutsk.Theseminarywasrelocatedthereatthesametime,andtheformerseminarybuildinginSitkawasconvertedintothecompanyhospital(Blee1990,407-408;Fortuine1989,129-130).AftertheAlaskaCessionthebuildingremainedahospitaluntilthewithdrawaloftheU.S.Armyin1877.Abandonedfortwoyears,itwastakenoverbytheNavyin1879andrehabilitatedsufficientlytoturnovertothePresbyteriansforuseasaschool.Itburneddownin1882(Fortuine1989,141-147;Nestor1993,341).5.8THENOVO-ARKHANGEL’SKVICARIATEUponArchbishopInnocent’sdeparturein1853,theconsistoryinSitkawasauthorizedtoopenandpassonreportsofAlaskanpriestsinhisabsence,butthiswasintendedsimplyasatemporarymeasure.Followingtheofficialtransferofthediocesanseeand



seminarytoSiberiain1858,ArchbishopInnocentpetitionedtheHolySynodforappointmentofauxiliary,orvicarbishops,tohelphimcareforhisvastdiocese,oneforAlaskaandoneforYakutia.ChosenfortheAlaskavicariatewasArchimandritePeter(Petr)Lysakov,orEkaterinovksii,whohadbeeninchargeofthemoveoftheseminaryfromSitkatoYakutsk(ordainedtotheepiscopateMarch1859).ChosenfortheYakutskvicariatewasawidowedpriest,PeterPopov,whotookPaul(Pavel)ashismonasticandepiscopalname(ordainedtotheepiscopateMarch1860). BishopPeterprovedadisappointmenttoArchbishopInnocent.DuringhistimeinAlaskaheshowednoneofthezealformissionandpastoralflexibilitythatthepositiondemanded.Inlate1866hewasrecalledtoYakutsktoreplaceBishopPaulasvicarbishopofYakutsk,apostthatheheldbutbrieflybeforewithdrawingtoamonastery.AtthesametimeBishopPaulwassenttoAlaskaasvicarbishopofNovo-Arkhangel’sk/Sitka.Givenbothhisbackgroundandhissubsequentecclesiasticalcareerasamission-mindedarchbishopinSiberia,BishopPaulwouldhavebeentemperamentallywellsuitedforserviceinAlaska.Buthearrivedtofacearadicallydifferentpoliticalandculturalcontextthanhehadanticipated,asAlaskawasbeingsoldtotheUnitedStates(treatyMarch18/30,1867,formaltransferOctober18,1867).ThedemographicsofAlaska,andespeciallyofSitka,werechangingrapidly(Kan1999,176-181).

Withthetransferofsovereignty,SitkawasoverrunbyAmericanstoadegreenotexperiencedelsewhereinAlaska–bytheoccupyingU.S.army,bymerchants,bygold-seekersandsoldiersoffortune.FortheresidentRussianandcreolepopulation,thiswasatimeofdislocationandinsecurity.IntheBishop’sHouse,forexample,thereweredebatesoverhowbesttosafeguardthestrongboxcontainingdiocesancashonhand(Arndt2004,49andfollowing).ManyRussians–includingmanyoftheclergy–choserepatriationtoRussia.ThethreenorthernmissionstationsestablishedbyBishopInnocentwereleftwithoutpriests.HieromonkNikolaiMilitov(Kenai)hasbeentransferredtoSitkain1865,butwasreassignedtoKenaiin1866,wherehediedin1967.HieromonksFeofilUspenskii(Nushagak)andIlarionPeremezhko(Ikogmiut/RussianMission)wererecalledtoSitkain1868inanticipationoftheirreturntoRussia.BishopPauldepartedforRussiathefollowingyear.Hisdeanofclergy,ArchpriestPaul(Pavel)Kedrolivanskii,leftAlaskaalso,butforSanFrancisco,whichwouldbecomethenewdiocesanseedefactoin1870(SeeFigure5.00.1).

Figure5.00.1.ArchpriestPaulKedrolivanskii,VicarBishopPaulPopovandformerNushagakmissionaryArchimandriteFeofilUspenskii,infrontoftheBishop'sHouse,1868.



AfterdepartureofthelastpriestassignedtotheAnnunciationChurchintheBishop’sHousein1867,staffingtherefelltoonereaderandonesacristan(Arndt2004,101),whowereprovisionallyaggregatedtothecathedralstaff.In1874thischangeinstaffingbecameofficial(ibid.).HenceforthstaffclergyfromthecathedralwouldserveatAnnunciation–butforoveradecadetheydidsoonlyinfrequently,“inthewintertime,”or“onceortwiceperyear,”or“severaltimesperyear”(Arndt2004,101-103).5.9THEDIOCESEOFTHEALEUTIANSANDALASKA IntheintervalfromArchbishopInnocent’sdeparturein1853throughtheAlaskaCession,spatialorganizationoftheBishop’sHouseremainedbasicallyunchanged,withclergyandtheirfamiliesoccupyingthelowerfloor(Arndt2004,98-100).Litvintsev’ssuccessorasdeanofclergyandchiefmemberoftheconsistorywasGeorgii(Egor)Vinokurov.HiswifeandgrowingfamilylivedwithhimintheBishop’sHouseuntilherdeathinchildbirththerein1863;shewasburiedwiththeinfantneartheTrinityChurch(Pierce1990,528).Afterherdeath,Fr.VinokurovandtwosurvivingsonsreturnedtoYakutsk,andFr.PaulKedrolivanskiiwasassignedtoreplacehim.InJanuary1864,hearrivedinSitkawithhisyoungwifeandtwolittlechildrenandmovedintotheapartmentformerlyoccupiedbytheVinokurovfamily(Pierce1990,225).HewouldcontinueinthesameimportantpositionfollowingtheAlaskaCession,movingalongwiththediocesanseefromSitkatoSanFrancisco.InthewakeoftheCession,spatialarrangementsintheBishop’sHousechanged,astheecclesiasticalstatusoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchinAlaskaalsochanged.BishopPaul,likeBishopPeterbeforehim,hadbeenavicarbishopsubordinatetoarulingdiocesanarchbishopinSiberia–anawkwardarrangementafterthetransferofsovereigntytotheUnitedStates.Toaccommodatethisnewsituation,theHolySynodcreatedaseparatenewDioceseoftheAleutiansandAlaska.BishopPaulwasrecalledtoRussia,andanewbishop,John(Ioann)Mitropol’skii,wasassignedtothenewdiocese,arrivingintheUnitedStatesinAugust1870.BishopJohndidnotplantakeuppermanentresidenceintheBishop’sHouseinSitka.Hisplan–andnodoubtthatofhissuperiorsinRussia-wasrelocationofthediocesanheadquarterstoSanFrancisco.ThatburgeoningcenterofcommerceandfinancewashometoagrowingOrthodoxcommunityofRussians,GreeksandSerbs.WiththesupportoftheresidentRussianconsul-general,anOrthodoxChurchhadbeenestablishedtherein1868,itsclergysentfromSitka.Inaddition,SanFranciscowasamajortransportationhub,linkingPacificrimportswiththeeasternUnitedStates.Withcompletionofthefirsttranscontinentaltelegraphlinein1861,thefirstsuccessfultransatlanticcablein1866,andthefirsttranscontinentalrailroadin1869,communicationwithSt.PetersburgandotherglobalcapitalswasincomparablyeasierandfasterfromSanFranciscothanfromSitka.



SoonafterhisarrivalinSitkainlatesummer1870,BishopJohnsentFr.KedrolivanskiitoSanFranciscowithtwocreoleassistantsandseveraltrunksofconsistorybaggage,tobeginreorganizingdiocesanadministration(Kapalin2009,304n.1203).InJanuary1871hepetitionedtheHolySynodforachangeofthediocesanseetothatcity(Kapalin2009,304n.1205).AndonApril28,1873,hehimselftookshipforSanFrancisco(Arndt2004,50).JoininghisextendedhouseholdwerestudentsfromtheerstwhileSitkaecclesiasticalschool.BishopJohn’ssubsequentvisitstoAlaskawereseasonalandgenerallyofshortduration.HeenjoyedlifeinSanFrancisco.UnfortunatelyBishopJohn’stenurewasmarkedscandalssoseriousthat,whentheywerebroughttotheattentionoftheHolySynod,aspecialinvestigativecommitteewasformed.BishopJohnwasrecalledtoRussiain1876.Hisofficialtransfertoaninsignificantdeskjobbecameofficialthefollowingyear.AlsosingledoutforreturntoRussiaweretwoprominentmembersoftheconsistory,PriestNicholasKovrigin(forflagrantadultery)andArchpriestPaulKedrolivanskii(fordealingincontrabandandsuspectedfinancialmisconduct)(ImperialDecree/Ukaz,April20,1877,Englishtranslationhttp://www.holy-trinity.org/history/1877/05.27-Synod.html).Beforeactionagainstthelattercouldproceed,however,hediedundermysteriouscircumstances,apparentlyblack-jackedonaSanFranciscostreet,in1878(Emmons1997,7-8).5.10ANEWBISHOPFORTHEDIOCESEThebishop-less“widowed”DioceseoftheAleutianIslandsandAlaskawasnotabolished,thoughthatpossibilityappearstohavebeendiscussedbytheHolySynod.Itwas,however,placedtemporarilyunderthesupervisionofthemetropolitanofSt.Petersburguntilanewbishopcouldbechosen.Senttostraightenoutaffairsinthediocese,asdeanofclergyandrankingmemberoftheAlaskaconsistory,wasArchpriestVladimirVechtomov.Fromhisarrivalin1878tohisdepartureinAugust1888,heprovidedanelementofstabilityinadioceseverymuchinneedofafirmguidinghand.Thiswasnotaneasytask.Thenextbishop,NestorZass,orZakkis,thoughaltogetherdifferentfromhispredecessorinprioritiesandcharacter,wouldbeequallydifficulttomanage.ThebackgroundofBishopNestorwasunusualforaRussianbishopofthisperiod.Hisfamilybackgroundwasgentry,notclergy,andhelackedtheusualeducationalpreparationofcareerecclesiastics.Hisearlyprofessionalcareerwasinthenavy,andafterhewastonsuredasamonkandordainedtothepriesthood,hereturnedtonavalserviceasachaplain.Alongthewayhebecamefluentinseverallanguages(French,English,German)anddevelopedaninterestinlinguisticsandethnology,whichmayaccountforhisappointmenttothevacantseeoftheDioceseoftheAleutiansandAlaska.OrdainedasabishopinDecember1878,hearrivedininSanFranciscothefollowingspring.Duringhisbriefadministration,thedioceseacquiredapermanenthome–athree-storyhouseinSanFranciscothatprovidedsufficientspaceforachurch,



offices,aresidenceforthebishop,and–inthebasementlevel–anecclesiasticalschoolorseminary.Unfortunatelythenewbishophadlittleaptitudeforpersonnelmanagement,ecclesiasticalofficeprocedure,orbusinessandfinance.Evenacquisitionofthenewbishop’shouse–possiblyataninflatedprice(Nestor1993,240)–wasfacilitatedbytheRussianVice-Consul,GustaveNiebaum,aformeremployeeoftheRussianAmericanCompanybutnowanAmericancitizenandoneofthedirectorsofthepowerfulAlaskaCommercialCompany(ACC).NiebaumandtheACCwerealsoinstrumentalinanotherofBishopNestor’sbuildingprojects:ConstructionofnewclergyhousesandotherchurchfacilitiesinAlaska.Followinghispastoralvisitinsummer1880,BishopNestorwrotetotheHolySynodabouttheurgentneedforrepairstoclergyhousinginIkogmiut/RussianMissionandSitkaandfornewconstructioninNushagak,Kenai,KodiakandUnalaska.HesingledoutUnalaskaforspecialattention.BecauseofitsconvenientlocationonmajorshippinglanesbetweenSanFranciscoandAlaskanportsofcall,premisesforthebishopshouldbebuilttheretoserveashisbaseofoperationsduringpastoralvisits.(SeeFigure5.00.2,whichillustratesthecentralpositionoccupiedbyUnalaskainlate19th-centurymaritimetraffic.)BishopNestoralsopresenteddetailedplansforestablishmentofanewecclesiasticalschoolinUnalaskaspecificallyforAlaskanativesandcontracted–againthroughNiebaum–fortheconstructionofasuitablebuilding.AccompanyinghisletterstotheHolySynodwasacopyofacontractthatheenteredintowithNiebaum,whowastoarrangewiththeACCformaterials,shippingandconstruction.TheHolySynod,perhapsreluctantly,agreedafterthefacttowhatturnedouttobeanexpensivedeal.LiketheRussian-AmericanCompanybeforeit,theACCwasnotoperatingacharity.Niebaumandhisassociatescultivatedgoodrelationswithprominentchurchmen,andmanyprominentchurchmencultivatedgoodrelationswiththem,butoneshouldnotassumethataltruismmotivatedeitherparty.BishopNestor’seffortstostrengthentheRussianOrthodoxmissionamongthenativepeoplescontinuedduringhissecondpastoralvisittoAlaska.ThistookhimtotheYup’ikregionsoftheYukonandKuskokwim.There–inadesiretoshareinthelifeofthepeople–hedecidedtowinteratIkogmiut/RussianMission.Alertedtothisintention,Fr.VechtomovnotifiedtheRussianconsulate.Butthen,BishopNestorsuddenlydecidedtoreturntoSanFrancisco.Aroundthistime,personnelatSaintMichaelandonboardshipnotedchangesinhisdemeanor.Hiscomplaintsofneuralgiabecamemoreinsistent.OnthemorningofJune30,1882,accordingtomultipletestimonies,heapparentlythrewhimselffromtheshipoutwardboundfromSaintMichaelandperished–thoughpersistentrumorsattributedhisdeathtotheACC.Hisbodywasrecoveredsomedayslaterandeventuallyinterred,ashehaddesired,inUnalaska.ItwasleftlargelytoFr.VechtomovinSanFranciscotosortoutalltheramificationsofthebishop’sdemise.



Figure5.00.2.ShippingroutesshowingtravelsofBishopNikolaiZiorovin1897,illustratingthecentralpositionofUnalaskafortravelsaroundAlaska(GrapachevskiiinROAM2[1897-1898]).

Eventuallythevariousbillsweresettled,andconstructionofthebishop’shouseandschoolbuildinginUnalaskaandtheclergyhousesinNushagak,KodiakandKenaiwascompletedoverthenextfewyears.(SeeFigures4.09.924and28andFigures4.11.13,16,18,23and24.)Ofthese,thebishop’shouseinUnalaskaandtheclergyhouseinKenaiarestillstandingandlistedontheNationalRegister.AlthoughBishopNestordidnotlivetooccupythehouseinUnalaska,hisinterestinwesternAlaskaandtheAleutiansisreflectedininstitutionaldevelopmentswithintheDioceseoftheAleutiansandAlaskaduringthelate19thandearly20thcentury.In1893Alaskawasdividedintotwodeaneries(administrativedistrictswithinadioceseunderthesupervisionofadistrictdean),onebasedinSitkaandtheotherinUnalaska.Thehistoryofthesetwochurches,henceforthnominallyequalinstatus,willbeverysimilarforoveradecade.



5.11FROMBISHOP’SHOUSETOSITKAARCHPRIEST’SRESIDENCE(Kan1999andKan2013a)DuringthedecadesthatfollowedtransferofthediocesanseetoSanFrancisco,thefateoftheBishop’sHouseinSitkaremainedcloselylinkedtoinstitutionaldevelopmentsthroughouttheDioceseoftheAleutiansandAlaskaforseveralreasons.OnewastheriseofUnalaskaasaregionalecclesiasticalcenter.AnotherwascontinuinginstabilityinSitka.AmongthepersonnelaccompanyingBishopJohnMitropol’skiitotheUnitedStateswashisyoungerbrother,Nicholas(Nikolai)EgorovichMitropol’skii.Likehisbrother,asthesonofaclergyhouseholdhewasmarkedfromchildhoodforanecclesiasticalcareer.InRussiahehadgraduatedwithhonorsfromseminary,andonceinAmerica,aftermarriagetoMariaKashevarov,daughterofaKodiakpriest,hewasordaineddeaconandpriest.In1875,ashisbrother’srecalltoRussiawaslooming,hewastransferredfromSanFranciscotoSt.Michael’sCathedralinSitka.InSitka,whichwasstilladjustingtoAmericanrule,Fr.Mitropol’skiidevotedhimselftogainingrespectabilityfortheRussianandcreoleelement,initiallygivinglittleattentiontofurtherevangelizationoftheTlingit.Hewasactiveinpoliticsandelectedtothecitycouncil.Heandhiswifeenjoyedanactivesociallife,gavemasqueradesandballsinthereceptionroomoftheBishop’sHouse,andtransformeditsunkemptfrontyardintoacroquetcourt(StepanUshin’sDiaryforJuly18,1884,30).Mitropol’skiieventuallyranintofinancialdifficulties.HisletterstoBishopNestorarefilledwithexcusesforvariousreportingerrors(Nestor1993,263-264)andwithevasionsaboutpersonaldebtsthathehadrungupwiththelocalNorthwestTradingCompanyagent,L.Kaplan(Nestor1993,306,309,312,330-331).BishopNestorinitiallyhadbeenfavorablydisposedtowardMitropol’skii,amongotherthingsservingasgodfatherforhisyoungestson,butbytheendof1881evenhehadtoputhisfootdown.HeturnedtheissueofMitropol’skii’sdebtsovertotheconsistoryinSanFranciscoforfurtherinvestigation(Nestor1993,329).Meanwhilecivilprocedurewasmovingforward.TheNorthwestTradingCompanybroughtcourtproceedingsagainstMitropol’skiiinMarch1885.TheerrantpriesthadusedSt.Michael’sCathedralassecurityforhispersonallineofcreditwiththecompany,andlaterthatyearthecathedralwassequesteredandcloseduntilMitropol’skii’slargedebtwaspaidoff.ThisfinancialscandalmarkedtheendofMitropol’skii’stenureinSitka.OnSeptember15,1885,heandhisfamilytookshipforSanFrancisco.SubsequentlyhewasdemotedtothepositionofKenaimissionarypriest(1888-1892),butthroughhisgoodserviceinthatpositionheredeemedhistatteredreputation(Znamenski2003,19-20)andeventuallygainedappointmenttoBelkovski(1892-1894),thenattheheightofitsprosperity.



ThatFr.Mitropol’skii–andthecathedral–werebailedoutwaslargelyduetoarisingyoungcreolebusinessman,SergeiIonavichKostromitinov(1854-1915,seeFigure5.00.3).Kostromitinov–asSergeiKanputsit–used“hisculturalcapital—thatis,specialtypesofknowledgeandauniquepositionwithinthecommunity—toplayan

indispensableroleasaculturalbrokeronthemultiethnic/multiculturalAmerican/Russian/NativeAlaskanfrontier”(Kan2013a,388).In1885KostromitinovwasalreadyonhiswaytobecomingAlaska’smostdistinguishedRussianAmericancitizen.HiswifeNataliaalsohappenedtobeasisterofFr.Mitropol’skii’swifeMaria–bothpartofAlaska’smostprominentcreoleecclesiasticalfamily,theKashevarovs.3KostromitinovwouldbealifelongbenefactorofSt.Michael’sCathedral,becomingalsoitspriestin1910.FollowingtheremovalofFr.Mitropol’skii,Fr.VladimirVechtomovwassentfromSanFranciscotoserveinSitkaonaninterimbasisandtoassessallaspectsofthechurchsituationthere.HearrivedinMarch1886andstayedscarcelyonemonth,butheaccomplishedagreatdeal.OneofhisfirstactswastoappointSergeiKostromitinovaschurchwarden(starosta),apositionthatKostromitinovwouldholduntilhisordinationin1910.

Duringhisspring1886sojourninSitka,Fr.Vechtomovaddressedtwomajorissues:(1)TheconditionoftheBishop’sHouseandotherchurchproperties.(2)Thestateofthechurch’smissiontotheTlingit.5.12THE1887RENOVATIONPROJECTWhenFr.Vechtomovarrived,theSitkachurchownedfourhouses,allinastateofdisrepair,ofwhichtheBishop’sHousewasbyfarthelargestandmostsignificant.Alreadyin1880Fr.Mitropol’skiihadreportedtotheconsistoryonitsruinousstate.Atthetimeherecommendedconvertingittoasinglestorybuilding,andheenclosedhisownproposedplansandestimates–noneveryprecise(Arndt2004,34).Mitropol’skii’sreportprovokedaseriesaqueriesfromtheconsistoryandeventuallyordersfromSt.PetersburgthatmandatedathoroughinspectionofallchurchhousinginSitkabeforeanyactioncouldbeapproved(Arndt2004,35).TheconditionofthehousedeterioratedfurtherfollowingsevererainstormsinOctober1884.These–asFr.Mitropol’skii

3OntheyoungestoftheKashevarovsiblings,Fr.AndrewKashevarov,seeabove,Chapter3.11.5.

Figure5.00.3.SergeiIonovichKostromitinov(1854-1915),long-timechurchwarden(starosta)ofSt.Michael'sCathedral.



reported-resultedinseriouswaterdamageonbothfloorsofthebuilding,particularlyinthealtarareaoftheAnnunciationhousechurch,renderingitunusable(Arndt2004,37).Afteracompleteexaminationofthebuilding,Fr.Vechtomovandthechurchcommitteeconsultedwithalocalbuilder,W.J.Prout,andgotadetailedestimatefornecessaryrepairsandrenovation,includinganewshinglerooftoreplacetheleakyironone;replacementofrottedlogsasnecessary;reconstructionofthegalleriesonbothsidesofthehouse;repairorreplacementofwindows;newweatherboarding;installationofguttersanddownspoutsleadingtodrainageditching;constructionoftwopriviesbehindthehouse;alteredplacementofdoorstothechapelandtooneofthekitchens;repairofceilings,doors,fireplaces,etc.;andpaintingoftheexteriorandofsecond-storyfloors(Arndt2004,39).WhatensuedsuggestssomeofthefrustrationsthatfacedconscientiousbureaucratslikeFr.Vechtomovinthe19th-centuryRussianOrthodoxChurch.OnreturningtoSanFranciscoinApril,VechtomovsubmittedarequesttoSt.PetersburgforauthorizationtoproceedwithrepairsontheBishop’sHouse,attachingProut’sdetailedestimateofcosts.InreplySt.PetersburgcomplainedthattheconstructionspecsandestimatewerenotsubmittedinRussianandthatthefairnessofthequotedpriceshadnotbeenverifiedbyagovernmentofficial.Inhisresponse,VechtomovexplainedthatthebuilderdidnotknowRussian,thatnoonecouldbefoundwhocouldtranslatehistechnicalconstructiontermsintoRussian,andthatinSitkanosuchofficialsexist(Arndt2004,42).Butbeforefurtherofficialactioncouldbetaken,theSitkaclergyinformedVechtomovandtheconsistoryinSanFranciscoofmoredamagebecauseofroofleaksthroughoutthehouse.VechtomovundertooktheextrememeasureofsendingatelegramtoOverprokuratorConstantinePobedonostsevonthesubject(October22),towhichPobedonostsevrepliedimmediately:“repaircathedralhouseinstantlyyourselfSitkaNovember”(Arndt2004,42).BythetimeVechtomovarrivedbackinSitka,Mr.Proutwasnolongeravailableforthejob,butfortunatelyVechtomovfoundareplacement,Mr.PeterCallsen(Arndt2004,44).Morenegotiationsensued.ThesewerecomplicatedbyaJanuary1887petitionoftheSitkacathedralclergytotheHolySynodforclosureoftheAnnunciationhousechurchinordertoutilizethespaceforaschool.WiththeopeningofaschoolfortheTlingitinMarch1886-theyargued-thereisnoroomonthelowerfloorofthehouselargeenoughtoaccommodateitsenrollment,noristherereallyaneedforthechurchgiventheproximityofthecathedral.Inasmuchastheanticipatedrenovationofthehousewillrequiremovingthechurchaltaranyway,wouldthisnotbeanopportunetimetomakethisadditionalchangeinplans?(Arndt2004,46)AfavorableresponsefromtheHolySynodeventuallyreachedSitkainearlySeptember1887(Arndt2004,48),butbythennewarrangementsforschoolspacehadbeenmade.Thewalldividingtwoofthelower-floorroomswasremovedtocreateaspacelargeenoughfortheschool.



Bytheendofthe1887renovationproject,theBishop’sHousehadassumedtheformandlayoutthatitwouldretain,withonlyminorchangesuntiltheNPSrestorationofthe1970s.TheAnnunciationChurchwasleftinplace,perhapsbecausesomeimportantpeopleintheSitkacommunityhadnotfavoreditsclosure.Beginningin1888,annualSitkaparishrecordsbegintoreportservicesbeingheldthere“often”or“ratheroften”(Arndt2004,103),andinthe1891recordwelearnthat“thischurchwasputintosplendidconditionbytheelder[starosta]oftheSitkachurchSergeiIonovichKostromitinovathispersonalexpense”(Arndt2004,104).5.13MASSIVECONVERSIONOFTHETLINGITTOORTHODOXY(Kan1999,245-248)ThesecondmajorissuefacingFr.VladimirVechtomovinSitkawasthestateoftheTlingitmission.AlreadydecliningunderVicarBishopPeterduringthelastyearsofRussianrule,effortstoevangelizetheTlingitwerepracticallyabandonedfollowingtheCession,althoughtherehadbeenaslightresurgenceduringthefinalyearsofFr.NicholasMitropol’skii’stenureinSitka.ThiswasduepartlytothechallengeposedbythenewPresbyterianboardingschoolinSitka,whichforabrieftimewaslocatednextdoortotheBishop’sHouse,andpartlytotheappointmentofanewreaderforthecathedralparish,JovanDabovich,whobeganconductingSundayafternoonreligiousinstructionclassesfortheTlingitin1885–thefirstsuchclassesinnearlytwodecades.4WiththearrivalFr.Vechtomov,Tlingitconversionaccelerated.InhisbrieftimeinSitka,inadditiontonegotiatingthereopeningoftheparishschool,hebaptized52persons,includingtwoheadsofmajorclans.SergeiKanexplainsthesimplebutprofoundreasonforVechtomov’ssuccess:“ForthefirsttimesincethedaysoftheRAC[Russian-AmericanCompany],anOrthodoxclergyman‘showedrespect’totheTlingitbyvisitingtheirhomesandtakingtimetospeakwiththem”(Kan1999,247).KanalsoexplainsoneofthereasonswhyleadingmembersoftheTlingitcommunitychosetojointheOrthodoxChurchratherthanthepoliticallymorepowerfulPresbyterians:“...fromtheirpointofview,thebenefitsofsuchanalliancewerenot‘political’intheWesternsensebutdidbringtheneophytesspiritualpowerandblessing....ThusduringthecelebrationofthefeastdayoftheAnnunciation,whichin1886tookplacesoonafterthetwoclanleadersconverted,theIndianvillagewassymbolicallylinkedwiththe‘RussianTown’whenatraditionalreligiousprocessionincludedtheformerinitsroute”(Kan1999,248).(SeeFigure4.11.19.)FollowingFr.Vechtomov’sdeparturefromSitka,theconsistoryinSanFranciscosentanenergeticyoungpriestfromRussia,Fr.VladimirDonskoi.EducatedattheIrkutsk

4JovanDabovich,ayoungSerbianAmericanwithintheDioceseoftheAleutiansandAlaska,laterwouldassumethemonasticnameofSebastianandgoontoadistinguishedecclesiasticalcareerinthedioceseandsubsequentlyinSerbia.Hewas,amongotherthings,thefounderofSt.SavachurchinDouglasAKandforatimedeanoftheSitkadeanery.In2007hewascanonizedbytheSerbianOrthodoxChurchas“St.SebastianofSanFranciscoandJackson”–JacksonCAbeingthesiteofthefirstofhismanychurchfoundationsinthewesternUnitedStates.



seminaryandhavingservedasapriestandteacherinKamchatka,hewasaccustomedtothekindofconditionsthathewouldfaceinAlaska.HealsowasrepresentativeofanewtypeofclergywhohadbeentrainedfollowingthereformsinecclesiasticaleducationintroducedduringtheOverprocuracyofDmitriiTolstoi,whichemphasizedtheimportancepastoralcare,educationalprograms,andcommunityengagement.Fr.Donskoiarrivedinfall1886withhiswifeandgrowingfamilyandmovedintotheBishop’sHouse.Ploppingintoachairinthenearlybarrenreceptionroomonhisfirstdaythere,heisreportedtohavesaid,“ThankGod,notallthechairshavebeenplundered”(StepanUshin’sDiaryforOctober28,1886,79).FromthestartFr.DonskoidevotedmostofhisattentiontotheTlingitcommunity,tothechagrinofsomeofhiscreoleparishioners,andintheprocesshetransformedthereligiousmake-upofSitka.DuringhisfirsttwoweeksinSitkahebaptized57Tlingit;bytheendof1886Tlingitsoutnumberedcreolesontheparishrolls;withinthreeyearsofhisarrival,betweentwo-thirdsandthree-quartersoftheSitka’snativepopulationhadjoinedtheOrthodoxChurch(Kan1999,252).ThekeytoFr.Donskoi’ssuccesswiththeTlingits,inSergeiKan’sestimation,washiswillingness“toshowthemrespect,”aboveallinhiswillingnesstoparticipateintheirpost-funeralmemorialfeastsinhonorofthedeparted(ibid.)ButinmanywaysFr.Donskoi’sexpressionsof“respect”simplyrepresentedtraditionalOrthodoxritual.Carefullyorganizedfuneralprocessions,withtollingofbells;mealswithspeechesfollowingthefuneral;memorialservicesforthedeparted,especiallyonthefortiethdayandtheanniversaryofdeath,againoftenwithmealsandgifts;littlememorialbookletsforrecordingnamesoflivinganddepartedlovedonesforcommemorationinchurch;exchangesofvisitswithspecialfoodsandgiftsonmajorholidayslikeEasterandChristmas;homeblessingsatEpiphany;blessingoffishingboatsandfishinggear;blessingofanewhouse;translationofprayersandhymnsintothenativelanguage:SuchtraditionalOrthodoxpracticesresonatedwithTlingitcultureinmultipleways(Kan1999,252-256).TheyalsohelpedreshapepatternsofmovementinandthroughSitka,asculturalandphysicalboundariesbetweenthenative“Ranche”andthe“Russiantown”lostmuchoftheiroldpowertodivide.Fr.DonskoialsofirmlyresistedeffortsonthepartofsomeofhiscreoleparishionerstohaveseparatecemeteriesfortheTlingitandtopartitionoffaseparatespacefortheminSt.Michael’sCathedral.UnlikethelocalPresbyterians,whomaintainedseparatechurchesfortheirwhiteandTlingitmembers,theOrthodoxremainedasingle,integratedcommunity.ThisnodoubtwasmadeeasierbythenatureofOrthodoxworship,inwhichsharedritualbehaviorhelpedtranscendlinguisticdifferences.5.14TRANSFORMATIONOFLIFEINANDAROUNDTHEBISHOP’SHOUSEUnderFr.DonskoitheparishTlingitdayschoolcontinued,withsomesuccessatleastintheteachingofEnglish,thankstoyoungAndrewKashevarov(seeabove,Chapter3.11.5).ATlingitchoirandaTlingitchildren’schoirwereorganizedatthecathedral.Fr.Donskoi



continuedtogiveSundayafternoonlecturesinthecathedralandholdlessformaldiscussionsessionsinTlingitlineagehouses.Thesebecameespeciallypopularafterheintroducedtheuseofslidestoillustratehistalks(Kan1999,262).OneofthemorenotabledevelopmentsduringFr.Donskoi’stenureinSitkawastheestablishmentofanorphanage/boardingschoolinthelowerflooroftheBishop’sHousein1893.Heandhiswifewerealreadyfamiliarwithorphans.By1893theywereraisingsixofthemintheBishop’sHouseinadditiontotheirownchildren.ButtheestablishmentofthenewSitkaorphanage/boardingschoolwasnotsimplyanextensionofFr.Donskoi’spastoralefforts.ItwaspartofalargerdevelopmentwithintheDioceseoftheAleutiansandAlaska.NotlongafterreturningtoSanFrancisco,Fr.Vechtomov–advancinginyearsanddeclininginhealth–retiredtoRussiaasanewbishopatlastwasappointedforthediocese.BishopVladimirSokolovskii-Avtonomovwasnotquite35yearsoldwhenhewasordainedtotheepiscopacyinSt.PetersburginDecember1887andassignedtoAmerica.HearrivedinSanFranciscoinmid-Aprilof1888,alongwithanentourageofeightclergyandelevenyouthfulseminarians,withtheintentionofrevitalizingchurchlifeinhisdiocese.Unfortunatelyhisshorttenurewas“punctuatedbyaseriesofscandalsandlawsuits,anexcommunication,aduel(uncomsummated),andvarious‘criminationsandrecriminations’,asonereporterputit”(Emmons1997,4).TheRussianconsulateinSanFranciscoandtheOverprocurator’sofficeinSt.Petersburgworkedovertimetominimizethedamagecausedbythebishop’simpetuousbehaviorand,whenthoseeffortsfailed,tohavehimrecalledtoRussiaasquicklyaspossible.Thistooksometime.Anewbishop,Nicholas(Nikolai)Adoratskii,wasappointedtofilltheseeinJune1891,butbecauseofillhealthhewasunabletotakeupthepositionandwastransferredtoanotherseeinRussiainstead.Themanfinallyappointed,Nicholas(Nikolai)Ziorov,wasmadeofsternerstuff.HewasconsecratedasBishopoftheAleutiansandAlaskaonSeptember29,1891,andarrivedinSanFranciscoinDecemberofthatyear,amonthafterBishopVladimirfinallyconcededdefeatanddepartedforRussiatotakeupalesserposition.AfterapastoralvisittoAlaskainsummer1892,BishopNicholasmandatedareorganizationoftheadministrativestructureofhisdiocese,whichatthispointcoveredallofNorthAmerica.Alaskawasdividedintotwodeaneries,whichwerenominallyequalinstatusandcomparableintheirassets,programsandrangeofactivities.TheUnalaskadeaneryincludedtheAleutians,mostoftheAlaskapeninsula,thePribilofsandwesternAlaska.TheSitkadeaneryincludedsoutheasternAlaska,theKenaipeninsulaandnearbycoastalregions,theKodiakarchipelago,andattimesevenSeattle.ThehistoryoftheSitkaandUnalaskachurches–oftheirprincipalbuildings,ecclesiasticalschools,clergy,andactivitieswithinthewidercommunity–willbeverysimilarforoveradecade.TheprioritiesofthediocesanadministrationinSanFrancisco,andlaterNewYork,willbeexpressed,almostsimultaneouslyinbothplaces,intheformofbuildingprogramsandotherinstitutionaldevelopments.



Insummer1893anorphanage/boardingschoolopenedinthelowerflooroftheSitkaBishop’sHouse(Kan1999,270),whichhadbeenadaptedforthispurposeinthecourseofthepreviousyear(Arndt2004,104).Simultaneously,anorphanage/boardingschoolopenedinUnalaskainthebuildingoriginallycommissionedforthatpurposebyBishopNestorin1880.InbothSitkaandUnalaska,theschoolswereintendedfornativeaswellascreolestudentsfromalloverAlaska,andinitiallytheyoperatedalongthelinesofatwo-classparishschoolinRussia,thatis,theyofferedsecondaryaswellasprimaryinstruction.Bothschoolsbeganwithtenstudentsandgraduallyexpanded,inpartbyacceptingmoreboardingstudents,inpartbyaddingdaystudents,includinggirls.Eventuallybothschoolsexpandedphysically:InSitkaatwo-storybuilding,nowknownastheOldSchool,wasconstructedin1897toaccommodatemorestudentsandanadditionalteacher.AroundthesametimeinUnalaska,inresponsetosuggestionsmadebyBishopNicholasZiorovduringan1895visit,theschoolbuildingwasexpandedintothespacebetweentheoriginalschoolbuildingandtheUnalaskabishop’shouse.In1897thecurriculuminbothschoolsexpandedaswell,andtheprogramwaslengthenedbyoneyearinordertoincludemorecoursesofapracticalnature(Kan1999,291).Inthesameyear,aspartofcelebrationstohonorthecentenaryofthebirthofInnocentVeniaminov,bothschoolsweredesignatedasInnokentiiSchools,orInnokentiiMissionarySchools(Arndt2004,105;ROAM1[1896-97]518-519,ROAM2[1897-1898]76-78,78-82).BythattimetheSitkaschoolhadtwofull-timeteachersplusthepriest,withanenrollmentoffifteenboysfromtheorphanageandninedaystudents.TheUnalaskaschoolwassomewhatlargerbothinenrollmentandinstaffing(ROAM1[1896-1897]527-533).Butalsointhesameyear,reflectingdemographicdevelopmentswithinthediocese,athirdmissionaryschool,operatingatthesamelevelandwithasimilarcurriculum,openedinMinneapolisMN(Tarasar1975,77,79).In1905,asitsenrollmentreached122,itwasreorganizedandupgradedtobecometheNorthAmericanEcclesiasticalSeminary.5.15THEBISHOP’SHOUSEANDTHEWIDERCOMMUNITYFr.DonskoireturnedtoRussiain1895.Hisimmediatesuccessors-ascathedralpriests,deansoftheSitkadeanery,andsuperintendentsoftheInnokentiiSchool-differedfromhiminbackground,buttheycontinuedandexpandeduponhiswork.Fr.AnatoliiKamenskii(1895-1898)wasawidowedpriestwhosubsequentlygraduatedfromtheprestigiousSt.PetersburgTheologicalAcademyandbecameahieromonk(priest-monk).InAmericahewouldalsoserveassuperintendentoftheMinneapolisMissionarySchool.5Hewassucceededbyanotherwell-educatedhieromonk,Fr.Antonii

5AfterreturningtoRussiaFr.KamenskiiservedasRectoroftheOdessaTheologicalAcademy,asBishopofTomskandAltai,and–inthemidstoftheRevolution-asArchbishopofIrkutsk.Althoughtheprecisecircumstancesofhisdeathareuncertain,theRussianOrthodoxChurchhascanonizedhimasoneofitsNewMartyrsandConfessors.



Dashkevich(1898-1905).6ComparabletotheiractivitiesinSitkaandtheSitkadeaneryarethoseoftheircounterpartinUnalaska,Fr.NicholasKedrovskii(1894-1904).InbothregionsofAlaska,theOrthodoxchurchgainedameasureofstabilityandvitalitythathadbeensorelylackinginthedecadesimmediatelyfollowingtheAlaskaCession.ThechurchbegantoadjusttoitsnewAmericancontext,andalongthewayitlearnedhowtocommunicatemoreeffectively.OfcriticalimportanceherewasthecollaborativerelationshipthatexistedbetweendeaneryleadershipinAlaskaandthediocesanbishopsofthisperiod,NicholasZiorov(1891-1898)andTikhonBellavin(1898-1907).Workingtogether,theygraduallyreachedamodusvivendiwithgovernmentofficialsandwithatleastsomeoftheirProtestantrivals.Fromthe1870sonward,oneofthemosttroublesomeproblemsfacedbytheOrthodoxchurchinAlaskahadcenteredoneducation.ParishchurchesinAlaskaandaswellasmanyoftheirdependentchapelscontinuedtomaintainschools,despitediminishedresourcesinthewakeoftheCession,buttheseschoolsgotlittlerecognitionandnofinancialsupportfromtheUnitedStatesgovernment.Ontheotherhand,Protestantmissiongroups,whilefundedinpartbytheirdenominationalsponsorsintheUnitedStates,gainedadditionalfinancialsupportfromthefederalgovernmentbyservingas“contractschools.”Thatis,thefederalgovernmentcontractedwiththedenominationalmissiongroupstooperateorphanagesandschoolswhosegoal,infact,wastoturnnativestudentsintoEnglish-speakingAmericancitizensimbuedwiththeprinciplesof(Protestant)Christianity.This,asmultipleOrthodoxcriticspointedout,compromisedtheprinciplesofseparationofchurchandstateandfreeexerciseofreligionenshrinedintheFirstAmendmenttotheU.S.ConstitutionandreflectedintheTreatyofCession(e.g.,ROAM1[1896-97]111-115,196-204,224-226,240-242,242-246).AchiefproponentofacculturationthroughProtestantmissioneducationwasDr.SheldonJackson,aprominentPresbyterianmissionarywhosesocialandpoliticalconnectionsinWashingtongainedhimappointmentasGeneralAgentofEducationintheAlaskaTerritory(1885-1906).ThestoryoftheOrthodoxChurchinSitkaandoftheBishop’sHouseduringthelater19thandearly20thcenturywouldbeincompletewithoutsomereferencetotheschoolthateventuallywasrenamedinSheldonJackson’shonor.TheSitkaIndustrialTrainingSchoolwasfoundedin1878byPresbyterianmissionariesFannieKelloggandfuturegovernorofAlaskaJohnG.BradytoprovidevocationaltrainingforTlingitchildren.Ironically,theirschool’sfirstpermanenthomewaslocatedjusteastoftheBishop’sHouseinthetwo-storybuildingoriginallybuiltin1846tohouseBishopInnocentVeniaminov’sseminary(seeabove,5.7).Afterthatbuildingburnedtothegroundin1882,SheldonJacksoncametotheschool’srescue.Helaunchedanation-widefundraisingeffort.TogetherwithBradyheacquiredlandfarthereastalongCrescentBay,wheretwonewbuildingsandfencingsoonwent 6Fr.DashkevichwouldgoontoimportantpositionsinRussia(e.g.,chaplainontheimperialyacht)andeventuallybeordainedasbishopinthepost-revolutionaryRussianemigration.



up.ThisledtocourtproceedingsagainstthetwomeninJune1885.TheywerechargedwithillegalseizureofthelandinquestionandconstructionthatblockedapublicroadwayleadingtoIndianRiver(StepanUshin’sDiaryforJune2,1885,56).Eventually,however,afterachangeinadministrationsinWashington,theseandotherchargesweredropped.OrthodoxanimositytowardSheldonJacksonandhisPresbyteriansalliescontinuedforoveradecade,waningonlytowardtheendofthecentury.Churchperiodicalspublishedarticlesdenouncingabuses;concernedchurchmenandordinaryparishionerssentpetitionstofederalofficialsinWashington.In1898,shortlybeforehisreturntoRussia,BishopNicholasZiorovaddressedasharplywordedletterlettertoPresidentMcKinley,inwhichheappealedforprotectionagainstofficialswhowere“senttoAlaskawithoutanydiscriminationandexclusivelyontherecommendationofAlaska’simmovableguardian,SheldonJackson....Alaskamustbedeliveredfromthatman”(ROAM3[1899]6-9).BishopNicholas’ssuccessor,BishopTikhonBellavin,tookamoreconciliatoryapproach.InanexchangeofletterswithSheldonJacksonin1899,hetriedtocorrectcertainmisconceptionsaboutOrthodoxschoolsinAlaska,noting-amongotherthings-thatintheseschoolsEnglishwaspartofthecurriculum(ROAM4[1900]81-85).HealsodirectedFr.AntoniiDashkevichtoprepareadetailedreportontheRussianOrthodoxschoolsinAlaska,whichwaspublishedinEnglishaswellasRussian(ROAM4[1900]114-122,139-146,156-163).Forhispart,JacksonrequestedtheappointmentofFr.DashkevichtotheAlaskaPublicSchoolBoard(ROAM4[1900]88).RelationsbetweenthetwomenreachedthepointthattheSitkaChroniclecouldreportonacordialvisitofJacksontotheBishop’sHouse(ROAM4[1900]270-271).CallingforspecialattentionarerelationsbetweentheOrthodoxandtheEpiscopalians.Fromthemid-19thcenturyonward,personalfriendships,officialexchangesofvisitsandextensivetheologicaldiscussionshadbroughtOrthodoxandAnglicans(or,intheUnitedStates,Episcopalians)closetofullunity(Erickson2012,264-266).InSitkathisspecialecumenicalrelationshipwasexpressedinmultipleways,includingavisitofBishopPeterT.Rowe,firstEpiscopalianbishopofAlaska,andBishopWilliamWalkerofWashingtontoSt.Michael’sCathedral(ROAM3[1899]362-363)andthepresenceofFr.AntoniiDashkevichandotherOrthodoxdignitariesatthefoundingofSt.Peter’s-by-theSeaEpiscopalChurchin1899(ROAM3[1899]398-99).5.16ABISHOPRETURNSTOTHEBISHOP’SHOUSEBytheturnofthe20thcentury,theRussianOrthodoxArchdioceseofNorthAmericaandtheAleutianIslands(asitwasrenamedin1900)hadgrownprodigiouslyinnumbers,to45parishes.Italsohadacquiredanewdemographiccomposition(EasternEuropeanimmigrant)andnewgeographicorientation(northeasternUnitedStates,withits



diocesanseetransferredfromSanFranciscotoNewYorkCityin1905).AttheinsistenceofArchbishopTikhonBellavin,theHolySynodapprovedhisplanfortheappointmentofvicarbishopstoassisthim.Thefirstofthese,InnocentPustinskii,wasawell-educatedarchimandritewhointhe1890shadministeredforafewyearsintheUnitedStates.InDecember2003,hewasordainedinSt.PetersburgasBishopofSitka,withresponsibilityforAlaska.BishopInnocentwasextraordinarilyactive.HistravelsinAlaskatookhimtoregionsneverbeforereachedbyanOrthodoxbishop,particularlyintheupperreachesoftheYukonandKuskokwimriversystems.HealsomadeseveralextendedvisitstoRussia’sChukchiPeninsula,which–sincetherewasnowabishopnearathand–theHolySynodentrustedtohiscare.Avigorousoutdoorsman,onsuchtripsheoftencarriedmorethanhisshareofthebaggagewhileportagingfromonewaterwaytoanother,bearingadversitieswithequanimityandwryhumor.(See,forexample,theextendedaccountbyArchimandriteAmfilokhiiVakulskiiofthebishop’svisittotheYukon-Kuskokwimregion,ROAM9[1905]378-382,395-402,416-423,435-438.)BishopInnocent’stravelsalsotookhimtothelowerUnitedStates.Inspring2006hewasinWashingtonDC,wheretheRussianambassadorarrangedforhimtomeetwiththeSecretaryofEducation,PresidentTheodoreRoosevelt,andtheGeneralAgentofPublicEducationinAlaskahimself,Dr.SheldonJackson(ROAM11[1907]136-149).Duringthefirstfivemonths2007hewasinNewYork,servingastemporaryadministratorofthearchdioceseduringtheintervalbetweenthedepartureofArchbishopTikhonandthearrivalofhissuccessor,ArchbishopPlatonRozhdestvenskii.BishopInnocentdidnotneglecthisresponsibilitiesinAlaska,however.HisannualreportsonthestateoftheAlaskanchurchandmanyarticlesoneducationandrelatedsubjectsprovideacomprehensivepictureofchurchlifeandinstitutionsduringwhatcertainlywasthemostthrivingperiodofitshistorysincethedaysofBishopInnocentVeniaminov.Thusinthereportfor1906welearnthattherewere15parishesinthediocese,with18churchesand74chapels,havingatotalof10,422members,ofwhom33wereRussians,326SerbsandotherSlavs,2408Creoles,1878Indians(mostlyTlingitandDena’ina),2119Aleuts(Unangax),3646Yup’ik,and12peopleofotherethnicities.Therewere28brotherhoods(includingthreeinSitkaalone),withatotalof1684members;and35temperancesocieties,with3019members.Mostparisheshadschoolsofferingatleastprimaryeducation.Fourorphanagestookcareof47boysand12girls(ROAM11[1907]156-169).AtahigherlevelweretheInnokentiischoolsinUnalaskaandSitka.Personnelforthelatterincludedthebishopasitsheadandsixteachers.CoursesincludedScripture,generaltheology,English,nativelanguages,arithmetic,hygiene,worldhistory,U.S.andAlaskanhistory,literatureandliturgicalmusic.TheacademicprogramwasclosetothatinRussianseminariesexceptthatthestudyofnativelanguagesreplacedLatinandGreek.AsinseminariesinthedaysofBishopInnocentVeniaminov,studentsalsoengagedinpracticalactivitieslikegardening,carpentry,fishingandbookbinding.Theyalsochoppedandhauledfirewoodfromthe



nearestforest(approximatelythreemilesfromtheschool)–ataskinwhichBishopInnocentPustinskiijoinedthemwhenhewasinSitka(ibid.).Aheavytravelschedulenotwithstanding,BishopInnocentPustinskiididresideintheBishop’sHouseanduseitashisbaseofoperationsforallbutafewmonthsofhistenure.Thisresultedinsomeslightchangesintheapportionmentofspace.BishopInnocentandhissuccessorswerehousedontheupperfloor,supplantingthecathedralarchpriests,whoinsteadwereaccommodatedinoneoranotherofthenearbyhousesownedbythechurch.(Fr.AndrewKashevarov’sfamily,however,becauseofitslargesize,occupiedtwoofthesehousesduringhistenureinSitka,Building105–thenacrossMonasteryStreetfromitspresentlocation–andthehousenexttoit,showntotherearoftheBishop’shouseinfigure5.00.4.)Withsomeregularity,however,thereceptionroomoftheupperfloorcontinuedtobeusedforchurchmeetingsandreligiousdiscussiongroups(Arndt2004,64).

Figure5.00.4.St.Michael’sBrotherhood,menandwomenwearingribbons,menwearingribbonsandsashes,officerswearingalsoagoldstar,withBishopInnocentPustinskii(centerwithstaff),Fr.AndrewKashevarov(immediatelytothebishop’sright)andotherclergy

5.17SUBSEQUENTDEVELOPMENTSBishopInnocentPustinskii’simmediatesuccessor,BishopAlexanderNemolovskii(1909-1916),alsohadtheBishop’sHouseashisofficialresidence,buthespentrelativelylittletimethere.HepreviouslyhadservedlargeimmigrantparishesontheEastCoastoftheUnitedStatesandwasactivelyinvolvedintheRussianImmigrants’HomeinNewYorkCity.AsBishopofSitka,heofcoursetouredhisdiocese,buthespentlesstimein



remoteregionsofthewesternAlaskathandidhispredecessor.Moreinterestedinministrytonewimmigrantsthaninmissiontonativepeoples,heinsteadtraveledextensivelyintheprairieprovincesofCanada,newhometoafloodofimmigrantsfromRussiaandUkraine,evenbeforehewasnamedBishopofWinnipegin1916.ThenextvicarbishopofSitka,BishopPhilipStavitskii(1916-1919),arrivedinhisnewseeasWorldWarIwasnearingitsend,ontheeveoftheRussianRevolution.OnhisarrivalinSitkaheannouncedgreatplansforthefuture:toreopenanorphanage/boardingschool,torenovatethecathedral,tobeginpublishingadiocesanmagazine,toembarkonpastoralvisitsthroughoutAlaska,andtostartanewparishinAnchorage(ROAM21[1917]55-57,472-473).Verylittlecameoftheseplans.In1917BishopPhiliptraveledtoRussia,nevertoreturn,althoughhenominallyremainedBishopofSitkauntil1919.IntheadministrativechaosthatfollowedtheRussianRevolution,theAlaskanseeremainedeffectivelyvacantuntiltheappointmentofBishopAmfilokiiVakulskii(1924-1930),long-timeAlaskamissionarypriest.Intheinter-warperiodhewouldbefollowedbyBishopAntoninVasiliev(1930-34)andBishopAlexisPanteleev(1934-44),anotherlong-servingAlaskapriest.Duringthispost-revolutionaryperiod,usesofthelowerflooroftheBishop’sHouseandthe“OldSchool”changedmoreoftenthanthoseoftheupperfloor.Besidesprovidingkitchenspace,ithousedtheorphanage(graduallyshrinkingaway),schoolspace,quartersforoneortwoteachers,andbythelate‘teensaprintshopandbook-bindery.The“OldSchoolhouse”continuedtobeidentifiedasanInnokentiiSchoolaslateas1912,butby1917itwasmerelyaschoolhouse,identifiedastheformerseminary(Arndt2004,107-108).By1921the“OldSchoolhouse”wasbeingrentedout(Arndt2004,108);inthefollowingyearitwasleasedtotheSitkaBoardofEducationanditsentranceswitchedtotheoppositesideofthebuilding.Aroundthesametime,partofthelowerflooroftheBishop’sHousewasalsobeingrentedouttoSitkanewspapers,whichtookoverroomsformerlyusedasthediocesanprintshopandbindery.Inthe1930smuchofthelowerfloorwasturnedintothreerentalapartments.Mostsubjecttochangewasthelargedoubleroomonthesouthwestcornerofthelowerfloor,whichwasusedinturnasameetingspace,acommunitylibrary(from1936),andagiftshop(from1949,whenoneofitswindowswasenlargedasadoor)(Estus1983,§7,2).Bythemid-20thcentury,thedilapidatedBishop’sHouseshowedfewsignsofitspreviousimportance,thoughitcontinuedtobetheresidenceoftheOrthodoxChurchinAmerica’sbishopsofAlaskauntil1969.“In1973,afteronehundredandthirtyyearsofcontinuoususeofthesitebytheRussianOrthodoxChurch,theNationalParkServicetookpossessionofit”(Estus1983,§7,3).Itsmeticulousrestoration,toitsca.1853form,proceededoverthenextdecadeandahalf,until1988.Itspristineappearancetodayoffersaclue–butcertainlynotthewholestory–ofthebuilding’ssignificancenotonlyfortheRussianperiodinAlaskanhistorybutalsofortheensuinghistoryoftheOrthodoxyinAmerica.




Figure5.00.1

ClergyinfrontoftheRussianBishop’sHouse 1868


ASL-P243-6-433-front&verso


Figure5.00.2

Shippingroutes 1897 ROAM

Grapachevskii,P."TravelsofHisGrace,theRightReverendNikolai,BishopoftheAleutiansandAlaska,inAlaska."ROAM2[1897-1898](1):18-26

Figure5.00.3

Kostromitinovportrait 1906


ASL-P243-1-027


Figure5.00.4

St.Michael’sBrotherhoodatRussianBishop’sHouse ca.1905


ASL-P243-1-047



PART THREE

APPENDICES


404



Chapter6-TheRussianBishop’sHouse–FieldNotes 369

THERUSSIANBISHOP’SHOUSEFIELDNOTES

(SEPTEMBER2014,APRIL2015ANDSEPTEMBER2016)6.1INTRODUCTION

TheRussianBishop’sHouseNationalHistoricLandmark(NHL)islocatedat501LincolnStreetinSitka,Alaska.The0.5acresiteontheshoresofCrescentBayconsistsoftheBishop’sHouse,theOldSchool,ayardandagarden.In1843-1844theRussian-AmericanCompanyconstructedtheBishop’sHouseforBishopInnokentii(Veniaminov),thefirstbishopofthedioceseofKamchatka,theKuril,andtheAleutianIslands.Whenthehousewascompletedin1843,twenty-fivepeopleincludingBishopInnocent,thediocesancourt,pupils,andservantsmovedin(Arndt2004,3).InadditiontobeingahomefortheBishop,thetwo-storyhewnlogbuildingcontainedasmallchapel,housedchurchemployees,andservedasaschool,seminary,andorphanage.ThebuildingwasutilizedbytheRussianOrthodoxChurchuntil1973.In1897,theOldSchoolbuilding[InnokentiiSchool]wasconstructedtotheeastoftheBishop’sHouse.Thisbuildingservedasachurchschooluntil1921.Theperiodofsignificanceforthepropertyextendsfrom1842whentheRussian-AmericanCompanylaidthestonefoundationforthebuildinguntil1921whentheflounderingRussianOrthodoxChurch—devastatedbytheRussianRevolution—wasnolongerabletoprovidefinancialsupporttoitsdioceseinAmerica.TheBishop’sHousepropertypossesseshistoricalsignificanceforitsassociativevalueaswellasitsdesignandconstructionvalue.NationalRegisterCriteriaforEvaluationofhistoricsignificanceA,B,andCapplytotheproperty.CriterionAaddressespropertieswhichareassociatedwithhistoricevents;CriterionCappliestopropertieslinkedwithhistoricalfigures;andCriterionCrelatestopropertieswitharchitecturalsignificance.InadditiontotheCriteriaforEvaluation,CriteriaConsiderationAwhichaddressesreligiousproperties,pertainstothesiteduetoitsassociationwiththeRussianOrthodoxChurch.In1962,undertheprovisionsofthe1935HistoricSitesAct,theRussianBishop’sHousewasdesignatedaNationalHistoricLandmark.WiththepassageoftheNationalHistoricPreservationActin1966,theRussianBishop’sHouse,knownatthetimeastheRussianMissionOrphanage,wasplacedontheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces.TheRussianBishop’sHousewaspurchasedbytheNationalParkServicein1973.AtthistimethepropertybecameaunitofSitkaNationalHistoricalPark.Therestorationofthebuildingbegandirectlythereafterandcontinuedthrough1988.Restorationeffortsfocusedprimarilyonthebuilding;successfullyrestoringthestructure,recreatingthelivingspacesandchapelonthesecondfloorandprovidinginterpretiveexhibitsonthefirstfloor(Welzenbach2012,4).

6.2GEOGRAPHICINFORMATIONANDLOCATIONMAP

State&County:State:AlaskaCounty:BoroughofSitkaSize(Acres):0.5


Chapter6-TheRussianBishop’sHouse–FieldNotes370

BoundaryDescription:TheurbanlotassociatedwiththeRussianBishop’sHouseislocatedtothenortheastoftheintersectionofLincolnandMonasteryStreets.LincolnStreetbordersthepropertytothesouthandMonasteryStreettothewest.ThehistoricboundaryfortheRussianBishop’sHouselandscapeencompassesallextanthistoricresourcesassociatedwiththepropertythatfallwithinLotTKGBlock12anddoesnotincludethepropertyownedbytheNationalParkServicetothewestofMonasteryStreet.Thisproperty(LotPTKFBlock11)containshistoricHouse105whichwasmovedtoitscurrentlocationandlacksintegrity.Thesiteboundaryisasimplepolygon.BoundarypointA(479896,6323133)islocatedatthesouthwestcorneroftheproperty.Fromthispointtheboundarystrikesnorthwestfor137feetalongMonasteryStreettopointB(479887,6323174).FrompointBtheboundarystrikesnortheastfor151feettopointC(479931,6323184),thenortheasterncorneroftheproperty.FrompointCtheboundarycontinuestothesoutheastfor149feettomeetpointD(479941,6323140).Finally,frompointDtheboundarystrikessouthwest,paralleltoLincolnStreet,for148feetreturningtopointA.AllcoordinatesareinNAD83,UTMZone8(Welzenbach2012,9-10).

BOUNDARYUTMSOURCE

UTM

DATUM

UTMZONE

UTM

EASTING

UTM

NORTHING

SiteMapBoundaryPoint

GPS-DifferentiallyCorrected

NAD83 8 479896 6323133 A


NAD83 8 479887 6323174 B


NAD83 8 479931 6323184 C


NAD83 8 479941 6323140 D

Figure6.1.BoundaryUTMsofRussianBishop'sHouseLandscape(Welzenbach2012,10).

Figure6.2.BoundaryoftheRussianBishop'sHouseCulturalLandscape(Welzenbach2012,9).



6.3STATEMENTOFSIGNIFICANCETheRussianBishop’sHouseservesasanimportantfocalpointinthelargerRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticallandscapeofAlaska,alandscapewithamoreextendedgeographicrangeandalongerperiodofsignificancethantheperioddefinedfortheRussianBishop’sHouse.YettheRussianBishop’sHouse,asacomponentofSitkaNationalHistoricalPark,isinauniquepositiontoprovideaninterpretivecontextfornotonlyalargergeographicandculturallandscapebutalsoalongerperiodofsignificance.EvenbeforethearrivalofthefirstRussianOrthodoxmissionariesatKodiakin1794arelationshipbetweenthepeoplesofAlaskaandRussianOrthodoxyhadbeeninitiated.InSitka,thisinterculturalrelationshipbegansoonafterthe1804returnoftheRussians,withtheconstructionofasmallchapelorprayerhouse(Black2004,241)locatedneartheCastle.TherelationshipwasformalizedwiththearrivalofFr.AlexeiSokolovin1816andtheconstructionofthefirstSt.Michael’schurch.TheRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalcomponentsoftheSitkalandscapearesignificantbecausetheydemonstratetheuniquerelationshipoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchtoamulti-ethnicurbanpopulationcomposednotonlyofnativeAlaskansandRussians,butalsotoawiderangeofotherethnicitiesandreligions,includingLutherans(whowereespeciallyprominentduringtheRussianperiodaswellaslaterperiods),Episcopalians,Presbyterians,Catholicsandmanyothers.6.4PERIODOFSIGNIFICANCEFORTHEBISHOP’SHOUSEANDGROUNDS

TheperiodofsignificanceforthepurposesoftheCulturalLandscapeInventoryextendsfrom1842whentheRussian-AmericanCompanylaidthestonefoundationforthebuildinguntil1921whentheflounderingRussianOrthodoxChurchwasnolongerabletoprovidefinancialsupporttoitsdioceseinAmerica(Welzenbach2012,16).

6.5CHRONOLOGYAchronologyofeventsspecifictotheBishop’sHouseandOldSchoolhouseislaidoutintheCulturalLandscapeInventory(Welzenbach2012,21-15).6.6LANDSCAPECHARACTERISTICSLandscapecharacteristicsarethe“tangibleandintangiblecharacteristicsofalandscapethatindividuallyandcollectivelygivealandscapecharacterandaidinunderstandingitsculturalvalue”([Curryetal.1988],4).Landscapecharacteristicsprovideastructureforthediscussionofcharacter-definingfeaturesofaspecificlandscaperesource.TheCulturalLandscapeInventoryhasidentifiedlandscapescharacteristicsthatimpactsiteintegrity(Welzenbach2012,87).



LandscapeCharacteristic

AspectsofIntegrity AssociatedFeatures

Archeologicalsites Location,Feeling,Association Locationsthroughoutsite(seeWelzenbach2012,54-56)

BuildingsandStructures

Location,Design,Setting,Workmanship,Materials,Feeling,Association

ListedAbove(seeWelzenbach2012,56-59)

Circulation Feeling,Association Boardwalks(seeWelzenbach2012,59-60)

CulturalTraditions Feeling,Association (seeWelzenbach2012,60)LandUse Association Vegetablegarden(seeWelzenbach

201260-61)NaturalSystemsandFeatures

Location,Feeling,Setting Surroundingecologicalsystems(seeWelzenbach2012,61)

SmallScaleFeatures Design,Materials Fence(seeWelzenbach2012,61-62)SpatialOrganization Location,Design,Materials,Feeling,

AssociationRelationshipbetweensitefeatures(seeWelzenbach2012,62)

Topography Location,Setting Gradeofthesite(seeWelzenbach2012,62)

Vegetation Design,Materials,Feeling,Association Treesinthefrontyard,vegetablegarden(seeWelzenbachH201262-63)

ViewsandVistas Location,Feeling,Setting,andAssociation

ViewsacrossCrescentBay(seeWelzenbach2012,63)

Figure6.3.LandscapecharacteristicsandaspectsofintegrityoftheRussianBishop'sHouselandscape.

LandscapecharacteristicsoftheRussianBishop’sHouseincludethespatialorganizationofthelot,landuse,culturaltraditionsandpractices,clusterarrangement,circulation,vegetation,buildingsandstructures,viewsandvistasandarcheologicalsites.Thearcheologicalsites,onthewhole,remaintobeinvestigated(Welzenbach2012,54-55).LandscapeCharacteristic Character-DefiningFeature

NaturalSystems&Features Topography,ecology,climate Setbackfromthestreet;relationshiptothebay

PositionofbuildingsonthesiteRelationshipstostructuresoneast,northandwestofthesitePhysicalpositionofsiteinrelationshiptootherRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalresourcesandotherresourcesinSitka

LandUse AgriculturalPracticalRecreationalAesthetic

ClusterArrangement Relationshiptoothercontributingbuildingsandthenon-contributingBuilding105

Circulation HistoriccirculationwaysVegetation Trees,lawn(contributingvegetationonly)BuildingsandStructures Relationshipbetweenbuildingsandstructures

Impactofbuildingsandstructuresonvegetation



LandscapeCharacteristic Character-DefiningFeature ViewsandVistas Viewsto,throughandfromsiteSmallScaleFeatures FencingandboardwalksArcheologicalSites AsremainingonsiteFigure6.4.Character-definingfeaturesoftheRussianBishop'sHouselandscape,groupedbylandscapecharacteristics.

6.7EXISTINGCONDITIONSPhotographsandFiguresSourcesforallhistoricphotographsarelistedinatableattheendofthischapter(Figure6.36).AllotherphotographsweretakenbyHelenEricksonduringfieldvisitsin2014,2015and2016,asnotedinthecaptions.Historicphotographsmaybeundercopyright;permissionforreproductionhasnotbeenobtained.Theyareincludedhereforreferenceonly.Site

TheRussianBishop’sHousewasconstructedeastoftheMalyshevkaRiverinoneoftheagriculturalareasintendedtosupplytheRussianfort,wherefreshwaterandagentlesloperunningdowntothebayofferedagoodlocationforgrowingfood(Figure6.5).Atthetimethehousewasconstructed,itwasintentionallylocatedoutsideoftown(ArndtandPierce2003,129).



Figure6.5.PlanofSitka,1845.

Figure6.6.AviewofCrescentBayshowingtheRussianBishop'sHouseandSchool,lookingwest,ca.1900.

TheRussianBishop’sHousewasbuiltabovethehightidelineofthewell-namedCrescentBay(Figure6.6).Theintertidalzonewasusedasaroad,andfencingdefined



theboundariesofshorelineproperties.Theshorelinehasbeenconsiderablymodifiedsincetheperiodofsignificance,withtheconstructionin1964-65ofamarinaandalinearparkacrossLincolnStreet(Welzenbach2012,61).ThelocationoftheRussianBishop’sHouseonCrescentBaynodoubtfacilitatedthewaterdeliveryofgoods,butitmayalsohaveexposedthebuildingtotheimpactsoftidesorstorms.Twohistoricphotos(Figures6.9and12)indicatethatthesouthwestcornerofthelotwasterracedin1885andthatabreakwaterwasinstalledinfrontofthelotaround1900.Withtheinstallationofthelinearparkalongthewater,theriskoftidalfloodingwasreduced.ViewsandVistasEvenatanearlystageanumberofotherbuildingssurroundedtheRussianBishop’sHouse.AmongthesewastheSeminary,constructedin1846(Figure6.8);aftertheformerseminarybuildingburnedin1882,theOldSchoolhousewasconstructedin1897(Figures6.10,11and12).TothewestacrossMonasteryStreet,thetowngrewup.Therefore,fromthebeginningviewsfromthesiteincludedotherbuildings,andviewstothesiteweretosomeextentconstrainedbythem.AlthoughbuildingswereconstructedonbothsidesoftheRussianBishop’sHouse,andseveralsmallhousesaresaidtohavebeenlocatedtothenorth(Welzenbach2012,34),ahistoricphotographsuggeststhatanareaofuncultivatedland,lawnoragardenremainedhereintothe20thcentury(Figure6.7).TodaytheBaranofSchoolplaygroundimmediatelytothenorthprovidesasenseofopenspacereminiscentofthepastspatialcharacter(Figures6.13,19,22and23).AndalthoughtheareabetweenthepropertyandCrescentBayhasbeenconsiderablymodified(Welzenbach2012,42),thevisuallinktothewaterremains(Figures6.15and17).MonasteryStreet,althoughpaved,remainsanarrowthoroughfare(Figure6.17and18).LincolnStreet,whichrunsinfrontoftheRussianBishop’sHouse,endsattheheadquartersoftheSitkaNationalHistoricalPark.Thishaspreservedthepropertyfromalocationonamajortrafficcorridor.Overalltoday’ssitelocationandcontextawayfromtheurbancentercontributestoanappropriatehistoricinterpretationoftheRussianBishop’sHouse.



Figure6.7.BeekeepingbehindtheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingsouth,ca.1900.



Figure6.8.ViewofSeminarybuildinginforegroundwiththeRussianBishop'sHouseinthebackground,lookingnorthwest,before1882.

Figure6.9.TheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnortheast,1885.



Figure6.10.TheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnortheast,1890.

Figure6.11.TheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnortheast,ca.1900.



Figure6.12.TheRussianBishop'shouse,lookingnorthwestfromthebeach,ca.1900.

Figure6.13.TheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnorthfromtheformerbeach(nowpark),September2016.



Figure6.14.TheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnorthwest,September2016.

Figure6.15.ViewfromthefrontyardoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingsouth,September2016.



Figure6.16.ViewfromthefrontyardoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingsouthwest,September2016.

Figure6.17.ViewfromthewestsideoftheRussianBishop'sHouse(alongMonasteryStreet),lookingsouth,September2016.



Figure6.18.ViewfromthewestsideoftheRussianBishop'sHouse(alongMonasteryStreet),lookingnorth,September2016.



Figure6.19.ViewoftheareabetweentheRussianBishop'sHouse(left)andtheSchoolhouse(right),lookingnorth,September2016.

PropertyBoundaryThepropertyboundariesoftheRussianBishop’shousehavechangedovertime,reducingtheoriginalpropertytoitspresentsizeofhalfanacre.AtonetimetheassociatedpropertystretchednorthtowardsSwanLakeandeasttoBaranofStreet,usingthehouseasthewesternboundary,butbeginningshortlyafter1858thepropertybegantoshrink.By1936whentheOrthodoxChurchsoldthepropertynorthoftheBishop’sHousetotheCityofSitka,encroachmentsandsalesoflandhadresultedinthepresentpropertysize.TodaytheBaranofElementaryschoolusesthesectionoftheformerpropertyimmediatelytothenorthasaplayground(Welzenbach2012,33-34).BuildingsandStructures

ForthepurposesoftheCulturalLandscapeInventorytheRussianBishop'sHousepropertyincludestheRussianBishop'sHouseandtheOldSchool.HouseNo.105iswithinthelegalboundaryofthepropertybutisnotincludedwithintheboundaryoftheculturallandscapebecauseitwasmovedtoitscurrentlocationaftertheperiodofsignificance.Abriefdescriptionoftheoldseminarybuildingwhichburntdownin1882isalsoincludedtoprovideadditionalinformationabouttheassociatedproperties(Welzenbach2012,32).

Thebuildingsretaintheirhistoriccharacter,withtheexceptionoftheseminarybuildingwhichburnedduringthehistoricperiod.



Secondarystructuressuchasprivies,abathhouse,awatertower,ashedandadditionalfencingarenotedintherecords(Welzenbach2012,21-15),butinformationabouttheirspecificlocationsislacking.Untilfurtherinformationisavailable,theroleofthesecondarystructuresisconjecturalandthuscannotprovidesupportforanyappropriatehistoricreconstructionintheRussianBishop’sHouselandscape.FencingAcursoryexaminationofhistoricphotosrevealthatmany-ifnotmost-ofSitkabuildingswerefenced(Figures6.6and6.10,12and17),andtheRussianBishop’sHousewasnoexception.Historicphotographs(Figures6.7,8,9,10,1and12)revealarangeoffencingstyles,andthefencelinetothewestandsouthappearstoremainmoreorlessconsistent.Onthenorthsideoftheproperty,thefencelineappearstohavechangedovertime.Thequestionofahistoricallyappropriatefenceofthepropertyhasbeencarefullyevaluated.

Asindicatedearlier,afencewasconstructedaroundtheBishop’sHousegardenin1844(Arndt2004:8,9,15).RussianOrthodoxChurchrecordsfrom1853statethatthegardenwasattachedtothehouseandboundedby“afenceofuprightslabswithonegateonironhooks”(Arndt2004:28).An1867photographoftheRussianHospitalwiththeBishop’sHouseinthebackgrounddepictsaroughlogslabfencetotheeastofthehospital(catalogno.SITK15718).AsimilarfenceisvisibleinthebackofthepictureextendingfromthesoutheastcorneroftheBishop’sHousetowardsCrescentBay.ThisfencecouldbethefencearoundtheBishop’sHousegarden(whichmayhavestillexistedatthattime)oralargerfencearoundthefrontyard.Inan1885photograph,afenceislocatedaroundthewholefrontyardoftheBishop’sHouse(catalogno.SITK15714).Thisfenceappearstobemadeofstandardmilledboardsasopposedtoroughslabs.Asmentionedearlier,churchadministrationrequestedanewfencearoundthechurchlandin1886topreventencroachmentbyneighboringpropertyowners(Arndt2004:47).Acirca1890photograph(catalogno.SITK15713)depictsapicketfencearoundtheyardwhichcouldhavebeenconstructedasaresultoftherequest.Furtherevidenceofthefencewaspresentedinthe1894inventoryofchurchpropertieswhichdescribesafencearoundthehouse(Arndt2004:104).Apicketfencewaslocatedinthefrontyardforthemajorityofthe1900suntilthehousewaspurchasedbytheNationalParkService.However,foraperiodinthe1930sand40sonlythefencepostswerepresentalongsouthsectionofthepropertyborderingLincolnStreet.Duringtherestorationanewroughslabfencebasedonthe1867photographwasconstructedonthesouth,westandeastedgesoftheproperty.ThreegatesarelocatedinthefenceonthewestsideofthepropertyopeningtoMonasteryStreet,atthemainentranceonthesouthwestsideoftheproperty,andtothesouthoftheOldSchoolwheretheformerdrivewayconnectedtoLincolnStreet(Welzenbach2012,41).

Becauseofstylisticchangesinfencingduringthehistoricperiod,acarefullyresearchedrecreatedfencingcontributestoanappropriatehistoricinterpretationoftheRussianBishop’sHouseasitappearedinapproximately1867.



Figure6.20.FencinginfrontoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnorth,September2016.

AtallmetalpoleandwirefenceseparatesthepropertyfromtheplaygroundoftheBaranofSchooltothenorth.Thefenceisnoncontributing,butservesasanon-intrusiveandappropriatepropertyboundary.ItspermeabilitycontributestothesenseofopenspacebehindtheRussianBishop’sHouse,reflectingthespatialcharacterofhistoricphotographs.Burgeoningsprucetreesattheeastandwestendofthefencehelptoconcealitsutilitariancharacter(Figures6.21and22).

Figure6.21.ChangeofgradeandboundaryfenceonnorthsideoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnortheast,September2016.



Figure6.22.ViewoftheRussianBishop'sHousefromtheBaranoffSchoolplayground,lookingsoutheast,September2016.

Bell

Thebell(Figure6.23),locatedonthewestsideoftheRussianBishop’sHouse,wasinstalledaftertherenovationof1987,between1887and1889(Figures6.9and10).MostlikelyitwasusedinconjunctionwiththeschoolratherthanspecificallyfortheAnnunciationChurch.ThebellisanimportantintangiblelandscapeelementbecauseitextendsanauralpresenceoftheRussianBishop’sHousebeyonditsgeographicalboundary.

Figure6.23.BelloutsidethesecondfloorwestsideoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingsoutheast,September2016.



BoardwalksLikefencing,boardwalksareseeninnumeroushistoricphotosofSitka(see,forexample,Figures6.8and17).

Reconstructionoftheboardwalkinthe1980swasbasedonthe1843-4drawingsofthebuilding.Thereconstructedboardwalkextendsaroundthehouse,totheoldschoolbuildingandtotheentrancesatthewestandsouthwestsidesoftheproperty(Welzenbach2012,41).(Welzenbach2012,41).

AnotherinterestingpossibilitywithregardtoaboardwalkcirclingtheRussianBishop’sHouseissuggestedinVectomov’s1886listofrequiredrepairs:“aditchdugaroundthehousenotlessthanthreefeetdeepandfourandahalffeetwidewithitsoutletonthebeach.Thewholeoftheditchcoveredwithapavementofboardsthatwillserveasapath”(Arndt2004,39).ThefindingsoftheCulturalLandscapeReport(Welzenbach2012,81)donotfindthepresentboardwalks(Figures6.16,17,18,19,21and26)tobesufficientlydocumentedasareconstructionandnotsufficientlydifferentiatedastobedistinguishablefromhistoricmaterials.Whilethepresenceofboardwalksonthissiteisbeyondquestion,moredocumentationisdesirabletosupporttheexistingreconstruction,or,alternatively,toredefineitasamodificationrequiredforpublicuse.Circulation

TheCulturalLandscapeInventoryprovidesinformationaboutcirculationpatternsatanumberofdifferentscales,providingvaluableinformationnotonlyaboutmovementonthesiteitself,butlinkingittootherecclesiasticalresourcesinSitka.The“willway”usedonaregularbasisbetweentheRussianBishop’sHouseandtheSchoolhouse(Figure6.24)suggeststhatsuchapathmightreflecthistoricusage.



Figure6.24.PathwornintheturfdemonstratesthecirculationpatternbetweentheRussianBishop'sHouseandtheSchoolhouse,lookingnorth,September2016.

GardenIn1843,theyeartheRussianBishop’sHousewascompleted,seedswereorderedfromIrkutskbytheRussianAmericanCompany,includingturnips,carrot,beet,radish,cabbage,redcabbage,savoycabbage,cauliflower,onions,leek,rutabaga,kohlrabi,variouslettuces,gardencress,parsley,celery,spinach,parsnip,cucumber,marjoram,dill,varioussugarpeasandgreenpeas(Arndt2003,119),andthefollowingyearagardenwithafencewasconstructedattheBishop’sHouse(Arndt2003,8-9and15).The1845mapindicatesagardeninthefrontyard.

AgardenexistedinthefrontyardoftheRussianBishop’sHousefrom1844through1854.From1854to1888,agardenisnotmentionedinchurchrecords.In1888,agardenisindicatedinthechurchrecords.ThisgardenwaslikelylocatedbehindtheBishop’sHouseandexistedatleastthrough1894.Thelatestevidenceofgardeningonthesiteisfrom1921(Welzenbach2012,39).

GiventheAlaskanclimate,obtainingfoodsupplieswasalwaysachallenge.AgriculturallaborwascertainlyexpectedofthosewhowerepartoftheBishop’sHousecommunity.Asoneofseveralpossibleinterpretativesolutions,thegarden(Figure6.25)contributestoanappropriatehistoricinterpretationoftheRussianBishop’sHouse.



Figure6.25.GardeninfrontoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnortheast,September2016.

OtherVegetationOneofthemostnoticeablefeaturesoftheyardsurroundingtheRussianBishop’sHousearethetwomatureSitkasprucetrees(Figures6.6,10,11,12,13,14and16)inthefrontyard.

Whilevegetablegardensconstitutedthemajorityofplantedvegetationonthesite,severalhistoricphotographsoftheBishop’sHouse,theearliestfrom1890,containtwolargeevergreentreesinthefrontyard.Accordingtoan1897issueoftheRussianOrthodoxMessengerthesetreeswereplantedinfrontofthehousebyBishopInnokentii(Cloyd1982:41).Whilethesetreeswerepresentwithintheperiodofsignificance,theyeartheywereplantedisunknown.Inaddition,theissueoftheMessengerwasprintedoverfortyyearsafterInnokentiioccupiedthehouseandthestatementthatheplantedthetreesisuncorroborated.Thetreeswerereferredtoas“mightycedars”butweremostlikelySitkasprucebecauseoftheirgrowthhabit,locationinfullsun,andthelimitedvarietyofevergreentreesnativetosoutheastAlaska.Thetreeswerepresentonsitethroughtheendoftheperiodofsignificance.AhistoricphotographoftheBishop’sHousefrom1927(catalogno:SITK15730)depictsthetalltreesinfrontofthehouse.Inanotherphotographfrom1943notreeswerepresent.Thus,thetreeswereremovedbetween1927and1943.Duringtherestoration,twoyoungSitkasprucetreeswereplantedinasimilarlocationinthefrontyardoftheBishop’sHouse(Welzenbach2012,40).



TheSitkasprucetreescontributetoanappropriatehistoricinterpretationoftheRussianBishop’sHouse.Thelawnmaynotbereflectiveoftheearliesthistoricpractice,butalawnappearsinthefrontyardbytheturnofthecentury(Figure6.26).ThismayreflecttherolledgrasscroquetfieldthatStephanM.Ushin,aRussian-AmericanCompanyclerkinSitkabefore1867,describesinhisdiary(Ushin1936,Vol.1:30).Dependingonthechoiceofinterpretivefocus,alawncouldbeasvalidasagardeninfrontoftheRussianBishop’sHouse.

Figure6.26.RolledormowedlawnandboardwalkinfrontoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnortheast,ca.1900.

AnarborvitaehedgegrowstothewestofthestepsandADArampleadingtotheschoolhouse(Figure6.30).Thiswasmostlikelyintroducedasasafetyfeaturewhentheschoolhousewasrehabilitatedin1999.Itisnoncontributing,butshouldberetainedforpracticalsafetyreasons.SignageParksignageissuitablyplacedanddoesnotdetractfromthehistoricresource(Figures6.27and28).



Figure6.27.NationalParkServicesignageattheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingeast,September2016.

Figure6.28.InterpretivesignageinfrontoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingnorth,September2016.

LightingLightingisappropriatelyplacedanddoesnotdetractfromthehistoricresource(Figure6.29).Whileclearlynothistoric,itprovidestwenty-firstcenturyilluminationinasensitiveway.



Figure6.29.ExampleoflightingfortheRussianBishop'sHouseinthenortheastcorneroftheproperty,lookingnorth,September2016.

ADAAccessAppropriateADAaccessisachievedbytheuseofwoodenrampswhichdonotnegativelyimpactthehistoricresource(Figures6.30and31).

Figure6.30.ADAaccessonthewestsideoftheSchoolhouse,lookingsoutheast,September2016.



Figure6.31.ADAaccessonthewestsideoftheRussianBishop'sHouse,lookingsouth,September2016.

Non-ContributingStructures

AstorageshedandotherutilitieshavebeenplacedthenorthoftheSchoolhouseinanunobtrusivelocation(Figure6.32).

Figure6.32.NoncontributingstorageshedandutilitiesinthenortheastcorneroftheRussianBishop'sHouseproperty,lookingnortheast,September2016.



6.8EVALUATIONOFINTEGRITY

TheelementsoftheRussianBishop’sHousepropertyhavebeenalteredseveraltimessinceitwasconstructedin1843.Thedetailedinformationabouteachelementprovidedaboveservesasarecordoftheactivitiesonthesite.Alterationstothelandscapeovertimerepresenttheculturalpracticesoftheresidents(gardening,bathhouses),theadaptationtothelocalclimate(boardwalks),andthepressuresofurbandevelopment(boundarychanges).Theavailabilityofhistoricalinformationabouteachelementofthelandscapevaries.ThelandscapehasbeenassociatedwiththeRussianBishop’sHousefor170years.Thus,whilethisreportisthoroughinitsexaminationofhistoricmaterial,gapsininformationrelatedtoallofthesiteelementsremain.ThelandscapeoftheBishop’sHouseisapieceofthehistoricurbanfabricconnectingtheBishop’sHousetothetownofSitkaasawholeandthehistoryofthelandscaperevealsadditionalinformationabouttheuniquehistoryoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchinAlaska(Welzenbach2012,42).

6.9CONDITIONASSESSMENTTheNationalParkServicehascreatedastandardwherebyconditionisexpressedasaratingofgood,fair,orpoor.

Good:Indicatestheinventoryunitshowsnoclearevidenceofmajornegativedisturbanceanddeteriorationbynaturaland/orhumanforces.Theinventoryunit’sculturalandnaturalvaluesareaswellpreservedascanbeexpectedunderthegivenenvironmentalconditions.Noimmediatecorrectiveactionisrequiredtomaintainitscurrentcondition.Fair:Indicatestheinventoryunitshowsclearevidenceofminordisturbancesanddeteriorationbynaturaland/orhumanforces,andsomedegreeofcorrectiveactionisneededwithin3-5yearstopreventfurtherharmtoitsculturaland/ornaturalvalues.Iflefttocontinuewithouttheappropriatecorrectiveaction,thecumulativeeffectofthedeteriorationofmanyofthelandscapecharacteristicswillcausetheinventoryunittodegradetoapoorcondition.Poor:Indicatestheinventoryunitshowsclearevidenceofmajordisturbanceandrapiddeteriorationbynaturaland/orhumanforces.Immediatecorrectiveactionisrequiredtoprotectandpreservetheremaininghistoricalandnaturalvalues(Pageetal.2009,§8.1).

Feature Identification Status Condition

BuildingsandStructures RussianBishop’sHouse Contributing Good Schoolhouse Contributing Good StorageShed Noncontributing Good MechanicalUnits Noncontributing Good

Hardscape WoodenFencing Contributing Good Wireandpolefencing(northside) Noncontributing Good Boardwalks Noncontributing Good Signage Noncontributing Good Lighting Noncontributing Good ADAAccessibilityFeatures Noncontributing Good



Feature Identification Status Condition Vegetation TwoSitkaSpruceTrees Contributing Good Garden Contributing Good Lawn Contributing Good Arborvitaehedge Noncontributing Good NorthernFencelineVegetation Noncontributing GoodFigure6.33.ConditionassessmentofcontributingandnoncontributingfeaturesattheRussianBishop'sHouse.

Alloftheindividualcontributingandnoncontributingfeaturesofthelandscapehavebeenratedasgood.However,thisreportagreeswiththe2011findingoftheCulturalLandscapeInventorythattheoverallconditionassessmentisFair,largelybecauseofthedocumentationoftheboardwalks.TheConditionAssessmentNarrative(Welzenbach2012,81)states:

ThecurrentlandscapeattheRussianBishop’sHousepropertyisnotentirelyhistoricallyaccurate,butmaintainsitshistoricintegrityduetothesignificanceandintegrityofitsprimarylandscapefeature,theRussianBishop’sHouse.The‘fair’landscapeconditionassessmentisaresultofurbandevelopmentaroundthepropertyandtheerosionoftheproperty’soriginalhistoricboundaries,butalsoduetothefactthattheprincipalfocusofpastrestorationeffortshasbeenonthebuildingandnotthelandscapeandassociatedfeatures.Specifically,severallandscapefeatureshavebeenreconstructedonthesite(thefence,theboardwalksandthegarden),butthesereconstructionsarenotalignedwithcurrentNPSreconstructionpoliciesforlandscapes.Somequestionstoaskaboutthereconstructionoftheselandscapeelementsmightbe:Werethesereconstructionsbasedondocumentaryorphysicalevidence?Didtheyoccurinthesamelocationastheoriginalelements?Wastherenoalternativetotheseactionsthatcouldaccomplishthepark’sinterpretivemission?

Itwillbeimportanttocontinuetoevaluatewhetherreconstructedlandscapefeaturesposeissuesofauthenticityorarepracticalsolutionstocontemporaryinterpretiveissues.Perhapsthegardencouldbeseenasanon-goingexhibittobereplacedonoccasionbyacroquetlawn?TheboardwalkscouldbereevaluatedassuggestedintheCulturalLandscapeReport(Welzenbach2012)inthecourseofongoingmaintenance.6.10ANALYSISOFINTERPRETIVEPOTENTIALThehistoriclandscapeoftheRussianBishop’sHouseoffersinterpretivepossibilitiesatanumberofdifferentscales,suitableforawiderangeofvisitors.IdentificationandanalysisofthesetargetpopulationsisessentialindeterminingappropriateactivitiesandexhibitsandindetermininghowtoinviteadditionalinterestgroupstotakeadvantageoftheopportunitiesprovidedbytheRussianBishop’sHouse.



OnSiteDirectlinkstotheimmediatesettingsoftheRussianBishop’sHouseshouldbeexploited.On-siteactivitiesanddemonstrationscouldpotentiallyaddbeekeepingpracticestogardening.BeekeepingwasnotparticularlysuccessfulinSitka,butitwasanimportantecclesiasticalinitiativenotonlybecauseofthehoneyproducedbutalsobecauseofthecommercialandsymbolicvalueofbeeswax.Likewise,thelinkbetweenSiberianandAlaskanagriculturecouldbefurtherdeveloped.CitywideSt.Michael’sCathedralandtheSitkaHistoricalSocietyarepotentialpartnersinenhancingalocalinterestintheRussianBishop’sHouse.Atthisscale,appropriateseasonaleventsareimportant.ThefeastofAnnunciationisanimportantdatefortheRussianBishop’sHouse,afeastcelebratedwithprocessionsthroughthestreets.St.NicholasisoneofthemostpopularsaintsinAlaska,giventherelationshipofAlaskanstotheocean.St.NicholasDay(popularinmaritimecommunities)andthefeastofSt.MichaeltheArchangel(patronalfeastoftheCathedral)alsoofferoccasionsforcelebration.ThewiderecclesiasticallandscapeofthehistoryoftheRussianOrthodoxmissioninSitkashouldbeintegratedintotheinterpretationoftheRussianBishop’sHouse.

TheRussianBishop’sHouselandscapepossessesmulti-dimensionalhistoricalandcontemporarysignificance.TheRussianBishop’sHouseisarareexampleofRussianperiodarchitectureinAmerica.ThesturdybuildingdesignedforthefirstbishopoftheAlaskanandFarEasternRussiandiocesewasutilizedforonehundredandtwentysixyearsbytheRussianOrthodoxChurch.ThepropertyexpressestheRussianAmericanperiodwhenNovo-Arkhangel’skservedasthecolonialheadquartersinAlaskaandtheearlyAmericanyearswhentheRussianOrthodoxChurchcontinuedtoconductmissionaryworkandprovideimportanteducationalservicestoNativecommunitiesinAlaska.AsaphysicalcomponentofthecontinuedpresenceofOrthodoxspiritualcommunityinSitkaandanexpressionoftherevitalizationoftheRussianAmericanperiod,theRussianBishop’sHousepropertyisrepresentativeofahistoricdistrictwithcontemporaryculturalmeaning(Welzenbach2012,19).

TheRussianBishop’sHousecomplexisoneoffiveRussianOrthodoxhistoricecclesiasticalsitesinSitka.TheothersareSt.Michael’sCathedral,theformersiteofthefirstandsecondSt.Michael’schurches,theformersiteoftheTrinitychurch,andtheRussianCemetery.EachofthesesitespresentsauniqueaspectofSitkahistory,atthesametimethatcommonelementsdemonstratelinkstoRussianOrthodoxhistoricsitesthroughoutAlaska.BecauseofitslocationinSitka,thehistoriccapitalofAlaska,aswellasbecauseofthestewardshipoftheNationalParkService,theRussianBishop’sHouseiswellsituatedtoserveastheinterpretivecenterforrelatedRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalsitesinSitka(Figure7K-2).



Statewide,NationalandInternationalTheRussianBishop’sHouseislikewiseinanexcellentpositiontofacilitateacollaborationbetweenthemanyconstituenciesofalargerRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticallandscapeinAlaska.InAnchorage,Eklutna,Kenai,Kodiak,andUnalaska,thereareanumberofprivateandpublicmuseums,churchesandschoolsinterestedandabletoserveasactivepartnersinsuchanundertaking.Sitesvisitedduringthecourseofthisstudyprovideapointofdeparture.AdditionalprioritysitestobeincludedinfuturestudiesareRussianMission(becauseofitshistoricimportanceanditslinktoJacobNetsvetov),Angoon(becauseofitsadjacencytoSitka)andFunterBay(aspartofthestoryofWarinthePacificNationalHistoricPark).Theinterestinpracticalsciences,especiallybutnotonlyagriculture,displayedbyboththeecclesiasticalandthesecularRussianmissionsinAlaska,providesanotherareaoffocus.SuchprojectsastheSitkaSprucePlantationatUnalaskahavedirectrelevancetoSitka.INTERPRETIVEALLIANCETheRussianBishop’sHouseiswell-situatedtocoordinateastate-wideinterpretiveallianceofhistoricRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticallandscapes.Numerouspublicandprivateorganizationsofferresourcesinthisareaandhaveexpressedinterestincollaboration.SeeFigure4-2foramapofthegeographicscopeofthisstudyalone.ThreeparksintheNationalParksystemhaveecclesiasticalresources:AniakchakNationalMonumentandPreserve(KingSalmon),KatmaiNationalParkandPreserve(Katmai),andWarinthePacificNationalHistoricalPark(Guam).Justinthecourseofthisstudy,asignificantnumberofprivateandpublicmuseums,librariesandfoundationshaveexpressedinterestinsuchacoalition.Amongtheseare:

Name WebAddress Location ROSSIA(RussianOrthodox

SacredSitesinAlaska) https://www.rossialaska.org AnchorageUAA/APUConsortiumLibrary https://consortiumlibrary.org AnchorageEklutnaHistoricalPark http://www.eklutnahistoricalpark.org EklutnaAlaskaStateLibrary http://library.alaska.gov JuneauSealaskaCorporation http://www.sealaska.com JuneauAlutiqMuseum https://alutiiqmuseum.org KodiakBaranofMuseum http://baranovmuseum.org KodiakSt.Herman'sTheologicalSeminary http://www.sthermanseminary.org KodiakSeldoviaVillageTribeMuseum http://www.svt.org/museum_visitor_center.html Seldovia



Name WebAddress Location AnchorageMuseumat

RasmussenCenter https://www.anchoragemuseum.org SitkaSheldonJacksonMuseum http://museums.alaska.gov/sheldon_jackson/sjhome.html SitkaSitkaHistoryMuseum http://sitkahistory.com SitkaMuseumoftheAleutians http://www.aleutians.org UnalaskaFigure6.34.Potentialpublicandprivatepartnersforcollaborativeinterpretivework.

BishopDavid(Mahaffey)oftheOrthodoxChurchinAmericaDioceseofAlaskahasvoicedsupportforacollaborativeinterpretiveeffortforRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticallandscapesinAlaska,andanumberofindividualOrthodoxparishesinAlaskahaveexpressedinterest.Amongtheseare:

Location DedicationofChurch Angoon St.JohntheBaptistChurchBethel St.SophiaOrthodoxChurchEklutna St.NicholasChurchHoonah St.NicholasChurchJuneau St.NicholasRussianOrthodoxChurchKenai HolyAssumptionoftheVirginMaryChurchKodiak HolyResurrectionOrthodoxCathedralKwethluk St.NicholasChurchNapaskiak St.JamesChurchNinilchik TransfigurationofOurLordChurchOldHarbor ThreeSaintsChurchOuzinkie NativityofOurLordChurchRussianMission ElevationoftheHolyCrossChurchSeldovia St.NicholasChurchSitka St.MichaeltheArchangelOrthodoxCathedralSpruceIsland SS.SergiusandHermanofValaamChurchSt.George St.GeorgeChurchSt.Paul SS.PeterandPaulChurchUnalaska HolyAscensionofOurLordCathedralFigure6.35.Potentialcollaboratingpartners-selectedparishesoftheAlaskanDioceseoftheOrthodoxChurchinAmerica.

6.12MANAGEMENTOBJECTIVESTherecommendedtreatmentforthelandscapeoftheRussianBishop’sHouseisRehabilitation.Rehabilitationisdefinedastheactorprocessofmakingpossibleacompatibleuseforapropertythroughrepair,alterations,andadditionswhilepreservingthoseportionsorfeatureswhichconveyitshistorical,culturalorarchitecturalvalues(BirnbaumandPeters1996,48).ChangeandContinuity

Thereisabalancebetweenchangeandcontinuityinallculturalresources.Changeisinherentinculturallandscapes;itresultsfrombothnaturalprocessesandhumanactivities.Sometimesthatchangeissubtle,barelyperceptibleaswiththe



geomorphologicaleffectsonlandform.Atothertimes,itisstrikinglyobvious,aswithvegetation,eitherinthecyclicalchangesofgrowthandreproductionortheprogressivechangesofplantcompetitionandsuccession.Thisdynamicqualityofallculturallandscapesisbalancedbythecontinuityofdistinctivecharacteristicsretainedovertime.For,inspiteofalandscape’sconstantchange(orperhapsbecauseofit),apropertycanstillexhibitcontinuityofform,order,use,features,ormaterials.Preservationandrehabilitationtreatmentsseektosecureandemphasizecontinuitywhileacknowledgingchange(BirnbaumandPeters1996,6).

Culturallandscapemanagementobjectivesmustbeconsideredatseveralscales.Atthefinestgrain,definingcharacteristicsofthelandscapeoftheRussianBishop’sHousemustbegivenequalimportancetothoseofthebuildingsonthesite.Thechangingcharacteroflandscapesindicatesagreaterresponsivenesstothehistoriccontextthanispossiblewithmorestaticresourcessuchasbuildings.Alandscapeshouldbeadaptedinthepresenttoreflectspecificpointsinitspast,ratherthantopresentagenericandhomogenizedinterpretationofitsappearanceovertime.BecauseofthedefinedperiodofsignificanceoftheRussianBishop’sHouse,arangeofinterpretationswillbecompatible.Aspecificcaseinpointiswhethertodevotethefrontyardtolawnorgarden.

• Furtherresearch,bothdocumentaryandarcheological,isrequiredinordertoprovideappropriatehistoriclandscapeguidance.Thefeatureinventorylistedaboveisnotextensive,butsomefeaturesclearlyrequiremoreinvestigation.Circulationpatternsshouldbeofparticularconsiderationhere.

ConsideringelementsbeyondthelotlinesisessentialtoafullerunderstandingofthelandscapeoftheRussianBishop’sHouse.

• Historicclustersshouldberespected,includingnon-historicconstructiontotheeastandwestoftheHouse.InclusionofBuilding105aspartoftheclustershouldbeconsidered.

• Theviewtothenorthshouldnotbescreened.TheopenspaceoftheBaranofplaygroundismoreinkeepingwiththehistoriccharacterofthelandscapethanascreenofevergreenswouldbe.Anotheradvantageofthisopenspaceisacoustic,maintainingamorenaturalsoundscapeonthesite.Theyoungsprucesattheeastandwestendsofthewirefencearevaluableinobscuringtheutilitariannatureofthefence,whichbycomparisonappearsalmosttranslucent.

InterpretationoftheRussianBishop’sHouseshouldnotberestrictedtothephysicalspaceofthebuildingsorlot,oreventothewiderlandscapeofSitka,butrathertotheentiregeographicextentoftheRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticalresourcesofAlaska.Bydevelopinginterpretiveresourcesatanumberofdifferentscales,theinterpretationoftheBishop’sHousecanbeappropriatelyexpandedtoinclude:



• ThelandscapeelementspresentonthesiteinrelationshiptothechangingusesoftheBishop’sHouse.

• TheRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticallandscapeofSitkainrelationshiptotheBishop’sHouse.

• TheRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticallandscapeofAlaskainrelationshiptothechangingroleoftheBishop’sHouseoveritsperiodofsignificance.

• AnenhancedunderstandingoftheRussianOrthodoxlandscapeperspective,whichsawitsmissioninAlaskaasrangingfromwesttosoutheast,inoppositiontomoretypicalAmericanviewofAlaskaasbeinginthefarnorth.

• CollaborativeefforttolinktoandsharethenumerousresourcesofpublicandprivateconstituencieswhovaluetheRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticallandscapeheritageinAlaska.

6.13TREATMENTRECOMMENDATIONSTreatmentrecommendationsarespecifictothelandscapeoftheRussianBishop’sHouse.

• Viewsandvistasshouldbemaintainedinsupportofmanagementobjectives(above).

• Historiccirculationpatternsshouldbereviewed.Overtimeroutinemaintenance

mayprovidetheoccasionformoreappropriatehistoricallydocumentedalternatives.

• BecausevegetationvariedduringtheperiodofsignificanceoftheBishop’s

House,theselectionofaspecificpointinthecontinuumisappropriate,butinappropriatemixingoftemporalfeaturesshouldbeavoided.

• Treesimpactalandscapeforalongerperiodoftimethanothervegetation.Ifthe

twosprucetreeswerepresentforallbutashorttimeduringtheperiodofsignificance,theyshouldberetainedandreplacedasnecessary.Thetreesshouldbeinspectedyearlyandfertilizationandremedialcareshouldbeprovidedasneeded.

Figure Caption Date Photographer Collection Identifier Source Figure6.5 PlanofSitka 1845





Figure6.7

NorthoftheRussianBishop’sHouse

Ca.1900 E.W.Merrill

SitkaNationalHistoricalPark SITK26313

https://www.nps.gov/common/uploads/photogallery/akr/park/sitk/749BB3F8-1DD8-B71B-0BBF67F70436D6C1/749BB3F8-1DD8-B71B-0BBF67F70436D6C1.jpg

Figure6.8

Seminary,lookingwesttowardstheRussianBishop’sHouse

Before1882


Welzenbach2012,501

Figure6.9

TheRussianBishop’sHouse,lookingnortheast 1885


SITK15714

Welzenbach2012,50

Figure6.10

TheRussianBishop’sHouse,lookingnortheast 1890 E.W.Merrill


https://www.nps.gov/common/uploads/photogallery/akr/park/sitk/741039BE-1DD8-B71B-0BF32CB5191BFA7E/741039BE-1DD8-B71B-0BF32CB5191BFA7E.jpg

Figure6.11

TheRussianBishop’sHouse,lookingnorthest

Ca.1900


ASL-P243-2-096


Figure6.12

TheRussianBishop’sHouse,lookingnorthfromthebeach

Ca.1900 E.W.Merrill

SitkaNationalHistoricalPark Notcited

Welzenbach2012,51

1Atypographicalerrordatesthisphototo1967.




Figure6.26

FrontlawnattheRussianBishop’sHouse

Ca.1900 E.W.Merrill


https://www.nps.gov/media/photo/gallery.htm?hiderightrail=true&tagid=0&showrawlisting=false&id=730A11F4%2D1DD8%2DB71B%2D0B3B4E35AE4A0099&maxrows=20&startrow=61

Figure6.36.Sourcesofhistoricphotographs.


Chapter7.01–NationalRegisterListedEcclesiasticalBuildings 405

NATIONALREGISTERLISTEDECCLESIASTICAL

BUILDINGSINALASKANR–NationalRegisterListingNL–NationalLandmarkListingTSpage–1980ThematicStudy(MonginandKreta1979)Shadedrowsgrouplistingsbydate.The1980slistingsaretheresultofKretaandMongin’sworkin1979.Whiletheiraccomplishmentisimpressiveinitsscope,todaythisgroupnominationrequiresrevisionandexpansion.Twoofthelistedchurched–AfognakandBalkovski–nolongerexist.

Location Dedication IDNumberTS

page Level Date Sitka St.Michael'sCathedral 19661015 NA NL 1966

Sitka RussianBishop'sHouse 19661015 NA NR 1966

St.GeorgeSt.GeorgetheGreatMartyrChurch 66000156 NA NL 1966

St.PaulIsland Sts.PeterandPaulChurch 66000156 NA NL 1966Kenai HolyAsumptionChurch 19700510 NA NL 1970Unalaska HolyAscensionCathedral 19700415 NA NL 1970Eklutna St.NicholasChurch(old) 72000189 NA NR 1972Kodiak HolyResurrectionChurch 19771212 NA NR 1977Ninilchik HolyTransfigurationChapel 19780522 NA NR 1978

AfognakNativityoftheHolyTheotokos 19800606 8 NR 1980

AkhiokProtectionoftheTheotokosChapel 19800606 43 NR 1980

AkutanSt.AlexanderNevskyChapel 19800606 45 NR 1980

Angoon St.JohntheBaptistChurch 19800606 41 NR 1980Belkofski HolyResurrectionChurch 19800606 11 NR 1980Chuathbaluk St.SergiusChapel 19800606 35 NR 1980

CordovaSt.MichaeltheArchangelChurch 19800606 14 NR 1980

Ekuk St.NicholasChapel 19800606 28 NR 1980

EnglishBaySts.SergiusandHermanofValaam 19800606 39 NR 1980

Igiugig St.NicholasChapel 19800606 15 NR 1980


Chapter7.01–NationalRegisterListedEcclesiasticalBuildings406

Location Dedication IDNumberTS

page Level Date

LimeVillageSts.ConstantineandHelenChapel 19800606 24 NR 1980

LowerKalskagSt.SeraphimChapel(oldchurch) 19800606 36 NR 1980

Monk'sLagoonSts.SergiusandHermanofValaamChapel 19800606 22 NR 1980

Naknek St.JohntheBaptistChapel 19800606 26 NR 1980Napaskiak St.Jaoob'sChurch 19800606 9 NR 1980

NikolaiPresentationofOurLordChapel 19800606 25 NR 1980

Nikolski St.NicholasChurch 19800606 38 NR 1980Nondalton St.NicholasChapel 19800606 16 NR 1980

NushagakTransfigurationofOurLordChapel 19800606 29 NR 1980

Ouzinkie NativityofOurLordChapel 19800606 23 NR 1980PedroBay St.NicholasChapel 19800606 19 NR 1980

PerryvilleSt.JohntheTheologianChurch 19800606 42 NR 1980

PilotPoint St.NicholasChurch 19800606 45 NR 1980SandPoint St.NicholasChapel 19800606 31 NR 1980Seldovia St.NicholasChapel 19800606 40 NR 1980

SouthNaknekElevationoftheHolyCrossChurch 19800606 27 NR 1980

St.GeorgeIslandSt.GeorgetheGreatMartyrChurch 19800606 32 NR 1980

St.PaulIsland Sts.PeterandPaulChurch 19800606 33 NR 1980KwethlukSt.NicholasChurch 91000385 NA NR 1991


Chapter7.02–HistoricAmericanBuildingsSurveys 407

HISTORICAMERICANBUILDINGSSURVEYSOFRUSSIANORTHODOXCHURCHESINALASKA

*Nolongerinexistence.NationalLandmarksareindicatedinboldtype.Alaskanvillagesmayhaveseveraldifferentnames;alternativestocurrentlyusednamesareincludedintheLocationcolumnforreference.InformationonRussiannamesforSitka,KodiakandUnalaskaisincludedinfieldnotesfortheseplaces.

Location Dedication HABS Afognak* NativityoftheHolyTheotokos AK-55A

Akhiok ProtectionofthetheTheotokosChapel AK-54Akutan St.AlexanderNevskyChapel AK-73Angoon St.JohntheBaptistChurch AK-61Belkofski* HolyResurrectionChurch NAChuathbaluk/LittleRussianMission St.SergiusofRadonezhChapel AK-90Cordova St.MichaeltheArchangelChurch AK-58Eklutna St.NicholasChurch(old) AK-94-AEklutna St.NicholasChurch(new) AK-94-BEkuk(Ekwok) St.NicholasChapel AK-88EnglishBay/Nanwalek/Alexandrovsk/PortGraham

StsSergiusandHermanofValaamChurch(old) AK-91A

Igiugig St.NicholasChapel AK-81Karluk AscensionofOurLordChapel AK-77Kenai HolyAssumptionChurch AK-39AKingCove St.HermanChurch AK-74Kodiak HolyResurrectionChurch AK-57KwethlukSt.NicholasChurch NALimeVillage Sts.ConstantineandHelen AK-89LowerKalskag St.SeraphimChapel(old) AK-92-ALowerKalskag St.SeraphimChapel(new) NAMonk'sLagoon StsSergiusandHermanofValaamChapel AK-52ANaknek St.JohntheBaptistChapel AK-85Naknek St.JohntheBaptistChapel AK-85Napaskiak St.Jacob'sChurch AK-80Nikolai PresentationofOurLordChapel AK-83Nikolski St.NicholasChurch AK-69Ninilchik HolyTransfigurationChapel AK-93


Chapter7.02–HistoricAmericanBuildingsSurveys408

Location Dedication HABS Nondalton St.NicholasChapel AK-84

Ouzinkie NativityofOurLordChapel AK-56PedroBay St.NicholasChapel AK-87Perryville St.JohntheTheologianChurch AK-72PilotPoint St.NicholasChurch AK-76PilotStation1 TransfigurationofOurLordChurch NARussianMission/Ikogmiut/Kvikhpak ElevationoftheHolyCrossChurch AK-65ASandPoint St.NicholasChapel AK-75Seldovia St.NicholasChapel AK-66Sitka AnnunciationChapel AK-17Sitka St.Michael'sCathedral AK-1SouthNaknek ElevationoftheHolyCrossChurch AK-82St.George St.GeorgetheGreatMartyrChurch AK-50St.PaulIsland Sts.PeterandPaulChurch AK-51Unalaska HolyAscensionCathedral AK-37

1PilotStationisnotlistedintheNationalRegister;itmaybeconfusedwithPilotPoint.


Chapter7.03–OCAParishesinAlaska 409

ORTHODOXCHURCHINAMERICAPARISHESINALASKA(2016)

TheOrthodoxChurchinAmericaisthesuccessortotheAlaskaDioceseoftheRussianOrthodoxChurch. Location Dedication Adak St.InnocentChurchAkhiok ProtectionoftheTheotokosChurchAkutan St.AlexanderNevskyChurchAleknagik HolyResurrectionChurchAnchorage St.InnocentCathedralAngoon St.JohntheBaptistChurchAniak ProtectionoftheTheotokosChurchAtka St.NicholasChurchAtmartluaq St.HermanofAlaskaChurchBethel St.SophiaChurchChenegaBay NativityofthetheTheotokosChignikLake St.NicholasChurchChuathbaluk St.SergiusChurchCordova St.MichaeltheArchangelChurchCrookedCreek St.NicholasChurchDillingham St.SeraphimofSarovChurchEek St.MichaeltheArchangelChurchEgegik TransfigurationofOurLordChurchEklutna St.NicholasChurchEkuk St.NicholasChapelEkwok St.JohnChurchFairbanks St.HermanChurchFalsePass St.NicholasChurchHoonah St.NicholasChurchIgiugig St.NicholasChurchJuneau St.NicholasChurchKarluk AscensionofOurLordChurchKasigluk HolyTrinityChapelKasigluk HolyTrinityChurchKenai HolyAssuptionoftheVirginMaryChurchKingCove St.HermanChurchKodiak HolyResurrectionCathedralKokhanok Sts.PeterandPaulChurch


Chapter7.03–OCAParishesinAlaska410

Location Dedication Koliganek St.MichaeltheArchangelKongiganak St.GabrielChurchKwethluk St.NicholasChurchKwigillingok St.MichaelChurchLarsenBay St.HermanChurchLevelock ProtectionoftheVirginMaryChurchLimeVillage Sts.ConstantineandHelenChurchLowerKarskag St.SeraphimChurchMarshall St.MichaelChurchMountainVillage St.PetertheAleutChurchNaknek St.AnnatheMotheroftheTheotokosChurchNanwalek Sts.SergiusandHermanofValaamChurchNapaskiak St.JamesChurchNewStuyahok St.SergiusChurchNewhalen TransfigurationofOurLordChurchNikolai St.PetertheApostleNikolski St.NicholasChurchNinilchik TransfigurationofOurLordChurchNondalton St.NicholasChurchNunapitchuk PresentationoftheTheotokosChurchOhagamuit St.VladimirChurchOldHarbor ThreeSaintsChurchOuzinkie NativityofOurLordChurchPerryville St.JohntheTheologianChurchPilotPoint St.NicholasChurchPilotStation TransfigurationofOurLordChurchPitkasPoint St.PeterandPaulChurchPortGraham St.HermanofAlaskaChurchPortHeiden St.MatronaChurchPortLions NativityoftheTheotokosChurchPortageCreek St.BasilChurchRussianMission ElevationoftheHolyCrossChurchSandPoint St.NicholasChurchSeldovia St.NicholasChurchSitka AnnunciationoftheTheotokosChapelSitka St.MichaeltheArchangelCathedralSleetmute Sts.PeterandPaulChurchSouthNaknek ElevationoftheHolyCrossChurchSpruceIsland Sts.SergiusandHermanofValaamChurchSt.GeorgeIsland St.GeorgeChurchSt.PaulIsland Sts.PeterandPaulChurch


Chapter7.03–OCAParishesinAlaska 411

Location Dedication StonyRiver St.HermanChurchTatitlek St.NicholasChurchTelida St.BasilChurchTuntutuliak St.AgaphiaChurchTyonek St.NicholasChurchUnalaska HolyAscensionofOurLordCathedral


Chapter7.03–OCAParishesinAlaska412



Chapter7.04–ROSSIA 413

ROSSIA(RUSSIANORTHODOXSACREDSITESINALASKA)

Moreinformationonthisnot-for-profitorganization,whosegoalistostabilizeandprotectRussianOrthodoxhistoricresourcesin,canbefoundathttp://www.rossialaska.org/churches/.RUSSIANORTHODOXCHURCHESINALASKALISTEDINTHENATIONALREGISTER,aslistedbyROSSIANationalHistoricLandmarks

• ChapelofSt.Nicholas,Kenai• HolyAscensionCathedral,Unalaska• HolyAssumptionChurch,Kenai• St.GeorgetheGreatMartyrChurch,St.George• Sts.PeterandPaulChurch,St.Paul• St.Michael’sCathedral,Sitka


• AscensionofOurLordChapel,Karluk• ElevationoftheHolyCross,Naknek• HolyResurrectionChurh,Kodiak• HolyTransfigurationofourLordChapel,Ninilchik• NativityofHolyTheotokosChurch,Afognak• NativityofourLordChapel,Ouzinkie• OldSt.NicholasChurch,Eklutna• PresentationofOurLordChapel,Nikolai• ProtectionoftheTheotokosChapel,Akhiok• RussianOrthodoxChurchRectory,Kodiak• St.AlexanderNevskyChapelAkutan• St.Jacob’sChurch,Napaskiak• St.JohntheBaptistChapel,Naknek• St.JohntheBaptistChurch,Angoon• St.JohntheTheologianChurch,Perryville• St.MichaeltheArchangelChurch,Cordova• St.NicholasChapel,Ikuk• St.NicholasChapel,Igiugig• St.NicholasChapel,Nondalton• St.NicholasChapel,PedroBay


Chapter7.04–ROSSIA414

• St.NicholasChapel,SandPoint• St.NicholasChapel,Seldovia• St.NicholasChurch,Kwethluk• St.NicholasChurch,Nikolski• St.NicholasChurch,PilotPoint• St.NicholasRussianOrthodoxChurch,Juneau• St.SergiusofRadonezh,Chuathbaluk• Sts.ConstantineandHelenChapel,LimeVillage• TransfigurationofOurLordChurch,PilotStation1

1Thischurchislistedinerror;itmaybeconfusedwithPilotPoint.


Chapter7.05–ChurchDedications 415

DEDICATIONSOFRUSSIANORTHODOXCHURCHESINALASKA

ThenamesofOrthodoxchurchesaretakenfromfeastdaysornamedforsaintsoftheChurch.Inthepastitwastraditionaltoconsecrateachurchonthefeastorthecelebrationofasaint.ChurchesdedicatedtoSt.Nicholas,patronofseafarers,arecommoninAlaskaforobviousreasons.HOLYRESURRECTION(=Easter)TWELVEGREATFEASTSNativityoftheTheotokos(VirginMary)ExaltationoftheHolyCross(=Elevation)PresentationoftheTheotokosintheTemple(=VirginMary)NativityofChrist(=Christmas)Theophany(=Epiphany)PresentationofJesusintheTempleAnnunciationoftheTheotokosEntryintoJerusalem(=PalmSunday)AscensionofOurLordPentecost(=Trinity)TransfigurationofOurLordDormition(FallingAsleep)oftheTheotokos(=Assumption)SAINTSSt.Nicholas(ofMyra)-byfarthemostcommondedicationSt.JohntheBaptistSts.SergiusandHermanofValaamSt.Michael(Archangel)Sts.PeterandPaultheApostlesSts.ConstantineandHelenSt.SergiusofRadonezhSt.SeraphimofSarovSt.Jacob(=James,brotheroftheLord)St.AlexanderNevskySt.InnocentEnlightenerofAlaska(=Veniaminov)St.HermanofAlaskaSt.TikhonofMoscowSt.Anna,theMotheroftheTheotokosProtectingVeiloftheTheotokos(=PokrovorProtection/VirginMary)St.JohntheTheologian


Chapter7.05–ChurchDedications416

St.PetertheApostleSt.BasilSt.MatronaSt.AgaphiaSt.GabrielSt.SophiaThreeSaints(=ThreeHierarchs,BasiltheGreat,GregorytheTheologianandJohn

Chrysostom)


Chapter7.06–DraftLandscapeInventoryForm 417

DRAFTLANDSCAPEINVENTORYFORM

HelenEricksonundertookworkonthedevelopmentofadocumentationprocedureforecclesiasticalresourcesatremotelocationsinAlaska.AtSt.Herman’s(April2015),atextandphotographformatwaspresentedtotheseminarystudents,whoaredrawnfromvillagesacrossAlaska.AsimilarpresentationwasmadeforclergywivesattheannualKuskokwimDeaneryconference,heldinNapaskiak,Alaska(July2015).Afterthesepresentations,itwasdeterminedthatvideo(phone)documentationratherthanwrittendocumentationwouldbeafarmoreeffectivemediumforthiscrowd-sourcedproject.


Chapter7.06–DraftLandscapeInventoryForm418


Chapter7.07-Videography 433

VIDEOGRAPHY:ADOCUMENTATIONTOOL

Whilethereisnosubstitutefordocumentationbytrainedhistoriclandscapepractitioners,thelargenumberofimportantsitesandthesizeoftheStateofAlaskaindicateaneedforcrowd-sourceddocumentation,especiallyofthoseecclesiasticallandscapesthataredifficulttoaccess.Apreliminarydraftofatextandphotoformatderivedfromthatoftheshort-formHistoricAmericanLandscapeSurvey(HALS)waseventuallydeterminedtobeanineffectivetool.ThedraftformwaspresentedtostudentsfromSt.Herman’sSeminary,whoaredrawnfromvillagesacrossAlaska,inApril2015,andsubsequentlypresentedtoclergywivesattheannualKuskokwimDeaneryconference,heldinNapaskiakinJuly2015.DiscussionrevealedthattheAlaskanOrthodoxculturetendstowardstheauralandvisual,makingatextformatastumblingblockratherthanausefulguide.Afterthesepresentations,itwasdeterminedthatvideo(phone)documentation(ratherthanwrittendocumentation)wouldbeafarmoreeffectivemediumforthiscrowd-sourcedproject.Thefocusofthispartoftheprojectthenshiftedtodevelopingguidanceforvideodocumentationoflandscaperesourcesthroughthecreationofmodels.Twowerecreatedaspartofthisproject–oneinKenai,withtheassistanceofDorothyGray,aparishvolunteer,andoneinSitka,withtheassistanceoftheRt.Rev.MichaelOleksaoftheAlaskanDioceseoftheOrthodoxChurchinAmerica.Bothsitesweredeemedusefulbecauseoftherangeofcharacter-definingfeaturesintheselocations.TheSitkabellswererungbyAnaDitmar.TheSeptember2016thefootagewasshotinSeptember2016withaniPadmountedonatripod.Becausetheseweretobemodels,awirelessmicwasusedforthenarration,althoughthiswouldnotbearequirementforvolunteers.Panoramicscansprovidedinformationonvisualcontinuities.RobertDemersoftheUniversityofArizonadidtheeditingandproductionwork.Thetwovideoscanbeaccessedathttp://capla.arizona.edu/project/russian-orthodox-church-alaska-historic.Theyarealsoavailableonthediskthataccompaniesthisvolume.St.Herman’sSeminaryinKodiakhasagreedtoprovideaninitialarchiveforfuturevideos.Theultimatesuccessofthisprojectwilldependonprovidingencouragementandrecognitionforthosewhovolunteertoundertakethiskindofdocumentation.ThefollowingisadocumentpreparedbyRobertDemersfortheuseofvolunteerdocumentariansofRussianOrthodoxecclesiasticallandscapesinAlaska.


Chapter7.07-Videography434

BOBDEMERS’GUIDETOSMARTPHONEVIDEOGRAPHY

AdocumentforcitizendocumentariansoftheAlaskaEcclesiasticalLandscape.Smartphonesareeverywhere,andwithoutstandingvideocapabilitieshighqualityfootagecanbeobtainedaslongasyouknowsomebasicvideographytechniques.

Thevideographermusttellastoryyetshootwiththeeditingprocessinmind.Youmustprovideavarietyofshotsforeachscene,artfullycomposedandlongenoughtogivetheeditoramultitudeofchoicesinassemblingtheshotsintoaninterestingandengagingvideo.

TRIPODSAgoodtripodisnecessarytosteadytheshot.Shakycameraworkdistractstheviewerfromtheintendedmessage.Youwillneedanadaptertoattachyoursmartphonetothetripod.Ifyoucannotfindatripod,amonopodwillhelptosteadymostshots.Makeoneyourselffromawalkingstickwitha¼-20boltattachedtothetop.Usethetripodasmuchasyoucan,savethehandheldcameraworkforwhenitisabsolutelynecessary.

AUDIOResearchshowsanaudiencewilltoleratebadpicturesmorethanbadsound.Payasmuchifnotmoreattentiontothesoundqualityofyourvideos.Thebuilt-inmicrophoneonmanysmartphonesisquitegood,theproblemisthatitisoftentoofarfromthesubjecttogetgoodsound.Ifpossiblepurchaseasmartphoneexternallavalieremicoradaptersoyoucanplaceamicdirectlyonthesubject.Someadaptershaveavolumecontrolsoyoucanadjustthemicrophonelevel.Followthedirectionsthatcomewiththemic.Ifyouhavethe

budget,lookintoawirelessmicrophonesystemforyoursmartphone.Whenyouarriveonlocationtoshootyoursubject,micthemupassoonaspossibleandstartrecordingaudiosoyoudon'tmissanygoodcommentsorobservations.Youcanusethisaudiolaterintheeditingprocess.


Chapter7.07-Videography 435

VIDEOSETTINGSRecordhighdefinitionvideoatthebestpossiblequality.Onmanysmartphonesyoucanselectthevideosettings.Choose1080PHDat30fpsifavailable.

THEINTERVIEWFindaquietplacefortheinterview.Youdonotalwaysneedyoursubjectstandinginfrontofwhattheyarespeakingabout.Youcangetthatshotlateranditcanbeeditedintothevideo.Thesetypeofshots,thosethatwillbeeditedovertheinterviewaudio,arecalled"B-Roll".Indaysofyoretheywereassembledonasecondrolloffilmtobeusedovertheinterviewfootage,or"A-Roll".TrytoshoottheinterviewsbeforeshootingtheB-Rollasthespeakerwillprobablymentionthingsthatyouwillwanttoshoot.Inadditiontofindingaquietplacetoshoottheinterview,findaplacewithgoodlighting;softlighting,fromthesideofyoursubject.Chooseanot-to-brightbackgroundyetinterestingbackground.Youwanttofocustheaudience'sattentiononwhatisbeingsaid,sokeepitsimple.YoucanshoottheB-rollvideolatertoillustratewhatthesubjectistalkingabout.

INTERVIEWTIPS•Useatripod•Setthecameraheighttomatchthesubject'seyelevel.•Makesureyouareusingyoursmartphoneinlandscapemode,notvertically.•Don'tgettooclosetothesubject.Thesmartphonelensisawide-anglelensandwill

distortclose-upsubjects.Framethesubjectfromchestheightup.•Keepthelightonthesubjectsoftandfromtheside;skylightwithoutdirectsunlight

looksgood.•Useaclip-on(orlavaliere)micinsteadofthebuilt-insmartphonemicrophone.•Havetheinterviewerstandorsitasclosetothecameraaspossibleandhavethesubjectlookandrespondtotheinterviewer.Donottrytohavethesubjecttalktothecamera.

Thisishardtodoandrarelylooksgood.

•"Lead"thesubjectinthecameraframe;ifshewillbelookingattheinterviewerontheleftsideofcamera,positionherintherightsideoftheframe.Ifshewillbelookingattheinterviewerontheright,positionherintheleftsideoftheframe.

•Focusonthesubject,notthebackground.Manysmartphoneswillallowyoutolock


Chapter7.07-Videography436

theAutoFocusonaspecificpartoftheimagebytouchingandholdingapointonthescreen.

•Writedownandtrytomemorizeyourquestionssoyoudon'thavetolookatyournotestoooften.Lookyoursubjectintheeyewhentheyspeak,thishelpsthemlookatyouinsteadofthecamera.

•Letyoursubjectspeakuninterruptedandallowforapauseaftertheyfinishanswering.Thiswillgiveyoursubjectachancetofollowupwithadditionalcommentsandprovidecleanaudioforeditingpurposes.

•Attheendoftheinterviewrecordtensecondsof"roomtone"video;thequietsoundofthelocationtheeditorcanuselatertosmoothtransitions.Recordthiswhilethemicisstillonthesubject.

B-ROLLShootavarietyofshotstoillustratethelocation;wideshots,mediumshotsandclose-

ups.Trytoshootatleast3differentshotsfromeachcamerapositionyouchoose.Pickthemostsignificantobjectintheframeandsetthecamerafocusthere.Shootstillshotsandpanoramas.Keepcameramotionslow.Fastpanswillstutterandlookbad.Ifyoulaterfindthatthemotionistooslow,youcanspeeditupwhenyoueditthevideo.BesuretoremainquietwhenshootingtheB-rollsoyougetcleanaudio,ornaturalsoundyoucanmixunderyournarrationorasabridgeinatransition.

Manysmartphoneswillcreatealow-resolution,lowqualityfileforemailortexting.You

willwanttosupplythebestpossiblequalityvideototheeditor,souseacableandconnectdirectlytoacomputertodownloadthevideofiles.Youcanthenuseacloud-basedservicesuchasDropBoxtosharefileswiththeeditor.

RobertB.DemersManager,VideoCommunicationsUniversityofArizonaTucsonArizona


Chapter707AnalysisToolsforHistoricLandscapes 437

DESCRIPTIVEANALYSISTOOLSFORTHEDOCUMENTATIONOFHISTORICLANDSCAPES

FollowinginnovativeworkbyRobertMelnick(Melnicketal.1982)intheearly1980s,avocabularywasdevelopedtodiscussthespecificfeaturesofhistoriclandscapes.Allofthesubsequentworkondesignedlandscapes,rurallandscapesandtraditionalculturalpropertiesrequiredthisappropriateinventorytool.Inthe1990stheNationalParkServiceproducedaseriesofinformationalbulletins–LandscapeLines-toprovidetechnicalinformationonculturallandscaperesearchtopicsandtechniques.TheseriesincludesaguidewhichpresentsamethodandterminologyfordescriptionoftangibleandintangiblecharacteristicsofhistoricallysignificantlandscapesinLandscapeLines3:LandscapeCharacteristics([Curryetal.1998]).1

• “Landscapecharacteristic”istherecommendedtermassociatedwiththeclassificationsysteminthistext.Itreferstotheprocessesandphysicalformsthatcharacterizetheappearanceofalandscapeandaidinunderstandingitsculturalvalue.

• Landscapecharacteristicsaredefinedasthetangibleandintangiblecharacteristicsofalandscapethatindividuallyandcollectivelygivelandscapecharacterandaidinunderstandingitsculturalvalue.

• Landscapecharacteristicisappliedtoeitherculturallyderivedand

naturallyoccurringprocessesortoculturalandnaturalphysicalformsthathaveinfluencedthehistoricaldevelopmentofalandscapeoraretheproductsofitsdevelopment.Theappearanceofaculturallandscape,bothhistoricallyandcurrentlyisauniqueweboflandscapecharacteristicsthatarethetangibleevidenceofthehistoricandcurrentusesoftheland.

• Landscapecharacteristicsarecategoriesunderwhichindividualfeatures

canbegrouped.Forexample,thelandscapecharacteristic“naturalsystemsandfeatures”mayincludesuchindividualfeaturesasaravine,valley,wetland,orcliff.Thelandscapecharacteristic“topography”mayincludesuchfeaturesasanearthwork,drainageditch,orhill.The

1LandscapeLines3waspublishedwithoutbibliographicinformation.ConsultationwithNPSstaffledtoan

attributiontoGeorgeCurry,ReginaBellavia,DavidUschold,CharlesA.Birnbaum,TimothyJ.Kelley,GenevieveKeller,RobertA.Melnick,andRobertR.Page,withapresumeddateof1998.


Chapter707AnalysisToolsforHistoricLandscapes438

landscapecharacteristic“vegetation”mayincludesuchindividualfeaturesasaspecimentree,woodlot,orperennialbed.

• Manylandscapecharacteristicsarecommonamongculturallandscapes;

however,notallcategoriesoflandscapecharacteristicsoccurineverylandscape.Determiningwhichlandscapecharacteristicsexistordidexistwithintheuniquedevelopmentofeachlandscapemustbemade,andonlythelandscapecharacteristicsthatexistorhaveexistedinaparticularlandscapeareidentified.

• Landscapecharacteristicsarevaluableinunderstandingtheevolutionof

alandscape’sappearanceovertime.Theymaynothaveretainedintegrity(thatis,existedinarelativelyunchangedstatesincetheestablishedperiod(s)ofsignificance),andthereforemayormaynotcontributetothesignificanceofalandscape.Somelandscapecharacteristicsmaybecompletelylost,somemayberecentadditions.Understandingwhatremainsandwhatwaslostcaninfluencethetreatmentofthelandscape.

• Landscapecharacteristicsexistprimarilywithintheboundariesofa

culturallandscape;however,itisimportanttoidentifythenatural,cultural,andpoliticalcontextforeverylandscape.Thecontextprovidesanunderstandingoftherelationshipbetweenthelandscapecharacteristicsandthebroaderenvironmentwithinwhichtheyexist.Thenaturalcontextincludesthenaturallyoccurringphysicalformsthathaveinfluencedthelandscape’sdevelopment,suchasdominantlandforms,watersheds,nativevegetation,waterbodies,andwetlands.Theculturalandpoliticalcontextsincludelanduse,zoning,legalrestrictions,transportation,utilities,population,andpoliticaljurisdiction(state,county,city,village,ortown([Curryetal.1998],4-6).

Thefollowinglistoflandscapecharacteristicsformthebasictoolsforanalyzingahistoriclandscape.Theyarenotmutuallyexclusive,andsomewillbeapplicabletosomelandscapesandnottoothers.Therelationshipsbetweenthecharacteristicsmaybeofequalorgreaterimportancethanthecharacteristicsthemselves([Curryetal.1998],6).LANDSCAPECHARACTERISTICS([Curryetal.1998],7-11)

•Naturalsystemsandfeatures

Naturalaspectsthathaveinfluencedthedevelopmentandphysicalformofthelandscape.Examplesoffeaturesassociatedwithnaturalsystemsandfeaturesincluderavines,valleys,watersheds,andwetlands.Includedhereare


Chapter707AnalysisToolsforHistoricLandscapes 439

geomorphology,geology,hydrology,ecology,climate,nativevegetationandotherbioticculturalresourcesincludinganimals.

•Spatialorganization

Thethree-dimensionalorganizationofphysicalformsandvisualassociationsinthelandscape,includingthearticulationofground,vertical,andoverheadplanesthatdefineandcreatespaces.Examplesoffeaturesassociatedwithspatialorganizationincludecirculationsystems,viewsandvistas,divisionsofproperty,andtopography.Includedhereareaspectsofdesignintent,createdboundaries,moundsanddepressionsintheground.

•Landuse

Theprincipalactivitiesinthelandscapethathaveformed,shaped,ororganizedthelandscapeasaresultofhumaninteraction.Examplesoffeaturesassociatedwithlanduseincludeagriculturalfields,pastures,playingfields,andquarries.

•Culturaltraditions

Thepracticesthathaveinfluencedthedevelopmentofthelandscapeintermsoflanduse,patternsoflanddivision,buildingforms,stylisticpreferences,andtheuseofmaterials.Examplesoffeaturesassociatedwithculturaltraditionsincludelandusepractices,buildings,patternsoflanddivision,anduseofvegetation.

•Clusterarrangement

Thelocationandpatternofbuildingsandstructuresinthelandscapeandassociatedoutdoorspaces.Examplesoffeaturesassociatedwithclusterarrangementincludevillagecenters,mining,agricultural,andresidentialcomplexesofbuildingsandstructuresandtheassociatedspacestheydefine.

•Circulation

Thespaces,features,andappliedmaterialfinishesthatconstitutethesystemsofmovementinalandscape.Examplesoffeaturesassociatedwithcirculationincludepaths,sidewalks,roads,andcanals.

•Topography

Thethree-dimensionalconfigurationofthelandscapesurfacecharacterizedbyfeatures(suchasslopeandarticulation,)andorientation(suchaselevationandsolaraspect).Examplesoffeaturesassociatedwithtopographyincludeearthworks,drainageditches,knolls,andterraces.

•Vegetation

Theindividualandaggregateplantfeaturesofdeciduousandevergreentrees,shrubs,vines,groundcoversandherbaceousplants,andplantcommunities,whetherindigenousorintroduced.Examplesoffeaturesassociatedwith


Chapter707AnalysisToolsforHistoricLandscapes440

vegetationincludespecimentrees,allées,woodlots,orchards,andperennialgardens.

•Buildingsandstructures

Theelementsconstructedprimarilyforshelteringanyformofhumanactivitiesareconsideredbuildings.Elementsconstructedforfunctionalpurposesotherthanshelteringhumanactivityareconsideredstructures.Engineeringsystemsarealsostructures,andmechanicalengineeringsystemsmaybedistinguishedfromstructuralengineeringsystems.Mechanicalengineeringsystemsconductutilitieswithinalandscape(powerlines,hydrants,culverts).Structuralengineeringsystemsprovidephysicalstabilizationinthelandscape(retainingwalls,dikes,foundation).

•ViewsandvistasTheprospectcreatedbyarangeofvisionintheculturallandscape,conferredbythecompositionofotherlandscapecharacteristics.Viewsaretheexpansiveorpanoramicprospectofabroadrangeofvision,whichmaybenaturallyoccurringordeliberatelycontrived.Vistasarethecontrolledprospectofadiscrete,linearrangeofvision,whichisdeliberatelycontrived.

•ConstructedwaterfeaturesThebuiltfeaturesandelementsthatusewaterforaestheticorutilitarianfunctionsinthelandscape.Examplesoffeaturesassociatedwithconstructedwaterfeaturesincludefountains,canals,cascades,pools,andreservoirs.

•Small-scalefeaturesTheelementsprovidingdetailanddiversityforbothfunctionalneedsandaestheticconcernsinthelandscape.Examplesoffeaturesassociatedwithsmall-scalefeaturesincludefences,benches,monuments,signs,androadmarkers.

•ArcheologicalsitesAnymaterialremainsorphysicalevidenceofpasthumanlifeoractivitiesthatareofarcheologicalinterest,includingtherecordoftheeffectsofhumanactivitiesontheenvironment.Theyarecapableofrevealingscientificorhumanisticinformationthrougharcheologicalresearch.


Chapter7.09–SamMcClainWatercolors 441

SAMMCCLAINWATERCOLORS

Inthelate1960sandearly1970sBruceKendallofAnchoragecommissionedartistSamMcClaintocreatewatercolorsofasmanyAlaskanROChurchesaspossible.TheseriesofoveronehundredcanbeviewedatAlaska’sDigitalArchives(http://vilda.alaska.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/cdmg21/id/14503/rec/1).Fewoftheseworksincludelandscapeexceptasartisticlicense.ChurchesinhighlightedrowsarelistedintheOrthodoxChurchinAmericanDirectoryasof2016,butthisdoesnotmeanthatthepresentchurchistheonerecordedinthewatercolors.Inaddition,thereareseveralversionsofanumberofsites.

Location # Dedication Afognak 56 RussianOrthodoxChurch,Attu

Afognak 88 NativityoftheTheotokos,AfognakAkhiok 72 ProtectionoftheTheotokos,AkhiokAkuk 36 St.NicholasRussianOrthodoxChapel,EkukAkutan 68 St.AlexanderNevskyChapel,AkutanAkutan 79 OriginalSt.AlexanderNevskyChapel,AkutanAndreafsky 27 RussianOrthodoxChurch,Andreasky[Andreafsy]Angoon 35 St.JohntheBaptist,AngoonAniak 69 ProtectionoftheTheotokos,AniakAniak 90 ProtectionoftheTheotokos,AniakAtka 87 St.Nicholas,AtkaIslandAttu 24 EarlyRussianOrthodoxChurch,AttuIslandAttu 30 RussianOrthodoxChurch,AttuBethel 76 St.SophiaChurch,Bethel(newchurch)BranchRiver 74 RussianOrthodoxChurch,BranchRiverChenega 38 NativityoftheTheotokos(destroyed1964)Chignik 66 St.Nicholas,ChignikCordova 13 St.MichaelChapel,CordovaCordova 47 St.Michael,CordovaDillingham 20 St.SeraphimofSarovChurch,DillinghamDouglas 86 St.SavaSerbianChurchburned1937DouglasVillage 101 RussianOrthodoxChurch,DouglasVillageEklutna 26 OldRussianChurch,dedicatedtoSt.Nicholas,EklutnaVillageEklutna 42 St.Nicholas,EklutnaEkuk 46 St.Nicholas,EkukEkuk 50 St.Nicholas,EkukEkwok 57 St.John,EkwokEnglishBay 11 Ss.SergiusandHermanofValaam,EnglishBay


Chapter7.09–SamMcClainWatercolors442

Location # Dedication Eyak 99 RussianOrthodoxChurch,Eyak

Idenasky 55 RussianOrthodoxChurch,Idenasky[?]Juneau 33 ChurchofSt.Nicholas,JuneauKaguyak 19 St.Michael’sChurch,KaguyakKanatak 85 RussianOrthodoxChurch,KanatakKarluk 8 ChurchoftheAscensionofOurLord,KarlukKashegaVillage 6 HolyTransfigurationRussianOrthodoxChurch,KashegaVillageKasigluk 14 ChurchoftheHolyTrinity,KasiglukKatmai 80 RussianOrthodoxChurch,abandonedafter1912Kenai 41 AssumptionoftheTheotokos(oldchurch),KenaiKenai 63 OriginalDormitionChurch(Assumption),KenaiKenai 92 DormitionoftheTheotokos(Assumption),KenaiKillisnoo 96 St.Nicholas,Killisnoo(ActuallySt.Andrew,burned1928)Kodiak 77 HolyResurrectionChurch,KodiakKodiak 97 OldRussianOrthodoxChurch,KodiakKongiganak 61 NewSt.Gabriel,Kogignak[Kongiganak]Kongiganak 73 St.Gabriel,Kongignak[Kongiganak]Kongiganak 100 OldSt.Gabriel,Kongignak[Kongiganak]Kwethluk 9 OriginalSt.NicholasChurch,KwethlukKwethluk 15 St.NicholasRussianOrthodoxChurch,KwethlukLevelock 28 ProtectionoftheTheotokos,LevelockMakushin 17 NativityofOurLord,MakushinMarshall 71 St.MichaelChurch,MarshallMorshovoi 91 St.NicholasChapel,Morzhovoi(destroyedbywind1969)Naknek 70 St.JohntheBaptist,Naknek(St.Anna?)Nanapitchuk 78 ProtectionoftheTheotokos,Nunapitchuck[Nunapitchuk]Newhalen 18 HolyTransfigurationChurch,NewhalenNicolai 54 PresentationofChrist,Nikolai(St.Peter?)Nikolski 65 St.Nicholas,NikolskiNinilchik 64 HolyTransfiguration,NinilchikNondalton 84 St.Nicholas,Nondalton(see#94forcopyimage)Nondalton 94 St.Nicholas,Nondalton(Sameasnumber84)Nuchek 62 RussianOrthodoxChurch,NuchekNushagak 25 Ss.PeterandPaulChurch,NushagakNushagak 60 RussianOrthodoxChurch,Nushagak(St.SeraphimofSarov?)OldHarbor 75 ThreeSaints,OldHarborOuzinkie 12 NativityofOurLordChapel,Ouzinki[Ouzinkie]PedroBay 29 St.NicholasChurch,PedroBayPerryville 82 St.JohntheTheologian,PerryvillePilotPoint 22 St.NicholasChurch,PilotPoint


Chapter7.09–SamMcClainWatercolors 443

Location # Dedication PitkasPoint 7 Ss.PeterandPaulChurch,PitkasPoint

PortageCreek 49 St.Basil’s,PortageCreekRussianMission 44 ElevationoftheCross,RussianMission,YukonRiverRussianMission 45 ElevationoftheCross,RussianMission,YukonRiverRussianMission 67 RussianOrthodoxChurch,Kvlihak{[Kvichak]SanakIsland 51 RussianOrthodoxChurch,SanakIslandSandPoint 23 St.NicholasRussianOrthodoxChapel,SandPointSavonoski 21 RussianOrthodoxChurch,NewSavonski[Savonoski]Seldovia 98 St.NicholasChapel,SeldoviaSitka 16 St.MichaeltheArchangelCathedral,SitkaSitka 34 St.MichaeltheArchangelRussianOrthodoxCathedral,SitkaSitka 58 OriginalSt.Michael’s,SitkaSt.George 10 St.GeorgeChurch,St.GeorgeSt.Michael 39 OriginalChurch,St.MichaelSt.Michael 89 RussianOrthodoxChurch,St.MichaelSt.Paul 40 Ss.PeterandPaulChurch(secondchurch),St.PaulIslandSt.Paul 93 Ss.PeterandPaul,St.PaulIslandStuyahok 37 St.SergiusChapel,StuyahokTatilek 48 OldSt.Nicholas,TatitlekTatilek 53 NewSt.Nicholas,TatitlekUnalaska 32 OldHolyAscensionChurch,UnalaskaUnalaska 81 OriginalHolyAscension,UnalaskaUnga 31 RussianOrthodoxChurch,UngaUnga 83 St.Nicholas,UngaUnknown 59 St.Michael’sOrthodoxChurch;locationunspecifiedWoodyIsland 52 RussianOrthodoxChurch,WoodyIsland


Chapter7.09–SamMcClainWatercolors444



Chapter7.10-Timeline 445

TIMELINE

Date Event 325 FirstecumenicalcouncilatNicaeaformulatescreed330 RomanEmperorConstantinetheGreatmakesConstantinoplehis

capitalasNewRome863 MissionofSts.CyrilandMethodiustotheSlavs988 ConversionofKievanRus'toChristianityunderPrinceVladimir

1054 FormalschismbetweenRomeandConstantinople1204 KnightsoftheFourthCrusadesackConstantinople1240 MongolinvasionofRus'1379 -1396 MissionaryactivityofSt.StephenofPerm,EnlighteneroftheKomi1380 BattleofKulikovo.AMuscoviteforcescoresasymbolicvictory

overamuchlargerMongolarmy.1392 DeathofSt.SergiusofRadonezh1453 FallofConstantinopletotheOttomanTurks1462 -1505 IvanIII,theGreat,consolidatesMoscow'sauthorityoverRussian

principalitiesandNovgorod1492 SpanishexpeditionaryledbyChristopherColumbuslandsinthe

NewWorld1517 MartinLuther's95ThesessignalbeginningsoftheProtestant

Reformation1519 -1522 FerdinandMagellanleadsfirstcircumnavigationoftheworld1521 CortezconquersMexicoforSpain1532 FranciscoPizarrobeginsconquestofPeruforSpain1533 -1584 IvanIV,theTerrible1552 MuscoviteconquestofKazan1589 PatriarchJeremiahofConstantinopleelevatesMetropolitanJobof

MoscowtobePatriarch,adecisionconfirmedbyallfoureasternpatriarchsin1593

1596 UnionofBrest1598 -1613 "TimeofTroubles"inMuscoviteRussia1607 JamestownColonyestablishedbytheEnglishinVirginia1613 AnationalassemblyelectsMichaelRomanovastsarofMuscovy1616 -1648 ThirtyYearsWardevastatescentralEurope;concludeswithPeace

ofWestphalia1620 PlymouthColonyestablishedbytheEnglishinMassachusetts1646 DeathofPeterMoghila,MetropolitanofKiev


Chapter7.10-Timeline446

Date Event 1653 PatriarchofMoscowNikonreformsliturgicalbookstoalignwith

contemporaryGreekpractice,sparkingtheOldBelievers'Schism1666 GreatMoscowCouncilendorsestheliturgical"reforms"of

PatriarchNikon,effectivelyassuringperpetuationoftheschismoftheOldBelievers,butdeposesthepatriarchhimself.

1672 AccessionofPetertheGreatinRussia1686 IncorporationoftheKievmetropolitanateintothepatriarchateof

Moscow1692 WitchtrialsinSalemMassachusetts1703 FoundingofSt.Petersburg1721 TreatyofNystadendsGreatNorthernWar,withSwedenceding

Estonia,LivoniaandIngriatoRussia.PromulgationofSpiritualRegulation,followedbyreplacementoftheofficeofpatriarchbytheMostHolyGoverningSynod

1725 DeathofPetertheGreat1741 CaptainsVitusBeringandAlekseiChirikovdiscovertheAlaska

mainland1752 GreatBritainanditscoloniesadoptGregoriancalendar1763 EndofFrenchandIndianWar;FranceyieldsitsAmericanterritory

eastoftheMississippiRivertoGreatBritain1772 FirstpartitionofPoland,followedbyfurtherpartitionsin1793and

1795,dividesPolandbetweenAustria,PrussiaandRussia1775 JamesWattinventsanimprovedsteamengine,stimulating

IndustrialRevolutioninGreatBritain1776 AmericanDeclarationofIndependence(July4).Beginningof

AmericanWarofIndependence.1783 TreatyofParisendsAmericanWarofIndependence1789 U.S.Constitutionadopted.GeorgeWashingtonbecomesfirst

presidentoftheUnitedStates.BeginningofFrenchRevolution.1794 ArrivalatKodiakoffirstOrthodoxmissionaryteam,headedby

ArchimandriteIoasafBolotov,fromValaamMonastery1796 DeathofEmpressCatherineII,succeededbyhersonPaulI.

ConstructionoffirstchurchatKodiak,dedicatedtotheResurrectionofOurLord.DeathofHieromonkIuvenaliiatthehandsofnatives,probablynearQuinhagak

1798 Ioasaf,headoftheKodiakmissionteam,consecratedinIrkutskasBishopofKodiak

1799 DeathatseaofBishopIoasafandtwoothermembersoftheoriginalKodiakmissionteamduringtheirreturnfromIrkutsk.NapoleoncomestopowerinFrance.



Date Event 1801 HeadquartersofRussian-AmericanCompanytransferredfrom

IrkutsktoSt.Petersburg.EmperorPaulImurderedinhisbed,succeededbyhissonAlexanderI

1802 -1806 InspectionmissionofHieromonkGideoninAlaskaonbehalfoftheHolySynod

1803 U.S.LouisianaPurchasefromFrance1803 -1806 FirstRussianround-the-worldvoyage,linkingtheBalticSeaandthe

NorthPacificrim.1803 -1815 NapoleonicwarsendinfinaldefeatofNapoleonatWaterloo1804 -1806 LewisandClarkExpeditionexplorestheAmericanNorthwestfrom

theMississippiRivertothePacificCa.

1808 ConstructionoffirstchapelatSitka(Novo-Arkhangel'sk),dedicatedtotheArchangelMichael

1809 SwedencedesFinlandtoRussia1811 JohnJacobAstorestablishesFortAstoriaasafurtradingpostat

themouthoftheColumbiaRiver,thefirstAmerican-ownedsettlementonthePacificCoast.

1812 France,underNapoleon,invadesRussia.FortRoss,withachapeldedicatedtoSt.Helen,establishednearRussianRiverinnorthernCalifornia

1812 -1814 Warof1812betweentheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain1813 -1826 RussianBibleSociety1815 CongressofViennasettlesEuropeanboundariesinthewakeofthe

Napoleonicwars,withRussiareceivingGrandDuchyofPoland1816 ArrivaloffirstOrthodoxpriest,Fr.AlekseiSokolov,inSitka(Novo-

Arkhangel'sk)1818 AlexanderBaranovforcedtoretireasGeneralManagerofthe

Russian-AmericanCompany.VirtuallyallhissuccessorswillbeRussiannavalofficers.

1819 U.S.acquisitionofFloridafromSpain1821 New(Second)CharterfortheRussianAmericanCompanyprovides

forgreatercompanysupportofclergy,churchconstruction,andtransportation

1823 Fr.FrumentiiMordovskiiappointedaspriestatKodiak,replacingFr.Afanasii,oneoftheoriginalKodiakmissionaries,whoreturnedtoRussia.

1824 ArrivalofFr.IoannVeniaminovaspriestatUnalaska1825 DeathofEmperorAlexanderI,succeededbyNicholasI.

DecembristRevoltinfavorofNicholasI'solderbrother,GrandDukeConstantine,suppressed.



Date Event 1828 ArrivalofFr.IakovNetsvetov,firstCreolepriest,trainedatIrkutsk

Seminary,toserveatAtkha1830 OregonTraildrawsU.S.settlerstotheWest.IndianRemovalAct

leadstotheforcedrelocationoftheCherokeeandothernativenationsfromtheirancestralhomelandsintheSoutheastUnitedStatesto"IndianTerritory"intheWest,leadingtothousandsofdeathsalongthe"TrailofTears."

1830 -1831 PolishuprisingputdownwithRussianvictoryinBattleofWarsaw1832 -1838 DevelopmentofcommercialelectrictelegraphinEuropeandU.S.

(bySamuelF.D.Morse).1834 Fr.IoannVeniaminovtransferredfromUnalaskatoSitka1836 Fr.VeniaminovvisitsFortRossinNorthernCalifornia1837 DeathofFatherHermanatSpruceIsland,lastsurvivingmemberof

theoriginalKodiakmissionteam.1840 VeniaminovtakesmonasticnameofInnocentandisordainedas

BishopofKamchatka,theKurileandAleutianIslands1843 BishopInnocentmovesintothenewly-constructedBishop'sHouse

inSitka.1845 U.S.annexationofTexas1846 OregonTreatybetweentheU.S.andGreatBritainestablisheswhat

isnowtheinternationalborderbetweentheU.S.andCanada.1846 -1848 Mexican-AmericanWar.BytheTreatyofGuadalupeHidalgothe

UnitedStatesacquiresmuchofwhatisnowtheAmericanSouthwest.

1849 Californiagoldrush1853 BeginningoftheCrimeanWar,pittingtheOttomanEmpire,France

andGreatBritainagainstRussia1855 DeathofEmperorNicholasI,succeededbyhissonAlexanderII1856 TreatyofParisofficiallyendstheCrimeanWar,withsignificantloss

ofRussianinfluenceintheBalkans,theBlackSeaandNearEast.1857 Firstsuccessfultransatlanticcable1858 TreatyofAigunpushesRussian-ChinesebordertotheAmurRiver.

Now-ArchbishopInnocentVeniaminov'sseeofficiallytransferredfromSitkatoYakutsk,alongwiththearchdiocesanseminary.

1859 PeterLysakov,orEkaterinovskii,ordainedasvicarbishopforAlaska.

1861 BeginningofU.S.CivilWar.InRussiaEmperorAlexanderIIissuesmanifestoemancipatingtheserfs.UnificationofItaly.



Date Event 1862 FirstoftheHomesteadActs,whichdistributedover270,000,000

acresofU.S.Federallandforprivateownershipanddevelopment.1865 EndoftheU.S.CivilWar.AssassinationofAbrahamLincoln(April

15).WesternUnionbeginsprojectedtelegraphlineacrossAlaskaandSiberia.

1865 -1876 SteadyconsolidationofRussianaccessionsinCentralAsia1866 Firstcommerciallysuccessfultrans-Atlanticcable1866 -1870 BishopPaulPopovreplacesBishopPeterLysakovasvicarbishop

forAlaska.1867 UnitedStatespurchasesAlaskafromRussia.DepartmentofAlaska

successivelyunderthejurisdictionoftheU.S.Army(until1877),DepartmentoftheTreasury(1877-79),andNavy(1879-1884).

1868 -1879 ArchbishopInnocentVeniaminovbecomesMetropolitanofMoscow,highest-rankingchurchmanintheRussianEmpire.

1869 "GoldenSpike"markscompletionoffirsttranscontinentalrailroad.1870 IoannMitropol’skiiordainedasbishopofthenewDioceseofthe

AleutianIslandsandAlaska.TransferofdiocesanseefromSitkatoSanFrancisco.BishopIoannwilberecalledtoRussiain1876.Franco-PrussianWarendsinhumiliatingdefeatforFrance.

1871 UnificationofGermanyunderPrussianleadership1876 GeneralCusterkilledattheBattleofLittleBigHorn1878 NestorZass,orZakkis,ordainedasBishopoftheAleutianIslands

andAlaska.Heperishesatseain1882,leavingthediocesevacantforoverfiveyears.

1879 EstablishmentofCarlisleIndianSchoolinCarlisle,Pennsylvania,followedin1880byChemawaIndianSchoolinOregon.

1881 EmperorAlexanderIIassassinated,succeededbyhissonAlexanderIII

1882 ChineseExclusionActadoptedintheU.S.1884 FirstOrganicActmakesprovisionsforaciviliangovernmentin

whatcomestobecalledtheDistrictofAlaska.1887 InSitka,majorrenovationoftheBishop'sHouse1887 -1891 VladimirSokolovskii-Avtonomov,BishopoftheAleutiansand

Alaska.1890 WoundedKneeMassacreofLakotaSiouxbytheU.S.7thCavalryin

SouthDakota1891 -1898 NicholasZiorov,BishopoftheAleutiansandAlaska1894 EmperorAlexanderIIIdies,succeededbyhissonNicholasII.



Date Event 1896 InPlessyv.FergusontheU.S.SupremeCourtaffirmslegalityof

"separatebutequal"facilities.GoldrushtoCanada'sYukonTerritory,followedrushestoNome,Fairbanks,Ruby,JuneauandelsewhereinAlaska.

1898 WithSpanish-AmericanWar,U.S.acquiresPuertoRicoandthePhilippines.U.S.annexesHawaii.

1898 -1907 TikhonBellavininAmericaasBishop-laterArchbishop-oftheAleutiansandAlaska

1900 TitleofthedioceseischangedtoDioceseoftheAleutiansandNorthAmerica

1901 BeginningofprogramofRussificationinFinland1903 Wrightbrothers'firstpoweredflight1903 -1909 InnocentPustinskii,vicarbishopofAlaska1904 U.S.acquiresPanamaCanalZone.Russo-JapaneseWareffectively

endsinJapan'sfavor.1905 DiocesanseetransferredfromSanFranciscotoNewYorkCity.San

Franciscoearthquakeandfiredestroy80%ofthecity,leavingover3400dead.UnrestandstrikesinRussialeadtoNicholasI'sOctoberManifesto,whichexpandedcivillibertiesandestablishedastateDuma(parliament).

1906 ReformoftheologicalseminariesinitiatedinRussia.1907 -1914 PlatonRozhdestvenskiiinAmericaasArchbishopoftheAleutians

andNorthAmerica.1909 RobertPearybecomefirstexplorertoreachtheNorthPole.1915 -1919 EvdokimMeshcherskiiinAmericaasArchbishopoftheAleutians

andNorthAmerica;hewilldepartin1917toattendtheAll-RussianCouncilinMoscowbutneverreturns.

1909 -1916 AlexanderNemolovskiivicarbishopofAlaska;after1916vicarbishopofCanada;1919-1922ArchbishopoftheAleutiansandAmerica

1912 SecondOrganicActreorganizesAlaskaastheTerritoryofAlaska.NovaruptanearMountKatmai(June6),largestvolcaniceruptionofthe20thcentury.EstablishmentofAlaskaNativeBrotherhood(ANB)andAlaskaNativeSisterhood(ANS).

1914 AssassinationofArchdukeFranzFerdinandofAustrialeadstooutbreakofWorldWarI

1915 GermanoffensiveoneasternfronttakesWarsawandLithuaniafromRussia.AssassinationofRasputin,shadowyadvisortotheroyalfamily.

1916 -1919 PhilipStavitskii,vicarbishopofAlaska;returnstoRussiain1917.



Date Event 1917 FebruaryRevolutioninRussialeadstotheabdicationofNicholasII

andestablishmentofaProvisionalGovernment.OctoberRevolutionbringsBolsheviksunderLenintopower.BeginningsofRussianCivilWar.IntheU.S.,"RedScare"markedbyfearofBolshevismandanarchism.

1918 SovietRussiasignsTreatyofBrest-Litovsk,endingitsparticipationinWorldWarI,relinquishingFinland,theBalticstates,Poland,BelarusandUkraine(March3).ExecutionofNicholasIIandfamily(July17).DissolutionoftheAustro-HungarianEmpire,theOttomanEmpireaswellastheRussianEmpire.ArmisticeendsWorldWarI(November11)

1918 -1919 Globalinfluenzaepidemicleavesover50milliondead.1919 TreatyofVersaillesimposesharshpeacetermsonGermany.1921 FamineinRussia.Sovietgovernmentordersseizureofchurch

valuables.1922 -1934 ArchbishopPlaton(Rozhdestvenskii)returnsasMetropolitanofAll

AmericaandCanada1923 IntheSovietUnionacouncilofthepro-government"Living

Church"declaresPatriarchTikhondeposedandabolishesthePatriarchate.

1924 IntheSovietUnion,deathofLenin.IntheU.S.,anewimmigrationactestablishesanationaloriginsquotasystem,effectivelyclosingimmigration

1924 -1931 AmfilokhiiVakulskii,BishopofSitkaandAlaska1925 DeathofPatriarchTikhon;Sovietgovernmentrefusestoletanew

electiontakeplace.1927 MetropolitanSergeiStragarodskii,DeputyLocumTenensofthe

PatriarchalThroneoftheRussianOrthodoxChurch,givescontroversialpledgeofloyaltytotheSovietgovernment.CharlesLindbergfliessoloacrosstheAtlantic.

1929 StockmarketcrashleadstotheGreatDepressionofthe1930s1933 HitlerandtheNaziscometopowerinGermany1934 -1950 TheophilusPashkovsky,MetropolitanofAllAmericaandCanada1935 -1941 Alexei(previouslyFr.AleksandrPanteleev,long-timeAlaskapriest)

BishopofSitkaandAlaska1936 -1938 ShowtrialsandpurgesintheSovietUnion1939 Molotov-Ribbentropnon-aggressionpactsignedbetweenthe

SovietUnionandGermany(August23),agreeingtoadivisionofmuchofeasternEuropebetweenthem.WorldWarIIbeginsasNaziGermanyinvadesPoland.



Date Event 1941 GermanylaunchesmassiveOperationBarbarosaagainsttheSoviet

Union(June22).FollowingJapanesebombingofPearlHarbor(December7),U.S.entersWorldWarII

1942 PropertyseizureandinternmentofJapanese-AmericansbyExecutiveOrder9066(February19).JapancapturesAleutianIslandsAttuandKiska(June3).NativepopulationofentireAleutianchainevacuatedtointernmentcampselsewhereinAlaskaandU.S.

1943 Stalinallowsachurchcouncil,whichelectsSergeiStragarodskiiaspatriarch(d.1944)

1945 Anti-DiscriminationActinAlaska(February16,datenownamedinhonorofleadingrightsadvocateElizabethPeratrovich).AlliedvictoryoverGermanyandJapan.EstablishmentofSoviet-stylecommunistgovernmentsthroughoutEasternEuropeinthewakeofthewar.AlekseiISimanskiielectedasPatriarchofMoscowtosucceedSergei.

1948 BerlinBlockadesignalsdeepeningofColdWar.1946 -1952 JohnZlobin,BishopofSitkaandAlaska1950 -1953 KoreanWar1950 -1965 LeontyTurkevich,MetropolitanofAllAmericaandCanada1953 DeathofStalin1955 JonahSalkdevelopspoliovaccine1955 -1967 AmvrosiiMerezhko,BishopofSitkaandAlaska1956 HungarianuprisingputdownbySovietUnion1958 AlaskaadmittedtoUnionas49thstate,followedlaterthesame

yearbyHawaii1961 EscalationofwarinVietNam.Cubanmissilecrisis1963 CivilrightsmarchonWashington(August28).PresidentJohnF.

Kennedyassassinated(November22).1964 GoodFridayearthquakeinAlaskafollowedbymassivetsunamis

(March27)1965 ImmigrationActabolishesthenationaloriginsformula,opening

thewayformajornewimmigration1967 -1972 TheodosiusLazor,BishopofSitkaandAlaska1968 AssassinationofDr.MartinLutherKing,Jr.Discoveryofoilon

ProudoeBay,onAlaska'sNorthSlope.1969 Apollomannedspaceflightlandsonthemoon



Date Event 1970 MoscowPatriarchategrantsTomosofAutocephalytothe

OrthodoxChurchinAmerica(OCA).DeathofPatriarchAlexeiI,succeededbyPatriarchPimenIzvekov.CanonizationofSt.HermanofAlaska

1971 AlaskaNativeClaimsSettlementAct1972 St.HermanSeminaryfoundednearKenai,laterrelocatedto

Kodiak.1973 PresidentRichardNixonresignsinwakeofWatergatescandal1973 -1995 GregoryAfonsky,BishopofSitkaandAlaska1975 FallofSaigonsignalsendofVietNamWar1977 CompletionofTrans-AlaskaPipeline1981 -2002 TheodosiusLazor,MetropolitanofAllAmericaandCanada1988 Publiccelebrationsmark1000thanniversaryofOrthodoxyin

Russia1989 ExxonValdezspillsover11milliongallonsofcrudeoilinGulfof

Alaska.FallofBerlinWall.1990 DeathofPatriarchPimen,succeededbyPatriarchAlexeiIIRidiger1991 DissolutionofSovietUnionsignalsfallofcommunisminEastern

Europe.U.S.launchesOperationDesertStorminIraq2000 ConsecrationofthereconstructedChurchofChristtheSaviorin

Moscow,thelargestchurchinRussia2001 -2008 NikolaiSoraich,BishopofSitkaandAlaska2002 -2008 HermanSwaiko,MetropolitanofAllAmericaandCanada2007 ReconciliationoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchOutsideRussiawith

theRussianOrthodoxChurch-MoscowPatriarchate2008 DeathofPatriarchAlexeiII,succeededbyPatriarchKirillGundiaiev.2009 -2012 JonahPaffhausen.MetropolitanofAllAmericaandCanada2012 TikhonMollard,MetropolitanofAllAmericaandCanada2014 DavidMahaffey,BishopofSitkaandAlaska


Chapter7.11-Glossary

455

GLOSSARYAleut AtermusedbytheRussiansfortheUnangaxoftheAleutianIslands

andattimesalsofortheAlutiiq.

All-NightVigil Slavonic:vsenochnoevdeniie.PopularserviceinchurchesoftheRussianOrthodoxtraditioninwhichVespersandMatinsarelinkedtogetherontheevesofSundaysandmajorfeaststoformonelongvigilservice.InordinaryparishpracticetheAll-NightVigilisabouttwohoursinlength.

Altar Thechancel,oraltararea,inanOrthodoxchurch,atthecenterofwhichthefree-standingaltartableispermanentlyplaced.

Alutiiq(orSugpiaq) AnAlaskanNativePeoplewithasignificantOrthodoxpresencesincethelate18thcentury,locatedprincipallyintheKodiakarchipelago,theAlaskaPeninsula,andthegulfcoastalareasoftheKenaiPeninsulaandPrinceWilliamSound.

Amvon Ambo,orambon.InRussianOrthodoxchurchesthetermreferstotheraisedarea,oftenwithasemi-circularprojection,infrontoftheiconostasis.

Antidoron Remainsofthespecialloavesofbread(prosphora)leftoveraftertheelementsforholycommunionhavebeenprepared.ItiscustomarilydistributedfollowingcommunionandattheconclusionoftheDivineLiturgy.

Antimension Slavonic:antimins.AsilkenclothbearinganimageofChristentombed,containingtherelicofasaintandsignedbythediocesanbishop,indicatinghisauthoritywithinthechurch.WithoutanantimensionnoDivineLiturgy(eucharist)maybeserved.Normallytheantimensionliesfolded,beneaththeGospelbook,onthealtartable,butapriestmaybeissuedatravelingantimensionforuseduringvisitstooutlyingchapels.

Archbishop IntheRussianOrthodoxChurch,atitleofhonorgiventothebishopofaparticularlylargeorimportantdiocese.Occasionallythetitlemayawardedtoabishopsimplyforlongandmeritoriousservice.SeealsoMetropolitan.

Archimandrite Amonasticsuperior,comparabletoanabbotintheLatinwest,whoheadsaparticularlyimportantmonasteryorgroupingoflessermonastichouses.Thetermisalsousedasanhonorarytitleforaparticularlyimportantpriest-monk,orhieromonk,whoexercisesvariousadministrativeresponsibilitiesinanticipationofbeingordainedasabishop.


Chapter7.11-Glossary456

Archpriest Slavonic:proterei.Atitleofhonorgiventoapriestdistinguishedbyseniorityandservice,veryoftentooneservingasthefirstpriestofamajorchurchorcathedral.Inexceptionalcasesanarchpriestmaybemadeamiteredarchpriest,thatis,giventherighttowearamiter,aliturgical"crown"normallyreservedforabishop.

Autocephalous/autocephaly

Achurchistermedautocephalous(literallyself-headed)ifitisfullyself-governing,possessingthecapacitytoelectallitsownbishops,includingtheheadofthechurch(primate).Howautocephaly(thestatusofbeingautocephalous)istobeattainedhasbeenasubjectofdisagreementincontemporaryOrthodoxy.

Batushka Literally“littlefather,”anaffectionateformofaddressforapriest.

Bishop First-rankingofthethreemajorordersofclergy(bishops,priests,deacons)whoareresponsibleforserviceatthealtar.Asthearchpastorofadiocese,withtheassistanceofpriestsandotherdiocesanclergythebishopisresponsibleforitsgovernance,liturgicallife,andinstructionintheChristianfaith.Althoughbishopsmaybedistinguishedbytitlesrelatingtorankandstatus(metropolitan,archbishop,diocesanbishop,auxiliaryorvicarbishop,retiredbishop...),theysharethesamehierarchical/sacramentalorder.

Blackclergy Russian:chernoedukhovenstvo.Clergydrawnfromtheranksofthosewhohavetakenmonasticvows.Bishopsaredrawnexclusivelyfromthe"blackclergy"althoughthesemayincludewidowedclergywhohavetakenmonasticvowsfollowingthedeathoftheirspouse.

BookofNeeds inGreek,Euchologion,inSlavonicTrebnik,theBookofNeedsprovidestextsforthevarioussacraments,liturgicaloffices,blessings,andintercessoryprayersintendedtofulfillthespiritual"needs"ofaparishanditsfaithful.

Building Anenclosedstructurewithwallsandaroof,consciouslycreatedtoservesomeresidential,industrial,commercial,agricultural,orotherhumanuse.

Character-DefiningFeature

Aprominentordistinctiveaspect,quality,orcharacteristicofahistoricpropertythatcontributessignificantlytophysicalcharacter.Structures,objects,vegetation,spatialrelationships,views,furnishings,decorativedetails,andmaterialsmaybesuchfeatures.

Chasovnia Russiantermforachapel,asdistinctfromaconsecratedchurchwithapermanentantimension.ThetermderivesfromtheRussianwordforhour(chas),becauseinachapelthedailycycleofworship,includingtheliturgicalHoursoftheday,maybereadandsunginacommunitysetting,ledbyadulyauthorizedreaderorknowledgeablelaypersonevenintheabsenceofapriest.

Chrism,ormyron Anunguentcomposedofacomplexmixofoils,wines,spicesandvariousexoticingredients,longsimmered,whichisusedtoanointthenewlybaptizedinthesacramentofchrismation(confirmation)andinseveralotherchurchrites.



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Consistory Anadministrativebodycomprisedofseniordiocesanclergytypicallyservinginassignmentsinornearthebishop'scathedralandresidence.Inthe19th-centuryRussianOrthodoxChurch,theconsistoryplayedamajorroleindiocesanadministration,maintenanceofdiocesanrecords,managementoflegalandfinancialaffairs,andday-to-dayofficeoperations,particularlyduringabishop'sabsence.

ContributingFeature Abioticorabioticfeatureassociatedwithalandscapecharacteristicthatcontributestothesignificanceoftheculturallandscape.

ContributingResource Abuilding,site,structure,orobjectthataddstothehistoricsignificanceofaproperty.Acontributingbuilding,site,structure,orobjectaddstothehistoricassociations,historicalarchitecturalqualities,orarchaeologicalvaluesforwhichapropertyissignificantbecauseofthefollowing:itwaspresentduringtheperiodofsignificance;itrelatestothedocumentedsignificanceoftheproperty;itpossesseshistoricintegrityoriscapableofrevealinginformationabouttheperiod;oritindependentlymeetstheNationalRegistercriteria.

Creole Usedgenericallythetermoftenreferstoapersonofmixedrace,butinAlaskathetermacquiredaspecificlegalmeaningthatwasonlytangentiallyrelatedtorace.CreolesconstitutedanewsocialestateestablishedspecificallyforAlaska,withrightsandprivilegescomparabletothoseofthemerchant/burgherestateinRussia.Thecreoleestatewascomprisedof"thosebornofaEuropeanorSiberianandanAmericanwoman,orofaEuropeanorSiberianwomanandanAmerican,aswellastheirchildren..."andwashereditary,predominantlyinthemaleline(Black2004,216).

CrossProcession Russian:krestniikhod.Anoutdoorprocessionledbyanaltarservercarryingaprocessionalcross,followedbybearersoficons,bannersandtorches,clergyandsingers,onamajorfeastdayorotherspecialoccasion(e.g.,forblessingofabodyofwaterorfishingvesselsorfields).

CulturalLandscapeInventory(CLI)

Acomputerized,evaluatedinventoryofallculturallandscapesforwhichtheNationalParkServicehasorplanstoacquireanylegalinterest.TheCLIincludesadescriptionofthelocation,historicaldevelopment,landscapecharacteristicsandassociatedfeatures,andmanagementofculturallandscapesinthenationalparksystem.

CulturalLandscapeReport(CLR)

Areportthatservesastheprimaryguidetotreatmentanduseofaculturallandscape,andthatprescribesthetreatmentandmanagementofthephysicalattributesandbioticsystemsofalandscape,andusewhenusecontributestohistoricalsignificance.



CulturalResource Atangibleentityoraculturalpracticeofaculturalsystemthatisvaluedbyorsignificantlyrepresentativeofacultureorthatcontainssignificantinformationaboutaculture.Tangibleculturalresourcesarecategorizedasdistricts,sites,buildings,structures,andobjectsfortheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesandasarcheologicalresources,culturallandscapes,structures,museumobjects,andethnographicresourcesforNationalParkServicemanagementpurposes.SeealsoCulturalsystem.

CulturalSystem Agroup’sinterrelatedsetoflearnedbehavioral,knowledge,andbeliefpatternsinadditiontosocial,economic,spiritual,andpoliticalarrangementsforadaptingtoparticularnaturalandsocialsettings.Associatedtechnologyandexpressiveelementssuchasfolkloreandperformingandgraphicartsareincluded.Popularsynonymsincludelifeways,customs,andtraditions.Culturalsystemsarepartsofecosystems.

Culture Asystemofbehaviors(economic,religious,andsocial),beliefs(values,ideologies),andsocialarrangements.

D'iak Anoldertermforpsalomshchik,orreader.

Deacon

Slavonic:d'iakon.Thethirdofthreemajorordersoftheclergy,afterbishopandpriest,thedeaconassiststhebishoporpriestinthecelebrationoftheDivineLiturgyandothersacramentalministries.Aseniordeaconinalargechurchorcathedralmaybedesignatedasaprotodeacon.Amonasticdeaconiscalledahierodeacon.

Deanery,Dean Anadministrativesubdivisionordistrictofadiocese,headedbyadean(blagochin),whomostoftenisalsothepriestofamajorparishwithinthedeanery.Thedeanexercisesageneralsupervisoryroleinrelationtootherdiocesanpriestsandcoordinatestheiractivitieswiththediocesanadministration.

Dena'ina AnAlaskanNativePeoplewithasignificantOrthodoxpresencefromthelate19thcentury,locatedprincipallyintheCookInletregion;closelyrelatedtootherAthabaskanIndiantribesoftheupperKuskokwimRiverandinteriorAlaska.

Diocese Thefundamentaladministrativeunitofthechurch,headedbyitsdiocesanbishopwho,withtheassistanceofpriests,deaconsandotherdiocesanclergy,isresponsibleforitsgovernance,liturgicallife,andinstructionintheChristianfaith.

DivineLiturgy ThetermusedbytheOrthodoxfortheeucharisticservice,correspondingtotheRomanCatholicMassandtheserviceofHolyCommunioninProtestantchurches.

EthnographicLandscape Areascontainingavarietyofnaturalandculturalresourcesthatassociatedpeopledefineasheritageresources,includingplantandanimalcommunities,geographicfeatures,andstructures,eachwiththeirownspeciallocalnames.SeealsoCulturallandscape.



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EthnographicResource Asite,structure,object,landscape,ornaturalresourcefeatureassignedtraditional,legendary,religious,subsistence,orothersignificanceintheculturalsystemofagrouptraditionallyassociatedwithit.

ExistingCondition

Thepresentphysicalstateofaculturallandscape.

Feature Aprominentordistinctivequalityorcharacteristicofaculturallandscape.Inaculturallandscape,individualfeaturesaregroupedunderbroadercategoriesoflandscapecharacteristics.Forexample,suchfeaturesasravines,valleys,wetlands,andcliffsaregroupedunderthelandscapecharacteristic,naturalsystemsandfeatures.

Feeling Aculturallandscape’sexpressionoftheaestheticorhistoricsenseofaparticularperiod.

Govenie Aperiodofstrictfasting,frequentchurchattendanceandspiritualpreparation,oftenuptoaweekinlength,thatisfollowedbythesacramentofconfessionandreceptionofholycommunion.NoequivalentEnglishtermexists,though"retreat"comesclose.

Gramota Acertificatehonoringsomeformofmeritoriousserviceorachievement.

Hegumen,origumen Amonasticsuperior,comparabletoapriorintheLatinwest,whoheadsarelativelysmallmonastichouse.Thetermisalsousedasanhonorarytitle.

Hierodeacon Amonasticdeacon.

Hieromonk Amonasticpriest.

HistoricAmericanBuildingsSurvey(HABS)

TheAmericanInstituteofArchitects(AIA),theNationalParkService(NPS),theAmericanInstituteofArchitects(AIA),andtheLibraryofCongressre-signedtheHABSTripartiteAgreementin2003.Firstsignedin1933,theagreementcreatedtheHistoricAmericanBuildingsSurvey(HABS)todocumentAmerica'shistoricstructuresandtocreateworkforarchitects,draftsmen,andphotographersleftjoblessbytheGreatDepression.Nowtheoldestfederalpreservationprogramstillinexistence(and,infact,thelongestlastingofficialpartnershipbetweenaprivateorganizationandthefederalgovernment),HABShasplayedaleadingroleinpreservingAmerica'sculturethroughdocumentationofimportantcivicstructures.ItsmissionhasalwaysbeentocreatealastingarchiveofAmerica'shistoricarchitecture.



HistoricAmericanLandscapesSurvey(HALS)

InOctober2000,theNationalParkServiceIncollaborationwiththeAmericanSocietyofLandscapeArchitects(ASLA)andtheLibraryofCongress,establishedtheHistoricAmericanLandscapesSurvey(HALS)todocumenthistoriclandscapesintheUnitedStatesanditsterritoriestoserveastangibleevidenceofournation’sheritageanddevelopment.In2010itbecameapermanentprogram.HALSiscomparabletotheHistoricAmericanBuildingsSurvey(HABS)andtheHistoricAmericanEngineeringRecord(HAER).

HistoricCharacter

Thesumofallvisualaspects,features,materials,andspacesassociatedwithaculturallandscape’shistory.

HistoricDesignedLandscape

Alandscapesignificantasadesignorworkofart.Suchalandscapewasconsciouslydesignedandlaidouteitherbyamastergardener,landscapearchitect,architect,orhorticulturisttoadesignprinciple,orbyanownerorotheramateuraccordingtoarecognizedstyleortradition.Historicdesignedlandscapeshaveahistoricalassociationwithasignificantperson,trendormovementinlandscapegardeningorarchitecture,orasignificantrelationshiptothetheoryorpracticeoflandscapearchitecture.SeealsoCulturallandscape.

HistoricDistrict Ageographicallydefinablearea,urbanorrural,possessingasignificantconcentration,linkage,orcontinuityofsites,landscapes,structures,orobjects,unitedbypasteventsoraestheticallybyplanorphysicaldevelopments.Adistrictmayalsobecomposedofindividualelementsseparatedgeographicallybutlinkedbyassociationorhistory.

HistoricLandscape 1)Aculturallandscapeassociatedwithevents,persons,designstyles,orwaysoflifethataresignificantinAmericanhistory,landscapearchitecture,archeology,engineering,andculture.2)AlandscapelistedinoreligiblefortheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces.

HistoricProperty Adistrict,site,structure,orlandscapesignificantinAmericanhistory,architecture,engineering,archeology,orculture.AnumbrellatermforallentriesintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces.

HistoricSite Thesiteofasignificantevent,prehistoricorhistoricoccupationoractivity,orstructureorlandscape(extantorvanished),wherethesiteitselfpossesseshistorical,cultural,orarcheologicalvalueapartfromthevalueofanyexistingstructureorlandscape.

HistoricVernacularLandscape

Alandscapewhoseuse,construction,orphysicallayoutreflectsendemictraditions,customs,beliefs,orvalues.Theexpressionofculturalvalues,socialbehavior,andindividualactionsovertimeismanifestedinphysicalfeaturesandmaterialsandtheirinterrelationships,includingpatternsofspatialorganization,landuse,circulation,vegetation,structures,andobjects.Thephysical,biological,andculturalfeaturesofthelandscapereflectthecustomsandeverydaylivesofpeople.SeealsoCulturallandscape.



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HistoricalContext Anorganizingstructurecreatedforplanningpurposesthatgroupsinformationabouthistoricpropertiesbasedoncommonthemes,timeperiods,andgeographicalareas.

HistoricalIntegrity (1)Theauthenticityofaculturallandscape’shistoricidentity,evidencedbythesurvivalofphysicalcharacteristicsthatexistedduringitshistoricorprehistoricperiod.(2)Theextenttowhichaculturallandscaperetainsitshistoricappearance.

HistoricalSignificance

Themeaningorvalueascribedtoastructure,landscape,object,orsitebasedontheNationalRegistercriteriaforevaluation.Itnormallystemsfromacombinationofassociationandintegrity.

HolyGoverningSynod SupremeecclesiasticalauthorityintheRussianOrthodoxChurchfollowingtheabolitionoftheofficeofpatriarchunderPetertheGreatin1721untilitsrestorationin1917.TheHolySynod'scompositionvariedfromtimetotimebutnormallyincludedthemetropolitansofMoscow,St.PetersburgandKievaswellasotherbishops(andoccasionallyarchpriests)appointedbytheemperor.

Hours Slavonic:chasy.Briefliturgicalservicesconsistingofpsalmsandselectprayersappropriatetothetimeofday,appointedtobereadattheFirst,Third,Sixth,andNinthhoursoftheday(cf.thecomparableservicesintheLatinwest:Prime,Tierce,Sext,andNone).Inpracticetheseareusuallyreadincombinationwithotherdailyservicesratherthanatdawn,mid-morning,noon,andmid-afternoon,astheirnameswouldsuggest.

Icon Areligiousimage,usuallypainted,representingChrist,theVirginMary,orothersaints,whichservesasanimportantobjectofvenerationamongOrthodoxChristians

Juliancalendar SocalledbecauseitwasoriginallydevisedatthetimeofJuliusCaesarinthefirstcenturyB.C.Untilthe20thcenturytheJuliancalendarwasfollowedbyalltheOrthodoxchurchesandbythepredominantlyOrthodoxnationsofeasternEuropeforbothcivilandecclesiasticalpurposes,notwithstandingtheever-increasingdiscrepancybetweenastronomicalreckoningandcalendardates.(Bythe19thcenturytheJuliancalendarlagged12daysbehindtheGregoriancalendar,introducedbyPopeGregoryXIIIinthe16thcenturyandsubsequentlyadoptedthroughmuchoftheworld;withtheturnofthe20thcentury,thediscrepancybecame13days.)From1923onward,forthecalculationoffixed-dateobservanceslikeChristmas,someOrthodoxchurchesadoptedtheGregoriancalendar,butforcalculationofthedateofEasterandmoveableobservancesdependentonit,theyretainedtheprinciplesoftheJuliancalendar.Otherchurches-mostnotablytheRussianOrthodoxChurch-didnotacceptthis"NewCalendar"andretainedtheJuliancalendarwithoutmodificationforallcalendricalcalculations.InAlaska,churchesoftheOrthodoxChurchAmerica'sDioceseofAlaskaandoftheSerbianOrthodoxChurchfollowthe"OldCalendar,"whilechurchesoftheAntiochianOrthodoxChristianArchdioceseandtheGreekOrthodoxArchdiocesefollowthe"NewCalendar."



Kellenik Literallythe"cell-attendant"ofabishop,whoservesashispersonal

assistantandoftenashissecretaryandadministrativeassistant.

Khram Russiantermfortemple,atraditionalOrthodoxwayofreferringtoaconsecratedchurch.

Kliros,orkrilos Raisedareaontherightandontheleftoftheamvon,oftenmarkedoffbyalowbalustrade,wherereaders,cantorsandchurchsingerscustomarilystand.

LandscapeCharaceristic Thetangibleevidenceoftheactivitiesandhabitsofthepeoplewhooccupied,developed,used,andshapedthelandtoservehumanneeds.Thebeliefs,attitudes,traditions,andvaluesofthepeopleandprocessesthathavebeeninstrumentalinshapingtheland,andtheprocessesareevidentasphysicalcomponentsontheland.

LandscapeFeature Thesmallestphysicalunitthatcontributestothesignificanceofalandscapethatcanbemanagedasanindividualelement.

LandscapeUnit Adiscreteportionofthelandscapewhichcanbefurthersubdividedintoindividualfeatures.ThelandscapeunitmaycontributetothesignificanceofaNationalRegisterproperty,suchasafarmsteadinaruralhistoricdistrict.InsomecasesthelandscapeunitmaybeindividuallyeligibleforlistingintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces,suchasarosegardeninalargeurbanpark.

ListofClassifiedStructures(LCS)

Acomputerized,evaluatedinventoryofallhistoricandprehistoricstructureshavinghistorical,architectural,orengineeringsignificanceforwhichtheNationalParkServicehasorplanstoacquireanylegalinterest.IncludedintheLCSarestructuresthatindividuallymeetthecriteriaoftheNationalRegisterorarecontributingelementsofsitesanddistrictsthatmeettheRegistercriteria,andstructures—moved,reconstructed,andcommemorativestructures,andstructuresachievingsignificancewithinthelast50years—thataremanagedasculturalresourcesbecauseofdecisionsmadeintheplanningprocess.

Material Thephysicalelementsthatwerecombinedordepositedtoformaculturallandscape.Historicmaterialorhistoricfabricisthatfromahistoricallysignificantperiod,asopposedtomaterialusedtomaintainorrestoreaculturallandscapefollowingitshistoricperiod(s).

Matins Greek:Orthros,Slavonic:Utrenia.Theearlymorningoffice(dailyworshipservice)oftheOrthodoxChurch.

Matushka Literally“littlemother,”aformofaddressusedforthewifeofapriestordeacon.

Menaion Book(usuallyinaseriesoftwelvevolumes)containingliturgicaltexts,monthbymonth,forfixed-datefeastsandcommemorationsinthecourseoftheliturgicalyear.



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Metropolitan Termusedoriginallyforthebishopofthecapitalcity,ormetropolis,ofaprovinceintheRomanEmpire.InGreek-backgroundOrthodoxchurches,thetermcomestobeusedforarulingdiocesanbishop,asdistinctfromanauxiliaryorvicarbishop,andthetermarchbishopisusedfortheheadofawidergroupingofdioceses.IntheRussianOrthodoxChurchandseveralothers,ontheotherhand,usageofthetermsispracticallyreversed.ThetermarchbishopcomestobeusedinmuchthewaythatthetermmetropolitanisusedintheGreek-backgroundworld,andthetermmetropolitanisreservedforamorelimitednumberofhigh-rankingbishops,specificallythemetropolitansofMoscow,St.PetersburgandKiev.

Moleben Ashortprayerserviceofintercession,supplicationorcommemoration.

Molitvennydom Meaning,inRussian,prayerhouse,alessformaltermforchapel.OratorywouldbetheEnglishequivalent.

NationalRegisterCriteria ThequalityofsignificanceinAmericanhistory,architecture,archeology,engineering,andcultureispresentindistricts,sites,buildings,structures,andobjectsthatpossessintegrityoflocation,design,setting,materials,workmanship,feeling,andassociation,and:A.Thatareassociatedwitheventsthathavemadeasignificantcontributiontothebroadpatternsofourhistory;orB.Thatareassociatedwiththelivesofsignificantpersonsinourpast;orC.Thatembodythedistinctivecharacteristicsofatype,period,ormethodofconstruction,orthatrepresenttheworkofamaster,orthatpossesshighartisticvalues,orthatrepresentasignificantanddistinguishableentitywhosecomponentsmaylackindividualdistinction;orD.Thathaveyieldedormaybelikelytoyield,informationimportantinhistoryorprehistory.

NationalRegisterHistoricIntegrity

Theauthenticityofaproperty'shistoricidentity,evidencedbythesurvivalofphysicalcharacteristicsthatexistedduringtheproperty'sprehistoricorhistoricperiod.Historicintegrityisthecompositeofsevenqualities:location,design,setting,materials,workmanship,feelingandassociation.

NationalRegisterNomination

Identifiesandlocatesthehistoricproperty;explainshowitmeetsoneormoreoftheNationalRegistercriteria;andmakesthecaseforhistoricsignificanceandintegrity.


Theofficiallistofthenation'shistoricplacesworthyofpreservation.AuthorizedbytheNationalHistoricPreservationActof1966,theNationalParkService'sNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesispartofanationalprogramtocoordinateandsupportpublicandprivateeffortstoidentify,evaluate,andprotectAmerica'shistoricandarcheologicalresources.

NationalRegisterSignificance

ThequalityofsignificanceinAmericanhistory,architecture,archeology,engineering,andcultureispresentindistricts,sites,buildings,structures,andobjectsthatpossessintegrityoflocation,design,setting,materials,workmanship,feeling,andassociation,and:A.Thatareassociatedwitheventsthathavemadeasignificant



contributiontothebroadpatternsofourhistory;orB.Thatareassociatedwiththelivesofsignificantpersonsinourpast;orC.Thatembodythedistinctivecharacteristicsofatype,period,ormethodofconstruction,orthatrepresenttheworkofamaster,orthatpossesshighartisticvalues,orthatrepresentasignificantanddistinguishableentitywhosecomponentsmaylackindividualdistinction;orD.Thathaveyieldedormaybelikelytoyield,informationimportantinhistoryorprehistory.

Nave Thecentralinteriorworshipspaceofachurchorchapel.

Non-ContributingFeature

Abioticorabioticfeatureassociatedwithalandscapecharacteristicthatdoesnotcontributetothesignificanceoftheculturallandscape.

Non-ContributingResource

Anon-contributingbuilding,site,structure,orobjectthatdoesnotaddtothehistoricarchitecturalqualities,historicassociations,orarchaeologicalvaluesforwhichapropertyissignificant,because:itwasnotpresentduringtheperiodofsignificanceordoesnotrelatetothedocumentedperiodofsignificanceoftheproperty;duetoalterations,disturbances,additionsorotherchanges,itnolongerpossesseshistoricintegrityoriscapableofyieldingimportantinformationabouttheperiod;oritdoesnotindependentlymeettheNationalRegistercriteria.

Obednitsa SeeTypika.

Odinochka Aone-mantradingpostoftheRussian-AmericanCompany.

OldBelievers AdherentsofgroupsthatrejectedliturgicalchangesintroducedintheRussianOrthodoxChurchbyPatriarchNikoninthe17thcentury,hencereferredtomoreaccuratelyasOldRitualists.

OrthodoxChurchinAmerica(OCA)

LinealsuccessoroftheRussianOrthodoxDioceseoftheAleutiansandAlaska(1870),theRussianOrthodoxDioceseoftheAleutiansandNorthAmerica(from1900),andtheRussianOrthodoxGreekCatholicChurchofAmerica(from1924,moreoftencalledsimplytheMetropolia),theOrthodoxChurchinAmerica(OCA)wasgrantedautocephaly(ecclesiasticalindependence)byitsRussianOrthodox"motherchurch"in1970.

Overprocurator ThelayliaisonofficerbetweenemperorandtheHolySynodoftheRussianOrthodoxChurch,whooftendominatedchurchadministrativelifeandpoliciesduringtheperiodbetweenPetertheGreatandtheRussianRevolution.

Panikhida Abriefmemorialserviceforthedeparted.

Pantocrator ImageofChristasruleroftheuniverse,frequentlythefocalpointofachurch'scentraldome.

Pascha ThepreferredOrthodoxtermforEaster,fromtheGreekwordforPassover.



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Patriarch Thehighest-rankingbishop,orprimate,ofcertainautocephalousOrthodoxchurches,whetherbecauseoftheirantiquityortheirparticularimportanceinmorerecenttimes.TheseincludethepatriarchsofConstantinople,Alexandria,Antioch,Jerusalem,MoscowandAllRussia,Serbia,RomaniaandBulgaria.Theprimatesofnewerorsmallerchurchesusuallyhavethetitleofarchbishopormetropolitan.

PeriodofSignificance ThespanoftimeforwhichahistoricresourceattainshistoricalsignificanceandforwhichmeetsNationalRegistercriteria.

Ponomar Sacristanorsexton,chargedwithmaintainingthechurchanditsliturgicalfurnishingsinproperorder.

Presbyter SeePriest.

Prestol' Altartable,erectedinthecenterofthealtararea,onwhichtheeucharistiscelebrated.

Priest TheusualEnglishtranslationforpresbyter,thesecondofthethreemajorclericalordersintheOrthodoxChurch.Thepresbyterisordainedandassignedbythebishoptoserve,ontheparishlevel,inthepriestlyministriesofleading,sanctifying,andteaching.Seealsoarchpriest.

Promyshlennik,pl.promyshlenniki

SiberianandRussiantrapper-tradersandvoyageurs.InAlaskatheseinitiallyworkedasindependentcontractors,withcompensationbasedonsharesinagivenvoyageormoreextendedenterprise.Thetermeventuallycomestobeappliedtolower-levelwage-earnersintheemploymentoftheRussian-AmericanCompany.

Prosphora SpeciallymarkedroundloavesofleavenedbreadfromwhichportionsarecutinpreparationfortheDivineLiturgy,oreucharist.

Psalomshchik Ecclesiasticalreader,orpsalmist.

Reader Slavonic:psalomshchikor,earlier,di'ak.AminorclericalpositionwithresponsibilitiesforreadingandintoningthepsalmsandmanyoftheprayersandreadingsthatcomprisethedailycycleofservicesintheOrthodoxChurch.

Redoubt AlargertradingpostoftheRussian-AmericanCompany,oftenlightlyfortified.

RuralHistoricLandscape Ageographicareathathistoricallyhasbeenusedbypeople,orshapedormodifiedbyhumanactivity,occupancy,orintervention,andthatpossessasignificantconcentration,linkage,orcontinuityofareasoflanduse,vegetation,buildingsandstructures,roadsandwaterways,andnaturalfeatures.



RussianOrthodoxChurch(ROC)

NumericallybyfarthelargestoftheautocephalousOrthodoxchurchestoday,thoughbyrankonlyfifthinorderfollowingtheancienteasternpatriarchatesofConstantinople,Alexandria,AntiochandJerusalem.Defactoautocephalousfrom1448,raisedtopatriarchalstatusin1589,from1721to1917theRussianOrthodoxChurchwasheadedbyacollectivebody,theMostHolyGoverningSynod.In1917theofficeofpatriarchwasrestored.

RussianOrthodoxDioceseofAlaska

TheofficialnamefortheOrthodoxChurchinAmerica'sDioceseofAlaska.

SchematicDrawings Drawingsthatgraphicallyillustrateaculturallandscapeandthelocationoflandscapecharacteristicsandassociatedfeatures.Theydepictmoredetailedinformationthansimplesketchesanddiagrams,butdonotincludeprecisedimensions.

SketchPlan Aplan,generallynottoexactscalealthoughoftendrawnfrommeasurements,inwhichthelandscapecharacteristicsandassociatedfeaturesofaculturallandscapeareshowninproperrelationandproportiontooneanother.

Slaviq,orSelaviq ThetraditionalYup’ikterm,derivedfromtheSlavonic/Russianwordslava(glory),fortheperiodcelebratingtheNativityofChrist(Christmas),January7-12.SeeStarring.

Sobor Fromtheverbsobirat',meaningtoassembleorgather.(1)Soborthuscanrefertoachurchcouncil,whencetheRussianwordsobornost',meaningconciliarity.(2)Soborcanalsorefertoamajorchurch,orcathedral,typicallyonehavingtwosidealtarsinadditiontoamainaltar.Ifthischurchistheseeofabishop,itisdesignatedasakafedralnysobor,thelocationofthebishop'scathedra(seatofauthority).

Soslovie RussiantermforasocialestateofthesortoncecommonthroughoutEurope,eachestatehavingcertaindutiesandresponsibilitiesandalsocertainexpectations.InRussiatheseestatesincludedthenobility,theclergy,themerchant/burgher,andthepeasantclass.

Spirithouse AstyleoftombcommonamongtheOrthodoxDena'inaoftheCookInletarea,inappearancelikesmallhouse,oftenpersonalizedincolorsandornamentation.

SpiritualRegulation InRussian,DukhovnyRegament,acomprehensivedegreegoverningtheRussianOrthodoxChurchissuedbyRussianEmperorPetertheGreatin1721.

Starosta Thewarden,orelder,ofachurch,inchargeofsupervisionofchurchorchapelmonies.



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Starring Slaviq,orselaviq:CelebrationoftheNativityofChriston"RussianChristmas"(January7)andthenextseveraldaysby"followingthestar"inprocessions,ledbyacolorfullydecoratedstar,thatmovesfromhousetohouse,enjoyingrefreshmentsandsingingOrthodoxliturgicalhymnsandfolkcarolsateachstop.StarringisparticularlypopularamongtheYup'ikbutalsopracticedinOrthodoxcommunitiesthroughoutAlaska.

StatementofSignificance AnexplanationofhowaculturalresourcemeetstheNationalRegistercriteria,drawingonfactsaboutthehistoryandthehistorictrends—local,state,national—thatthepropertyreflects.

Stavropegial Slavonic:krestovaia.Thetermreferstothechurchofamonasteryorcomparableinstitutionlyingoutsideusualdiocesanadministrativestructures,underthedirectsupervisionofasuperiorecclesiasticalauthority.

Structure Aconstructedwork,usuallyimmovablebynatureordesign,consciouslycreatedtoservesomehumanactivity.Examplesarebuildingsofvariouskinds,monuments,dams,roads,railroadtracks,canals,millraces,bridges,tunnels,locomotives,nauticalvessels,stockades,fortsandassociatedearthworks,Indianmounds,ruins,fences,andoutdoorsculpture.IntheNationalRegisterprogram,“structure”islimitedtofunctionalconstructionsotherthanbuildings.

Theotokos Bogoroditsa,orBirth-giverofGod;themostcommonOrthodoxdesignationfortheVirginMary.

Tlingit ANativePeopleofsoutheasternAlaska,usuallyreferredtobytheRussiansasKolosh,withasignificantOrthodoxpresencesincethelastquarterofthe19thcentury.

Toion ASiberiantermforheadman,orchief,thatcomestobeappliedtocomparablenativeleadersinAlaska.

Traditional Pertainstorecognizablebutnotnecessarilyidenticalculturalpatternstransmittedbyagroupacrossatleasttwosuccessivegenerations.Alsoappliestosites,structures,objects,landscapes,andnaturalresourcesassociatedwiththosepatterns.Popularsynonymsincludeancestralandcustomary.

TraditionalCulturalProperty

Apropertyassociatedwithculturalpracticesorbeliefsofalivingcommunitythatarerootedinthatcommunity’shistoryorareimportantinmaintainingitsculturalidentity.TraditionalculturalpropertiesareethnographicresourceseligibleforlistingintheNationalRegister.

Trezvon OneofmanyRussianbell-peals,ofajoyous,celebratorynature.

Triodion Book(usuallyintwovolumes)containingliturgicaltextsformovablefeastsandcommemorations,beginningtenweeksbeforePascha(Easter)andendingeightweeksafterPascha,i.e.oneweekafterPentecost.



Typika Slavonic:obednitsa.Aliturgicalserviceconsistingofpsalms,hymnsandreadingsappointedforagivenday.Incontentitissimilartothenon-eucharisticfirsthalfoftheDivineLiturgy.TheTypikasometimesisservedwhennopriestisavailableorwhenapriesthasnoaccesstothebreadandwinenecessaryforthefullDivineLiturgy.Liketheregularcycleofdailyservices(Vespers,Matins,Hours...),itmaybeledbyaduly-authorizeddeacon,reader,cantororknowledgeablelaypersonintheabsenceofapriest.

Ukaz Adecree.Thetermmostoftenreferstoanimperialdecree,thoughitmayalsorefertoanadministrativeorderissuedbyacompetentgovernmentalorecclesiasticalagency.

Unanagax/-an AnAlaskanNativePeople,referredtobytheRussiansasAleuts,withamajorOrthodoxpresencesincetheearly19thcentury,locatedprincipallyintheAleutianIslandsandthePribilofs.

Uniate TermnowregardedaspejorativeforgroupsofEasternChristianswhoenteredintounion,orunia,withtheRomanCatholicChurch,acceptingpapalauthoritywhileatthesametimemaintainingeasternformsofworship.

Vespers Greek:Hesperinos;Slavonic:Vecherniia.Theeveningoffice(dailyworshipservice)oftheOrthodoxChurch.

Vladyko Literally“master,”acommonaffectionateformofaddressforabishop.

Whiteclergy Russian:beloedukhovenstvo.Marriedclergy,whoserveinnormalparishcontextsfromsmallvillagestomajorcities,withthepossibilityofbeingraisedtotherankofarchpriestbutineligibleforordinationtotheepiscopate.

Workmanship (1)Thephysicalevidenceofthecraftsofaparticularcultureorpeople.(2)Thetechniquesandskillsnecessarytoexecuteorconstructaparticulardetailorfeature.

Yup'ik AnAlaskanNativePeoplewithasignificantOrthodoxpresencefromthemid19thcentury,locatedprincipallyinwesternAlaska,inthelowerYukon-KuskokwimriversystemandtheNushagak-Mulchatnariversystem.TheirCentralYup'iklanguageispartoftheEskimo-Alutiiqlanguagefamily.


Chapter7.12-Bibliography 469

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