THE PROBLEM OF THE EARLY EUCHARIST:

An H i s t o r i c a l E x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r T r a d i t i o n and o f t h e C u l t i c M e a l i n P r i m i t i v e

C h r i s t i a n i t y

by

JAMES F. MACLEAN

B.A., U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1967

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t

o f

R e l i g i o u s S t u d i e s

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e

r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

May, 1973

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for

an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that

the Library shall make i t freely available for reference and study.

I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis

for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or

by his representatives. It is understood that copying or publication

of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my

written permission.

Department of R e l i g i o u s S t u d i e s

The University of British Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada

Date October 8, 1973

ABSTRACT

The purpose of t h i s t h e s i s i s to d e s c r i b e the c u l t i c

meal of p r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y and i t s r e l a t i o n to the L a s t

Supper of Jesus.

The f i r s t chapter seeks to determine what Jesus d i d

and s a i d a t h i s Last Supper, and whether or not he intended

to i n s t i t u t e a sacramental r i t e . An a n a l y s i s of the Last

Supper accounts i n the New testament shows t h a t Mark con­

t a i n s the most r e l i a b l e v e r s i o n of the bread s a y i n g , whereas

the Pauline-Lucan source i s to be p r e f e r r e d f o r the wording

of the cup s a y i n g ; the "command to repeat" i s however r e ­

j e c t e d . As f o r the vow of a b s t i n e n c e , the Marcan v e r s i o n i s

accepted over the more e l a b o r a t e Lucan. Reasons are advanced

f o r a t t r i b u t i n g these sayings to the h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s .

I t i s argued that the h i s t o r i c a l context f o r Jesus' eu-

c h a r i s t i c words was not some type of e s t a b l i s h e d Jewish r e l i ­

gious meal (e.g., Passover* kiddush) but r a t h e r an e s s e n t i a l

element of Jesus' own m i n i s t r y , h i s r e g u l a r t a b l e f e l l o w s h i p .

This chapter concludes by a f f i r m i n g t h a t at h i s Last Supper

Jesus p a r a b o l i c a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d h i s impending death as a co­

venant s a c r i f i c e which would b r i n g about the new e s c h a t o l o - ,

g i c a l o r d e r , and that he d i d not i n t e n d these p a r t i c u l a r words

and gestures to be repeated.

i i i

The second chapter shows t h a t d u r i n g the g r e a t e r p a r t o f

the New Testament p e r i o d there mas no general u n i f o r m i t y i n

e u c h a r i s t i c p r a c t i c e and theology. The most p r i m i t i v e c u l -

t i c meals were an outgrowth o f Jesus' r e g u l a r t a b l e f e l l o w ­

s h i p , were c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a mood o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l j o y , and

were riot d i r e c t l y connected with the Last Supper t r a d i t i o n or

to a theology o f Jesus' death. Out of t h i s f i r s t type there

developed two other b a s i c types: 1) a bread and f i s h type, i n

which the dominant idea was e a t i n g with the r e s u r r e c t e d Lord,

and which r e f e r r e d back to the m u l t i p l i c a t i o n m i r a c l e as the

moment o f i t s i n s t i t u t i o n ; and 2) the c l a s s i c a l bread and

wine type* which was regarded as an anamnesis o f Jesus' s a c r i ­

f i c i a l death, and which r e f e r r e d back to the Las t Supper as

the moment of i t s i n s t i t u t i o n . By an examination of the ques­

t i o n of the i n f l u e n c e of mystery r e l i g i o n s , and by an a n a l y s i s

of the e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g i e s of P a u l , the s y n o p t i c evange-,

l i s t s , the e c c l e s i a s t i c a l r e d a c t o r of the f o u r t h g o s p e l , Igna­

t i u s , and f i n a l l y J u s t i n , an attempt i s made to e x p l a i n the..

o r i g i n s , e v o l u t i o n , s t a n d a r i s a t i o n and eve n t u a l domination o f

t h i s c l a s s i c a l type through the h e l l e n i s a t i o n , d e - e s c h a t o l o g i -

s a t i o n and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s a t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n t h e o logy. In

a d d i t i o n to t h i s , a b r i e f account i s given of the development

of e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g i c a l p rayers and of e u c h a r i s t i c m i n i s t r y .

The study concludes with an appendix which seeks to demon­

s t r a t e t h a t i n the New Testament and p a t r i s t i c p e r i o d s the eu-

i v

c h a r i s t was c o n c e i v e d o f n o t i n a r a t i o n a l way, but mytho-

l o g i c a l l y , and t h a t the language o f the e a r l y e u c h a r i s t e x ­

h i b i t s the e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m y t h o l o g i c a l thought

( m y t h i c a l n o t i o n s o f c a u s a l i t y , d e a t h , s y m b o l s , t i m e , and

s p a c e ) which have been d e l i n e a t e d by p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t s o f

myth.

P r o f e s s o r and Head Department o f R e l i g i o u s S t u d i e s U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

INTRODUCTION 1

I . THE LAST SUPPER AND EUCHARISTIC ORIGINS 6

The E u c h a r i s t i n the Cont e x t o f E a r l y

C h r i s t i a n Worship 9

J e s u s ' E u c h a r i s t i c Words: the T e x t u a l

Data 13

What Type of Meal Was the L a s t Supper? 38

Notes t o Chapter I 67

I I . PRimiTIl/E EUCHARISTIC TYPES AND THEIR

ASSIMILATION INTO THE SACRIFICIAL-

SACRAWENTAL TYPE 80

The " B r e a k i n g of Bread" 81

The Formation and E a r l y Development o f

the C l a s s i c a l Type 101

The Development o f the C l a s s i c a l Type

i n Deutero-John and I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h 131

E u c h a r i s t i c L i t u r g y and E u c h a r i s t i c

m i n i s t r y 150

Addendum: The E u c h a r i s t and the Temple

Texts 164

Notes to Chapter I I 171

v i

APPENDIX I : THE EUCHARIST AND MYTH 188

The L o g i c o f Myth 192

The E u c h a r i s t and the M y t h i c a l

View o f C a u s a l i t y 197

The E u c h a r i s t and the M y t h i c a l

View of Death 202

The E u c h a r i s t and the M y t h i c a l

View o f Symbol 204

The E u c h a r i s t and the M y t h i c a l

View o f Time 210

The E u c h a r i s t and the M y t h i c a l

View o f Space 214

C o n c l u s i o n 218

Notes to Appendix I 222

APPENDIX I I : GREEK TEXTS OF THE LAST SUPPER AND

MULTIPLICATION-MIRACLE ACCOUNTS

IN THE NEW TESTAMENT 229

BIBLIOGRAPHY 232

\11»

ABBREVIATIONS

AB Anchor B i b l e ATANT Abhandlunqen zur Theoloqie des A l i e n und Neuen

Testaments BZ B i b l i s c h e Z e i t s c h r i f t CCSL Corpus Christianorum, S e r i e s Latinae CSEL Corpus Scriptorum E c c l e s i a s t i c o r u m Latinorum DBS D i c t i o n n a i r e de l a B i b l e , Supplement ESUI Ecumenical Studies i n Worship ET Expository Times FRLANT Forschunqen zur R e l i g i o n und L i t e r a t u r des Alten

und Neuen Testaments GCS Die qriech i s c h e n c h r i s t l i c h e n S c h r i f t s t e l l e r der

eraten d r e i Jahrhunderte HD H i s t o i r e des Doqmes IB The I n t e r p r e t e r ' s B i b l e JBL Journal of B i b l i c a l L i t e r a t u r e JTS Journal of Theo l o g i c a l Studies LC L e t t r e s Chretiennea LCC L i b r a r y of C h r i s t i a n C l a s s i c s LCL Loeb C l a s s i c a l L i b r a r y NovT Novum Testamentum NTSt New Testament Studies PG Migne, P a t r o l o q i a Graeca PL ffligne, P a t r o l o q i a L a t i n a

v i i i

RB Revue Biblique

RGG Die Religion in Geschichte und Geqenwart (3rd. ed., 1957ff.)

SBT Studies i n B i b l i c a l Theology

SC Sources Chretiennes

SJT Scottish Journal of Theolooy

TEP Textos Eucharisticos Primitives

TU Texte und Untersuchunqen zur Geschichte der a l t c h r i s t l i c h e n L i t e r a t u r

TUINT Theological Ulordbook of the New Testament

ZNw* Z e i t s c h r i f t fuer die neutestamentliche wlssenschaf t

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I wish to express my g r a t i t u d e to P r o f e s s o r W i l l i a m

N i c h o l l s , Dr. Charles Anderson, and Dr. Hannah K a s s i s f o r

t h e i r p a t i e n c e and c o n t i n u i n g i n t e r e s t while w a i t i n g f o r

the completion of t h i s study, which was terminated c o n s i ­

derably l a t e r than o r i g i n a l l y planned, as we l l as f o r the

h e l p f u l advice concerning c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s o f the t h e s i s .

I wish a l s o to thank my wife E l e a n o r , George P a y e r l e ,

E i l e e n P a y e r l e , and Sharon Brown f o r t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e i n

the p r e p a r a t i o n of the f i n a l t y p e s c r i p t .

/

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of t h i s t h e s i s i s to d e s c r i b e the c u l t i c

meal of the C h r i s t i a n community d u r i n g the f i r s t c e n t u r y ,

seeking thereby to account f o r the e x i s t e n c e of the c l a s s i ­

c a l type of e u c h a r i s t , the e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

which appear i n t h e i r developed form by the time of J u s t i n

Martyr ( c . A.D. 150).

The complexity of the t o p i c i s such t h a t our t h e s i s

might have been e n t i t l e d , "The Problems of the E a r l y Eu­

c h a r i s t . " Even a cursory examination of the m a t e r i a l would

i n t r o d u c e such general questions as the i n f l u e n c e of the mys­

te r y c u l t s on e a r l y C h r i s t i a n worship, or more s p e c i f i c ones

such as the r e l a t i v e value of the d i f f e r e n t i n s t i t u t i o n n ar­

r a t i v e s , or whether or not the Las t Supper was a Passover

meal. For the purposes of t h i s t h e s i s , these v a r i o u s ques­

t i o n s may be grouped i n t o three fundamental concerns: t h a t of

the L a s t Supper and e u c h a r i s t i c o r i g i n s , t h a t of e a r l y eucha­

r i s t i c "types" and the eventual a s s i m i l a t i o n of these types

i n t o a p r e v a i l i n g s a c r i f i c i a l - s a c r a m e n t a l model, and th a t of

the canons of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to be a p p l i e d to the somewhat

m y s t i f y i n g language of e a r l y e u c h a r i s t i c theology and worship.

These three problems determine the b a s i c s t r u c t u r e of the

t h e s i s .

2

A s u p e r f i c i a l comparison of the Last Supper n a r r a t i v e s

i n the New Testament with l a t e r d e s c r i p t i o n s of the e u c h a r i s -

t i c c e l e b r a t i o n might suggest t h a t t h i s e c c l e s i a s t i c a l r i t e

was " i n s t i t u t e d " by Jesus of Nazareth on the o c c a s i o n of the

Last Supper. To t e s t the v a l i d i t y of such a c o n c l u s i o n , the \ r

h i s t o r i a n must ask two q u e s t i o n s : 1) What was a c t u a l l y s a i d

and done by Jesus a t the L a s t Supper and d i d he i n any sense

in t e n d to i n s t i t u t e a sacramental r i t e ? and 2) What was the

nature of the e a r l y c u l t i c meals, and how d i d they evolve

i n t o the type of c e l e b r a t i o n t h a t was standard i n orthodox

G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n i t y by the mid-second century? The two

chapters of t h i s t h e s i s are devoted r e s p e c t i v e l y to each of

these q u e s t i o n s . In a d d i t i o n , they o f f e r a b r i e f account of

the development of e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g i c a l p r a y e r s and of eu-

c h a r i s t i c m i n i s t r y . Appendix I, which d e a l s with a somewhat

broader p e r i o d , attempts to provide a hermeneutical p r i n c i p l e

f o r our reading of e a r l y e u c h a r i s t i c t e x t s .

Our a n a l y s i s leads to the f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s . F i r s t ,

a t Jesus* Last Supper he p a r a b o l i c a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d h i s im­

pending death as a covenant s a c r i f i c e which would b r i n g about

the new e s c h a t o l o g i c a l o r d e r ; h i s words and gestures are to

be understood as the climax of h i s m i n i s t r y , and he d i d not

i n t e n d them to be repeated.

Secondly, d u r i n g the g r e a t e r p a r t of the New Testament

p e r i o d there was no general u n i f o r m i t y i n e u c h a r i s t i c p r a c -

3

t i c e and theology: the most p r i m i t i v e c u l t i c meals were an

outgrowth of Jesus' r e g u l a r t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p , and were not

d i r e c t l y connected with the Last Supper t r a d i t i o n or to a

theology of Jesus* death; out of t h i s f i r s t "type" (and

e x i s t i n g a l o n g s i d e i t ) there developed two other b a s i c types

(which i n turn had t h e i r own v a r i a n t s ) : 1) a bread and f i s h

type, i n which the dominant idea was e a t i n g with the r e s u r ­

r e c t e d Lord, and which r e f e r r e d back to the m u l t i p l i c a t i o n

m i r a c l e as the moment of i t s i n s t i t u t i o n , and 2) the c l a s s i ­

c a l bread and wine type, which was regarded as a proclamation

or memorial of Jesus' s a c r i f i c i a l death, i n which the elements

were o f f e r e d to the b e l i e v e r as the body and blood of C h r i s t ,

and which r e f e r r e d back to the Las t Supper as the moment of

i t s i n s t i t u t i o n . An attempt i s made to e x p l a i n the o r i g i n s ,

e v o l u t i o n , s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n and eve n t u a l domination of t h i s

c l a s s i c a l type through the H e l l e n i s a t i o n , d e - e s c h a t o l o g i s a t i o n

and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s a t i o n of C h r i s t i a n theology.

To complete our d e s c r i p t i o n of the e a r l y e u c h a r i s t , a

b r i e f examination i s made of e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g y and m i n i s t r y

( i . e . , of what prayers were s a i d a t the c e l e b r a t i o n , and who

o f f i c i a t e d at i t ) . The e a r l y e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g i e s ( o f every

type) are shown to have developed out of the Jewish berakoth

or prayers of t h a n k s g i v i n g . The s e p a r a t i o n of the agape from

the e u c h a r i s t , and i t s eventual s u p p r e s s i o n , are d i s c u s s e d .

4

I t i s shown how, with the emergence of a f o r m a l , s t r u c t u r e d

m i n i s t r y i n the l a t t e r p a r t of the f i r s t and the beginning of

the second c e n t u r y , the e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n came to be

pla c e d under t h i s m i n i s t r y , and i t i s po i n t e d out t h a t the

c e l e b r a t i o n may i t s e l f have c o n t r i b u t e d to the formation of

t h i s m i n i s t r y . This s e c t i o n concludes with an examination

of the f i r s t complete d e s c r i p t i o n of the e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g y ,

which i s found i n J u s t i n ' s Apology.

Our study concludes with an appendix which, c h r o n o l g i -

c a l l y , i s much broader i n scope than the t h e s i s proper* but

which i s n e v e r t h e l e s s p e r t i n e n t to the questions a l r e a d y d i s ­

cussed. I t seeks to demonstrate t h a t i n the New Testament and

p a t r i s t i c p e r i o d s the e u c h a r i s t was conceived of not i n a

r a t i o n a l way, but m y t h o l d g i c a l l y , and that the language of the

e a r l y C h r i s t i a n e u c h a r i s t e x h i b i t s the e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s ­

t i c s of my t h i c a l thought which have been d e l i n e a t e d by pheno-

menologists of myth.

In the t h e s i s proper, our method i s h i s t o r i c o - t e x t u a l ,

i . e . , an attempt i s made to r e c o n s t r u c t events and ideas of

the past on the b a s i s of analyses of documentary d a t a . The

method of the f i r s t Appendix i s r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t ; i t might be

d e s c r i b e d as "comparative hermeneutical." I t seeks to demon­

s t r a t e t h a t the canons of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a p p l i e d to our docu­

ments are to be d e r i v e d from the p a t t e r n s of thought s t r u c t u r e

which have been e x t r a c t e d from d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s . S p e c i f i -

5

f i c a l l y i t i n t e n d s to show t h a t the conceptua l framework i n

which e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s a r t i c u l a t e d the meaning of t h e i r c u l ­

t i c meals conforms to the c o n c e p t u a l framework which under­

l i e s the e x p r e s s i o n of myth.

c

CHAPTER I

THE LAST SUPPER AND EUCHARISTIC ORIGINS

The i r o n y of C h r i s t i a n i t y , L o i s y once remarked, was that 1

Jesus preached the Kingdom, and the Church uias the r e s u l t .

This aphorism s u c c i n c t l y i l l u s t r a t e s the question which w i l l

be confronted i n t h i s chapter: what c o n n e c t i o n , i f any, can

be e s t a b l i s h e d between the Last Supper of Jesus, the eschato-

l o g i c a l prophet, and those sacramental r i t e s of e a r l y C h r i s ­

t i a n i t y which r e f e r r e d back to i t as t h e i r a e t i o l o g i c a l foun­

dation? Or, to phrase the question another way, what d i d

Jesus do and say at the Last Supper, and d i d he intend these

a c t i o n s and sayings to be repeated by h i s f o l l o w e r s ? We can

f u r n i s h an answer to t h i s q uestion only by a thorough compa­

r a t i v e examination of the Supper n a r r a t i v e s i n the New T e s t a ­

ment. We hope thereby to be able to r e c o n s t r u c t , as accu­

r a t e l y as the t e x t s w i l l permit, the most o r i g i n a l form of

these n a r r a t i v e s . I t w i l l then be necessary to determine

whether or not one can reasonably maintain that the words and

a c t i o n s of the h i s t o r i c a l Jesus correspond s u b s t a n t i a l l y to

what i s reported i n t h i s o r i g i n a l account. F i n a l l y , we must

e s t a b l i s h whether or not the Last Supper must be placed i n the

context of some s p e c i f i c type of Jewish r e l i g i o u s meal. Only

7

t h e n w i l l i t be p o s s i b l e t o s p e c u l a t e on t h e m e a n i n g t o J e s u s

o f t h i s f i n a l meal w i t h h i s d i s c i p l e s .

T h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h e r e mould seem t o be o n l y f o u r p o s s i b l e 2

e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e o r i g i n o f t h e e u c h a r i s t and i t s r e l a t i o n

t o t h e L a s t S u p p e r t r a d i t i o n :

1) That i t was an e n t i r e l y new r i t e e x p r e s s l y c r e a t e d by

J e s u s , and b e q u e a t h e d by him t o t h e C h u r c h . T h i s v i e w was i m ­

p l i e d i n many t h e o l o g i c a l d o c u m e n t s p r i o r t o t h e r i s e o f c r i ­

t i c a l b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p , t h o u g h i t was n o t , as B o u y e r p o i n t s 3

o u t , t h e v i e w e x p r e s s e d by t h e F a t h e r s . T h i s o p i n i o n c a n n o t be a s c r i b e d t o any modern s t u d e n t s o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y , e v e n

4

i f fflasure a p p r o a c h e s i t .

2) T h a t i t was t h e c r e a t i o n o f H e l l e n i s t i c C h r i s t i a n i t y ,

and was p a t t e r n e d a f t e r t h e r i t e s o f t h e m y s t e r y c u l t s . A c­

c o r d i n g t o t h i s t h e o r y , t h e New T e s t a m e n t a c c o u n t s o f t h e L a s t

S u p p e r p r e s u p p o s e an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e f o o d consumed i n t h e

r i t u a l w i t h a s a v i o u r g o d , and must t h e r e f o r e have been c r e a t e d

t o e x p l a i n t h e r i t u a l p r a c t i c e . T h i s p r o p o s a l e n j o y e d some c u r r e n c y a r o u n d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , and was

5 6 7 a c c e p t e d by P. G a r d n e r , E. R e u t e r s k i o e l d , A. L o i s y , and e s -g

p e c i a l l y W. H e i t m u e l l e r . Among c o n t e m p o r a r y c r i t i c s i t i s g

s u p p o r t e d o n l y by B u l t m a n n , a n d few modern s t u d i e s b o t h e r e v e n

t o r e f u t e i t . The main d e s i d e r a t u m o f t h i s t h e s i s i s a s p e c i f i c

h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h e o r i g i n and t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e e u c h a ­

r i s t i c words a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s . The most c o n v i n c i n g e v i d e n c e

i n i t s f a v o u r , v i z . , p a r a l l e l s i n t h e M i t h r a i c s a c r a m e n t o f

8

b r e a d and m a t e r m i x e d m i t h w i n e , ca n be f o u n d o n l y i n d o c u ­

ments d a t i n g f r o m t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y . M o r e o v e r , t h e d o m i n a n t

c o n c e p t i o n i n t h e m y s t e r i e s f r o m w h i c h i t i s a l l e g e d t h e

e a r l y e u c h a r i s t t o o k i t s b i r t h was one o f e a t i n g m l t h t h e g o d ,

r a t h e r t h a n e a t i n g t h a g o d . 1 0

3) That i t d e v e l o p e d o u t o f some c u r r e n t J e w i s h p r a c t i c e ,

s u c h a s a P a s s o v e r , K i d d u s h , o r H a b u r a h m e a l , t o w h i c h J e s u s

gave a new m e a n i n g , t h u s p a v i n g t h e way f o r i t s a d o p t i o n a s a

s p e c i f i c a l l y C h r i s t i a n r i t e . V a r i a n t s o f t h i s t h e o r y a r e m a i n ­

t a i n e d by p e r h a p s most modern c r i t i c s , and w i l l be e x a m i n e d i n

d e t a i l b e l o w . I t s s u p p o r t e r s c o n t e n d t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e r e were

c e r t a i n l y H e l l e n i s t i c i n f l u e n c e s on t h e d i f f u s i o n and d e v e l o p ­

ment o f t h e e u c h a r i s t , i t must " i n i t s b e g i n n i n g s a t l e a s t be 11

a c c o u n t e d f o r on p u r e l y J e w i s h p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s 1 ; "

4) Some s c h o l a r s have s u g g e s t e d a d o u b l e o r i g i n f o r t h e

e u c h a r i s t , and e n v i s a g e more t h a n one t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t i n t h e

e a r l i e s t p e r i o d . T h i s means t h a t on t h e one hand t h e e u c h a r i s ­

t i c m e a l s ( " b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d " ) d e s c r i b e d i n A c t s d e v e l o p e d

o u t o f J e s u s ' d a i l y f e l l o w s h i p w i t h h i s d i s c i p l e s , and t h a t on

t h e o t h e r hand t h e e u c h a r i s t d e s c r i b e d i n 1 C o r i n t h i a n s 11, a

m e m o r i a l o f J e s u s ' d e a t h , r e f e r s back t o t h e L a s t S u p p e r . T h i s

v i e w i m p l i e s , o f c o u r s e , t h a t t h e e a r l i e s t e u c h a r i s t s were n o t

i n d i r e c t l i n e r d e s c e n t t o t h e L a s t S u p p e r . I t s p r o b a b i l i t y

t h e r e f o r e d e p e n d s on two t h i n g s : an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e L a s t

S u p p e r n a r r a t i v e s w h i c h d i s c r e d i t s t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f J e s u s '

9

having enjoined h i s d i s c i p l e s to repeat h i s e u c h a r i s t i c words

and a c t i o n s , and a demonstration of the e x i s t e n c e of more than

one type of e u c h a r i s t i c meal i n the e a r l i e s t p e r i o d . The d i s ­

c u s s i o n i n t h i s f i r s t chapter of the Supper n a r r a t i v e s , and i n

the second chapter of e u c h a r i s t i c types, w i l l show that t h i s

view has much to commend i t s e l f .

The E u c h a r i s t i n the Context of E a r l y C h r i s t i a n Worship

The term £Vyj£KptCTCtQi. , " t h a n k s g i v i n g , " does not appear as 12

a d e s i g n a t i o n f o r the C h r i s t i a n c u l t i c meal before I g n a t i u s .

I t i s d e r i v e d from berakah, the Jewish t h a n k s g i v i n g over meals

out of which the e a r l y anaphora developed, and to which the

r e f e r e n c e s to tlesus' having "given thanks" at the L a s t Supper

(1 Coi 11:24; Lk. 22:19; lYlk. 14:23; Mt. 26:27) are probably an

a l l u s i o n . A l l the a v a i l a b l e evidence i n d i c a t e s that the eucha­

r i s t i c meal, i n some form or o t h e r , was the C h r i s t a i n communi­

ty's c e n t r a l a c t of worship from i t s o u t s e t . In i t s nascent

s t a g e s , of course, C h r i s t i a n i t y was a phenomenon of Judaism,

and the f i r s t C h r i s t i a n s continued to p a r t i c i p a t e i n Jewish

worship. I t i s g e n e r a l l y agreed t h a t Acts 2:22-47 gives a

f a i r l y a ccurate i f somewhat i d e a l i s e d d e s c r i p t i o n of the wor­

ship of the Jerusalem church. The author of t h i s passage r e ­

p o r t s that "they went as a body to the Temple every day but met

i n t h e i r houses f o r the breaking of the bread" (v. 46). Along­

s i d e the o f f i c i a l Jewish worship, then, these f i r s t C h r i s t i a n s

10

had t h e i r own d i s t i n c t i v e form of worship: a e u c h a r i s t i c meal.

There are a l s o i n d i c a t i o n s of i n f o r m a l g atherings f o r prayer

(Acts 1:12-14; 12:12). The s i t u a t i o n i n the P a u l i n e churches

was more complex. While i n i t i a l l y , i t seems, the g e n t i l e C h r i s ­

t i a n s worshipped with the Jews (Acts 13:43f.; 14:1), the breach

between the Synagogue and the Church soon made t h i s i m p o s s i b l e .

In some cases the g e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n s secured t h e i r own p u b l i c

p l a c e s f o r meeting, as at Ephesus (Acts 19:8-10), but probably 13

more o f t e n they combined the preaching of the word with eu­

c h a r i s t i c s e r v i c e s i n the home, as at Troas (Acts 20:7-11).

Apart from the i n i t i a t o r y r i t e of baptism, the New Testa­

ment ( e s p e c i a l l y the P a u l i n e corpus) d e p i c t s a v a r i e t y of forms

of worship which, i n a d d i t i o n to the e u c h a r i s t i c meal, occurred

on a r e g u l a r b a s i s . Some of these were c h a r i s m a t i c and spon­

taneous, l i k e the r e v e l a t i o n s , speaking i n tongues, i n t e r p r e ­

t a t i o n of tongues (1 Co. 14:26) and h e a l i n g (1 Co. 12:28; Jas.

5 : l 4 f f . ) ; other forms, l i k e psalms, hymns (1 Co. 14:26; C o l . 3:

16; Eph. 5:19) and doxologies (Rom. 1:25; 2 Co. 11:31; 2 Tim.

4:18; Eph. 1:3), were more f i x e d . I t was once commonly b e l i e v e d 14

( a f t e r Weizsaecker and Lietzmann) t h a t these n o n - e u c h a r i s t i c

forms of worhsip took place i n t h e i r own s e t t i n g , the s o - c a l l e d

s e r v i c e of the word. Cullmann, however, has q u i t e c o n v i n c i n g l y

argued a g a i n s t the p l a u s i b i l i t y of t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . He be­

l i e v e s that Acts 2:42 and Acts 2 0 : 7 f f . (where prayers and teach­

ing are connected with the breaking of the bread) i n d i c a t e

11

" t h a t as a r u l e there uias no g a t h e r i n g of the community with­

out the breaking of bread and t h a t , even i f there had been a

s e r v i c e which was e x c l u s i v e l y a s e r v i c e of the Word, i t would 1 5

have been i n any case an e x c e p t i o n . " Cullmann's reasoning

i s that the c h a r i s m a t i c phenomena would s c a r c e l y have appeared

i n the synagogue atmosphere of a pure word s e r v i c e , and were

much more l i k e l y to have occurred i n a e u c h a r i s t i c context where the presence of the r i s e n C h r i s t was m y s t e r i o u s l y expe-

1 6 r i e n c e d . The c o n c l u s i o n i s that the s e r v i c e d e s c r i b e d by

17

J u s t i n , i n which the proclamation of the word and the c e l e ­

b r a t i o n of the e u c h a r i s t are j o i n e d t o g e t h e r , i s not the r e ­

s u l t of the l a t e r f u s i o n of what were o r i g i n a l l y two d i s t i n c t

s e r v i c e s . The e u c h a r i s t i c f e l l o w s h i p i s from the o u t s e t the

fundamental c o n s t i t u e n t of C h r i s t i a n community l i f e .

A word should be s a i d about the p r a c t i c e of Sunday wor­

s h i p , which had e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f by the e a r l y second cen-18

t u r y . The observance of Sunday must have at f i r s t been only 19

supplemental to observance of the Sabbath, and i t i s impos­

s i b l e to determine e x a c t l y when or how the change took p l a c e .

There i s no reason to suspect the e x p l a n a t i o n of I g n a t i u s (Maqn.

9:1) and the author of the E p i s t l e of Barnabas (15:8), who both

d e c l a r e that C h r i s t i a n s have supplanted the Sabbath with Sun­

day because ( a c c o r d i n g to the t r a d i t i o n ) on that day the Lord

had r i s e n . The New Testament, with the exception of the Apo­

calypse (1:10), s u p p l i e s l i t t l e evidence f o r r e g u l a r Sunday

1 2

w o r s h i p . A c c o r d i n g t o A c t s (2:46), t h e e a r l i e s t b r e a k i n g o f

t h e b r e a d was d a i l y . The r e f e r e n c e t o t h e T r o a s c e l e b r a t i o n

h a v i n g o c c u r r e d "on t h e f i r s t day o f t h e week" ( A c t s 20:7)

may h o w e v e r i n d i c a t e e m e r g e n t Sunday w o r s h i p i n t h e community

o u t o f w h i c h t h e book o f A c t s i t s e l f came.

No d e s c r i p t i o n o f w o r s h i p i n t h e p r i m i t i v e C h u r c h w o u l d

be c o m p l e t e w i t h o u t t h e r e m i n d e r t h a t f o r t h e s e e a r l y C h r i s ­

t i a n s r e a l w o r s h i p was n o t t o be f o u n d i n e x t e r n a l p r a c t i c e s .

R a t h e r , i t was t h e i r l i v i n g i n t h e w o r l d , t h e i r &COJUSIt£X w h i c h

t h e y were t o p r e s e n t as "a l i v i n g s a c r i f i c e h o l y and a c c e p t a b l e

t o God" and as " s p i r i t u a l w o r s h i p . " Human r e d e m p t i o n , t h e y be­

l i e v e d , came n o t as t h e r e s u l t o f a p u r e l y s a c r e d o f f e r i n g , b u t

f r o m J e s u s ' s u f f e r i n g i n a human, w o r l d l y s i t u a t i o n . " F o r t h e

one o f whom t h e s e t h i n g s a r e s p o k e n b e l o n g e d t o a n o t h e r t r i b e ,

f r o m w h i c h no one has e v e r s e r v e d a t t h e a l t a r " ( H b . 7 : 1 3 ) .

The b e l i e v i n g community i s now "a h o l y p r i e s t h o o d " ( 1 P t . 2:

5), f a i t h i s a " s a c r i f i c i a l o f f e r i n g ( P h i l . 2 : 1 7 ) , and a c t s o f

l o v e a r e " t h e s a c r i f i c e t h a t God a c c e p t s and f i n d s p l e a s i n g "

( P h i l . 4 : 1 8 ) . As E . S c h i l l e b e e c k x r e m a r k s ,

T h i s s e c u l a r w o r s h i p was, so t o s p e a k , t h e n o v e l t y o f t h e New T e s t a m e n t , i n w h i c h a c r i t i c i s m o f t h e o l d J e w i s h s a c r i f i c e s and o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p r o f a n e a n d s s a c r a l , c l e a n and u n c l e a n , i s c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e . The a t t e n t i o n o f t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s was d i r e c t e d l e s s t o w a r d s t h e C h u r c h t h a n t o w a r d s t h e k i n g d o m o f God, i n w h i c h t h e w h o l e o f t h e c r e a t e d w o r l d was i n c l u d e d . 2 0

13

The e u c h a r i s t , t h e n , uias t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f a s e c u l a r

r e a l i t y , t h e r e d e m p t i o n o f t h e u i o r l d , i n t h e f o r m o f a com­

mon m e a l . F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e p r e - C o n s t a n t i n i a n C h r i s t i a n s

uiere p r o u d t h a t t h e y had no c h u r c h b u i l d i n g s o r a l t a r s . The

pagan c r i t i c C e l s u s c h a s t i s e d them: " Y o u r e y e s c a n n o t b e a r

t e m p l e s , a l t a r s and i m a g e s o f God," and M i n u c i u s F e l i x , a

l a t e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A p o l o g i s t , b o a s t e d , "We have no t e m p l e s 21

and no a l t a r s . " "An a b s e n c e o f ' r e l i g i o n , ' " s a y s S c h i l l e -

b e e c k x , "uias t h e a s t o n i s h i n g t h i n g u i h i c h p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r u c k oo

t h e p a g a n s u i i t h r e g a r d t o C h r i s t i a n i t y . "

J e s u s ' E u c h a r i s t i c Words: t h e T e x t u a l D a t a

I t i s c l e a r f r o m t h e Neui T e s t a m e n t t h a t a t l e a s t some

c i r c l e s i n t h e e a r l y C h u r c h e s t a b l i s h e d a c o n n e c t i o n b e tween

t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f t h e i r c o mmunity l i f e , t h e e u c h a r i s t i c g a ­

t h e r i n g , and t h e L a s t S u p p e r o f J e s u s . T h i s c a n be d i s c e r n e d

f r o m t h e f o u r t e x t s u i h i c h r e p o r t J e s u s ' i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e

e u c h a r i s t : Mark 14:22-25, M a t t h e w 26:26-29, Luke 22:15-20, 23

and 1 C o r i n t h i a n s 11:23-26. We c a n d i s t i n g u i s h two t y p e s

o f s a y i n g s i n e a c h o f t h e f i r s t t h r e e t e x t s : (1) an e s c h a t o -

l o g i c a l vow o f a b s t i n e n c e (Mk. 14:25; Mt. 26:29; L k . 22:15-18)

and (2) J e s u s ' words o f i n s t i t u t i o n - - o r r b e t t e r ? ; w o r d s o f i n t e r ­

p r e t a t i o n — u t t e r e d o v e r b r e a d and w i n e (Mk. 14:22-24; Mt. 26:

26-28; L k . 22 :19-20). O n l y t h e l a t t e r a p p e a r e x p l i c i t l y , i n

P a u l .

14

The e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a y i n g appears i n s u b s t a n t i a l l y the

same form i n Mark ("Truly, I say to you, I s h a l l not d r i n k

again of the f r u i t of the vine u n t i l that day when I d r i n k

i t new i n the kingdom of G o d , " A y U ^ ifaxV OZL Ol)K£Zl OVjUrj TTxco CK cov y*cvrjjucico? O/V 0(MJT<f:>\OlJ £co<; Zr}$ rfju/pa? ctceixtrfg ozoiv aruto TTvvoo KOCIVOV

£VZ7) /3cfO-2?i£70f COV OCOU ), and Matthew ("I t e l l you I

s h a l l not drink again of t h i s f r u i t of the vine u n t i l that

day when I d r i n k i t new with you i n my Father's kingdom," heju) de xSjuiv objurj iricoairfapzi CK zovzou^ ZOV £fVrf~ /u&zos z/)f auTT€>yoi) cats zrfr 7i/u£pois CKCivrjs ozay o/vtb mvcoJU€&' VJULVV Kotivov't.v Cfj fiatri>\£\<Ql ZOV TT&Tpo'f JULOV ) • In both cases the l o g i o n appears at the

end of the p e r i c o p e , f o l l o w i n g d i r e c t l y on the words of i n t e r ­

p r e t a t i o n over the cup. Luke 22:18 i s a v a r i a n t of the same

say i n g ("for I t e l l you t h a t from now on I s h a l l not d r i n k of

the f r u i t of the vine u n t i l the kingdom of God comes,"ACJ*CO

jitp v/iiv,ovyurj rrico arro zov %?uv ocrro zov pcvrfjimvos Zrj$ ajUTTcXou ecos oi> rj fioto-i?.cia zou Qeaw <?>>®rj ). In t h i s case, however, the s a y i n g does not a t t a c h i t s e l f to

the words of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , but concludes a separate u n i t of

t r a d i t i o n which precedes those words. This u n i t c o n t a i n s con­

s i d e r a b l e m a t e r i a l p e c u l i a r to Luke: another e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

s a y i n g ("I have e a r n e s t l y d e s i r e d to eat t h i s passover with

you before I s u f f e r , " ITJl SUjUlQL CTTC&VyUrjaVf ZOUZO T O

irdo-yoi fexffciv ju£&* wjLLtdv irpo zov juc rruQeiv Lk. 22:15), and, most s u r p r i s i n g l y , an a d d i t i o n a l c u p o v e r

15

which Jesus gives thanks, i n v i t e s h i s d i s c i p l e s to partake of

("Take t h i s and d i v i d e i t among y o u r s e l v e s " - - f\0(f3&Z£ ZOVCO

KOI 6lCl/U£f>{a(XCC Ch OXVZOVf, Lk. 22:17), and vows to ab­

s t a i n from.

The words" of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n over the bread and cup ( f o r

Luke: the second cup) f a l l n a t u r a l l y i n t o two groups, Mark/

Matthew and Luke/Paul. In Mark the bread s a y i n g reads, "Take;

t h i s i s my body ," AfX/SCtt COVZO £(TCl\S ZO &USJLWL jUOU{ 14:22) ,

and the cup s a y i n g , " T h i s i s my blood of the covenant, which

i s poured out f o r many,"COUCO CCTC2V ZO CHljU-OL jLlOl) Z^jz <£l£H&7)KT\S ZO €K%VVOjU£VOV VTTCp TW?ti£>\Kl4i24). Matthew repeats Mark

almost verbatim, but there are a small number of s i g n i f i c a n t

and c h i e f l y t h e o l o g i c a l l y motivated a d d i t i o n s or a l t e r a t i o n s :

an i n v i t a t i o n to "eat" ( ( f id iYCtC) i s i n s e r t e d i n t o the f i r s t

s a y i ng (26:26), " f o r the f o r g i v e n e s s of sins,"£2(~ CX<f>£0~ZV Cfyl&p-

ZLCC\? i s added to the second s a y i n g , and i n v. 27 the n a r r a ­

t i v e s t y l e of Mark ("They a l l drank of it,"/<£XZ £JTlOV £J* dVCOV

JTdVZC%) i s a l t e r e d to a d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n ("Drink of i t , a l l

of you" fllCZC OCVZOV TTcivCCS ) • The Lucan and Pauline v e r s i o n s of the sayings are q u i t e

d i f f e r e n t , and the former i s complicated by an important tex­

t u a l v a r i a n t . The s o - c a l l e d s h o r t e r t e x t of Luke (Codex D)

e l i m i n a t e s the second cup and reproduces only the bread s a y i n g ,

i n e x a c t l y the same form as Mark. A l l other Greek manuscripts

16

o f Luke have a b r e a d and a mine s a y i n g , and i n b o t h i n s t a n c e s

t h e y a r e v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e P a u l i n e f o r m u l a e . The b r e a d

s a y i n g d i f f e r s f r o m Mark i n t h a t t h e y add an e x p l a n a t o r y p h r a s e

and t h e "command t o r e p e a t " ( " T h i s i s my body u i h i c h i s f o r

n_k.: g i v e n f o r i y o u . Do t h i s i n remembrance o f me," ZOVZO /XOV

L k . 2 2 : 1 9 , 1 Co. 1 1 : 2 4 ) . The cup s a y i n g s d i f f e r f r o m Mark n o t

m e r e l y by uiay o f a d d i t i o n , b u t i n e s s e n t i a l s t r u c t u r e . I n t h e

L u c a n f o r m t h e r e i s a s e c o n d e x p l a n a t o r y p h r a s e ( " T h i s cup

u i h i c h i s p o u r e d o u t f o r you i s t h e neui c o v e n a n t i n my b l o o d , "

f o r m t h e r e i s a s e c o n d ^ c o m m a n d t o r e p e a t " ( " T h i s cup i s t h e

neui c o v e n a n t i n my b l o o d ; do t h i s , as o f t e n as you d r i n k i t ,

We must a g r e e u i i t h M a c G r e g o r t h a t t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e

w r i t e r s o f t h e s e f o u r n a r r a t i v e s was t o d e s c r i b e n o t so much

t h e L a s t S u p p e r o f J e s u s as t h e f i r s t e u c h a r i s t o f t h e C h u r c h . ^ 4

But we c a n n o t assume, as does D e l l i n g , t h a t t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s

w o u l d have been c a r e f u l t o a l i g n t h e i r e u c h a r i s t i c r i t u a l as 2 5

c l o s e l y as p o s s i b l e t o J e s u s ' l a s t m e a l . A l l o f t h e a c c o u n t s

d i s p l a y t h e p a r a l l e l i s m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f l i t u r g i c a l p r a y e r :

17

i n Luke t h e p a r a l l e l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e two l o g i a i s more p r o ­

n o u n c e d t h a n i n P a u l , and a l t h o u g h Mark shows e v e n more sym­

m e t r y , Matthew i l l u s t r a t e s t h e most a d v a n c e d s t a g e o f t h i s

2 fi

t e n d e n c y . B e t z a s s e r t s t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h i s f a c t d o e s

n o t mean i m p u g n i n g t h e e s s e n t i a l h i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e a c c o u n t s .

He s u p p o r t s t h i s c l a i m w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e a r l y C h u r c h c o n ­

s c i o u s l y r e g a r d e d t h e e u c h a r i s t as a n a m n e s i s , and w o u l d n o t , 27

t h e r e f o r e , have d i s t o r t e d t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n .

T h e r e a r e , n e v e r t h e l e s s , c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b e t ween t h e a c ­

c o u n t s w h i c h may be o f d e c i s i v e i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e a t t e m p t t o

r e c o n s t r u c t J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s t i c s a y i n g s and a c t i o n s . I f , f o r

e x a m p l e , t h e s h o r t e r t e x t o f Luke were p r i m a r y , t h e a c c o u n t

g i v e n t h e r e w o u l d be r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t i n P a u l ,

and we w o u l d have t o c h o o s e b etween one o r t h e o t h e r . M o r e ­

o v e r , e v e n i f t h i s d i f f i c u l t y were n o t p r e s e n t , we w o u l d be

f a c e d w i t h o t h e r s : t h e e x p r e s s i o n "my b l o o d o f t h e c o v e n a n t , "

f o r e x a m p l e , i n Mark ( v . 24)

and t h e e x p r e s s i o n "my body w h i c h i s f o r you ,"jU<OX> Zo CTCO/LLCi ZO

VTfCp V/XCVV , i n 1 C o r i n t h i a n s ( v . 2 4 ) , c a n n o t ( a s w i l l be

shown l a t e r ) be r e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o A r a m a i c . T h i s f a c t a l o n e

means t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l A r a m a i c f o r m o f t h e words o f i n t e r ­

p r e t a t i o n must have e i t h e r ( a ) i n c l u d e d o n l y t h e n o t i o n o f

c o v e n a n t , i . e . , was e s s e n t i a l l y l i k e t h e P a u l i n e f o r m u l a w i t h -

o u t t h e e x p r e s s i o n ZO VTTCP V/UU>%? : " T h i s i s my body; t h i s

18

cup i s t h e new c o v e n a n t i n my b l o o d , " o r ( b ) i n c l u d e d o n l y t h e

n o t i o n o f a t o n e m e n t , i . e . , was e s s e n t i a l l y l i k e t h e fflarcan f o r ­

mula w i t h o u t Zr}<: <ftaOfff<yjf : " T a k e , t h i s i s my body ; t h i s i s

my b l o o d , w h i c h i s p o u r e d o u t f o r m a n y . " ^

B e f o r e t h e r e c a n be any d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t t h e r e l a t i v e

m e r i t s o f t h e s e a c c o u n t s i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o make a d e c i ­

s i o n i n f a v o u r o f e i t h e r t h e s h o r t e r o r t h e l o n g e r t e x t o f

L u k e . B o t h o f t h e s e t e x t s a p p e a r p e c u l i a r when comp a r e d w i t h

t h e o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n n a r r a t i v e s , t h e s h o r t e r b e c a u s e o f i t s

c u p - b r e a d o r d e r and a b r u p t e n d i n g , and t h e l o n g e r b e c a u s e o f

th e p r e s e n c e o f two c u p s . The s h o r t e r t e x t i s w i t n e s s e d by

t h e i m p o r t a n t Codex B e z a e ( D ) , and by a few O l d L a t i n manu-29

s c r i p t s . The l o n g e r t e x t a p p e a r s i n a l l o t h e r G r e ek manu­

s c r i p t s and a n c i e n t v e r s i o n s . The c h i e f d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h e

l o n g e r t e x t i s t h a t i t i s h a r d t o i m a g i n e a s c r i b e h a v i n g a b ­

b r e v i a t e d i t by d e l e t i n g t h e s e c o n d r a t h e r t h a n t h e f i r s t

c u p . F u r t h e r , d e f e n d e r s o f t h e s h o r t e r t e x t r e a s o n t h a t i t

i s e a s i e r t o s u p p o s e a l a t e r i n t e r p o l a t i o n f r o m 1 C o r i n t h i a n s

t h a n t o e x p l a i n how t h e t r a d i t i o n c o u l d o r i g i n a l l y h ave been t r a n s m i t t e d i n a f o r m u i h i c h m e n t i o n e d t h e g i v i n g o f t h e cup

30 t w i c e . The s h o r t e r t e x t was t h e r e f o r e a c c e p t e d by many 31 32 e a r l i e r s c h o l a r s , i n c l u d i n g L o i s y , L i e t z m a n n , and Mac-

33

D o n a l d , and among more r e c e n t s c h o l a r s h a s had s u p p o r t e r s i n

R.H. F u l l e r , 3 4 F.C. G r a n t , 3 5 and F.W. B e a r e . 3 6 The s h o r t e r

19

t e x t as i t s t a n d s , h o w e v e r , l e a v e s t h e b r e a d s a y i n g a s a mere

i s o l a t e d f r a g m e n t w i t h no a p p a r e n t c o n n e c t i o n t o what p r e -37 38 c e d e s o r f o l l o w s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n W e l l h a u s e n , B. B u l t m a n n ,

39

and H.N. B a t e have e x c i s e d v e r s e 19a as w e l l . T h i s s o l u t i o n

i s p e r h a p s t h e l e a s t a c c e p t a b l e , s i n c e t h e r e i s no t e x t u a l e v i ­

d e n c e w h a t e v e r t o s u p p o r t i t , and s i n c e t h e r e a r e no o t h e r r e ­

f e r e n c e s t o t h e L a s t S u p p e r o r t h e e u c h a r i s t w h i c h do n o t men­

t i o n b r e a d .

The g r e a t e r number o f c o n t e m p o r a r y c r i t i c s r e j e c t t h e

s h o r t e r t e x t on a c c o u n t o f i t s a w k w a r d n e s s and weak t e x t u a l

s u p p o r t . We b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s j u s t i f i e d . B u t i f

t h e l o n g e r t e x t i s a c c e p t e d as p r i m a r y , some e x p l a n a t i o n must

be f u r n i s h e d f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s h o r t e r o n e . One s u c h

e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t v s s . 19b-20 were d r o p p e d t o a v o i d t h e i n -/ 40 41' c o n s i s t e n c y o f h a v i n g two c u p s ( s o lYlacGregor, Schuermann

42 \

and S c h w e i z e r J . T h i s s o l u t i o n i s i m p r o b a b l e , t h o u g h , b e c a u s e

i t i s s c a r c e l y c r e d i b l e t h a t t h e s e c o n d cup s h o u l d have been

removed when i t w o u l d have r e s u l t e d i n t h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f J e s u s 1

i n s t i t u t i o n a l words o v e r t h e cup and t h e r e v e r s a l o f t h e n o r m a l

o r d e r o f t h e e l e m e n t s . A c c o r d i n g t o a n o t h e r p r o p o s a l , a d v a n c e d 43 44

by G. K i l p a t r i c k and J . J e r e m i a s , t h e l a c u n a e o f t h e s h o r ­t e r t e x t were i n t r o d u c e d a s p a r t o f t h e d i s c i p l i n a a r c a n i t o a v o i d p r o f a n a t i o n o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c m y s t e r y . The o b v i o u s ob­j e c t i o n t o t h i s t h e s i s i s t h a t v s . 19a w o u l d a l s o have been

20

o m m i t t e d . A t h i r d s u g g e s t i o n has been o f f e r e d by A. H i g g i n s ,

uiho i n t e r p r e t s L u k e ' s f i r s t cup a s " n o n - e u c h a r i s t i c . " H i g g i n s

b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e e v a n g e l i s t c o m b i n e d two L a s t S u p p e r t r a ­

d i t i o n s , one c o n s i s t i n g o f v s s . 1 5 - 1 9 a ; and t h e o t h e r c o n s i s ­

t i n g o f v s s . 1 9 a - 2 0 . The s h o r t e r t e x t , , h e r e a s o n s , was t h e

work o f a c i r c l e w h i c h knew o n l y t h e n o n - l i t u r g i c a l L a s t Sup­

p e r t r a d i t i o n f o u n d i n t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e L u c a n n a r r a t i v e .

T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n t o o l a c k s p l a u s i b i l i t y ; i t p r e s u p p o s e s t h e

t r a n s m i s s i o n o f a L a s t S u p p e r t r a d i t i o n q u i t e i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f

t h e e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g y o v e r a p e r i o d o f d e c a d e s , s o m e t h i n g

w h i c h i s r a t h e r u n l i k e l y . I t d o e s n o t , m o r e o v e r , a c c o u n t f o r

t h e a p p a r e n t a w k w a r d n e s s o f t h e b r e a d - s a y i n g i n v . 1 9 a .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s l i k e l y ( a s w i l l be shown b e l o w ) t h a t

L u k e ' s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l s a y i n g s a r e drawn f r o m

d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s , and we do have one l i t u r g i c a l w i t n e s s ( t h e

D i d a c h e ) i n w h i c h t h e e m p h a s i s i s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l , t h e words o f

i n s t i t u t i o n a b s e n t , and t h e p r a y e r o v e r t h e cup p r e c e d i n g t h a t

o v e r t h e b r e a d . We s h o u l d l i k e t o p r o p o s e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t

t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n o f t h e l o n g e r t e x t c a n be a t t r i b u t e d t o c e r ­

t a i n C h r i s t i a n s , p r o b a b l y o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , who u s e d a

e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g y o f t h i s t y p e . There r e m a i n s t o be e x ­

p l a i n e d t h e a n o m a l y o f t h e two c u p s i n t h e o r i g i n a l L u c a n t e x t .

Luke p r e s e n t e d t h e L a s t S u p p e r a s a P a s s o v e r m eal ( L k . 2 2 : 7 - 1 4 ) ,

and we c a n a c c e p t as r e a s o n a b l e (YlacGregor * s i n f e r e n c e t h a t Luke

i n c l u d e d two c u p s i n o r d e r t o b r i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e o f t h e Sup-47

p e r more i n t o l i n e w i t h t h e P a s s o v e r r i t u a l .

21

The G o s p e l o f M a t t h e w , as we have s e e n , r e p r o d u c e s M a r k ' s

S u p p e r n a r r a t i v e w i t h c e r t a i n a l t e r a t i o n s and a d d i t i o n s . We

a r e l e f t , t h e n , w i t h t h r e e key r e p o r t s o f J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s t i c

w o r d s : M a r k , t h e l o n g e r t e x t o f L u k e , and P a u l . Though t h e

d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e s e t e x t s a r e i r r e c o n c i l a b l e , e a c h has

some f a c t o r s i n i t s f a v o u r : M a r k , s i m p l i c i t y ; L u k e , an e s c h a -

t o l o g i c a l e m p h a s i s ; and 1 C o r i n t h i a n s , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e . Our

p r o b l e m i s t o c o n s t r u c t an as a u t h e n t i c a s p o s s i b l e v e r s i o n o f

J e s u s ' s a y i n g s f r o m one o r more o f t h e s e s o u r c e s .

I C o r i n t h i a n s 11:23-25 d e s e r v e s o u r i n i t i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n ,

s i n c e i t i s t h e o l d e s t e x t a n t a c c o u n t , w r i t t e n i n t h e s p r i n g o f 48

A.D. 54 o r 55. Any e v a l u a t i o n o f i t s r e l i a b i l i t y must b e g i n

w i t h an a t t e m p t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e m e a n ing o f t h e o p e n i n g p h r a s e ,

" F o r I r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e L o r d what I a l s o d e l i v e r e d t o y o u . . . . "

L o i s y b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e must have been t o a p e r s o n a l r e v e l a t i o n o r v i s i o n i n w h i c h P a u l r e c e i v e d t h e a c c o u n t s o f

49

i n s t i t u t i o n . L i e t z m a n n and M a c D o n a l d b o t h a g r e e w i t h L o i s y

on t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f v s . 2 3 , b u t d i f f e r f r o m hi m i n r e g a r d

t o t h e s u p p o s e d c o n t e n t s o f t h e r e v e l a t i o n . M a c D o n a l d p o i n t s

o u t t h a t P a u l c o u l d n o t h ave meant t h a t he r e c e i v e d t h e d e t a i l s

o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r f r o m a r e v e l a t i o n : t h e M a r c a n a c c o u n t i n d i ­

c a t e s t h a t t h e s e were a l r e a d y p a r t o f an i n d e p e n d e n t t r a d i t i o n

( s e e b e l o w , (p. 35(E) . The r e v e l a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , d i s c l o s e d t o

P a u l " t h a t i t was t h e e x a l t e d L o r d ' s w i l l t h a t t h e C h u r c h s h o u l d

a d o p t t h e L a s t S u p p e r as t h e m o d el f o r h e r f u t u r e c e l e b r a t i o n

22

o f t h e rite."^° In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e c o r e o f t h e r e v e l a t i o n

was "Do t h i s i n remembrance o f me."^ A c c o r d i n g t o L i e t z m a n n 52

and fflacDonald, who r e j e c t t h e l o n g e r t e x t o f L u k e , t h i s i n ­

t e r p r e t a t i o n e x p l a i n s why t h e i n j u n c t i o n t o r e p e a t a p p e a r s

o n l y i n 1 C o r i n t h i a n s . L i e t z m a n n s u s p e c t s t h a t P a u l has been

i n f l u e n c e d by t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y H e l l e n i s t i c p r a c t i c e o f h o l d i n g 53

f e a s t s i n memory o f t h e d e a d .

C r i t i c s o f t h e s e v i e w s h a v e , on t h e w h o l e , r e s p o n d e d t o

them w i t h two main o b j e c t i o n s : ( 1 ) a c o m p a r i s o n o f 1 Co. 11:23

w i t h o t h e r P a u l i n e m a t e r i a l makes i t u n l i k e l y t h a t P a u l was a l ­

l u d i n g t o a p r i v a t e r e v e l a t i o n , and ( 2 ) t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e e u ­

c h a r i s t i c f o r m u l a e , i n c l u d i n g t h e "command t o r e p e a t , " i s n o t

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y P a u l i n e . H i g g i n s a r g u e s t h a t i f P a u l were

r e f e r r i n g t o a d i r e c t and i m m e d i a t e d i s c l o s u r e , t h e p r e p o s i t i o n

i n t h e p h r a s e " f r o m t h e L o r d " w o u l d more n a t u r a l l y be TT&pQi

t h a n &TTO ( a s i n G a l . 1:12, TTOiph Oil>OpU)7Toi>

, " f r o m man").

M o r e o v e r , we c a n s e e t h a t P a u l u s e s t h e same two v e r b s i n v.

23 ("I r e c e i v e d . . . what a l s o I d e l i v e r e d , " E-yu) y&p TTGip£A®k~

K&1 TToLpedcOKCH) a s he d o e s i n 1 Co. 15:3 ("I d e l i v e r e d

. . . what a l s o I r e c e i v e d , " r\dp£OiVKCi -yoip...O TTaip£.\ a -

^OV ) » uihere he i s u n q u e s t i o n a b l y s p e a k i n g o f a t r a d i t i o n w h i c h he i n h e r i t e d f r o m the C h u r c h . The t e r m " t h e L L o r d , " a s C u l l m a n n

55

has shown, o c c u p i e s t h e p l a c e o f " t r a d i t i o n " i n c e r t a i n P a u l i n e

p a s s a g e s (1 Co. 7:10,25; 9:14; 1 Th. 4 : 1 5 ) . I n t h e s e i n s t a n c e s

P a u l s e e s t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s as t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l s o u r c e o f

t h e t r a d i t i o n , b u t t h e e x a l t e d L o r d as o p e r a t i v e i n i t s t r a n s -

2 3

m i s s i o n . " Thus OiTfo ZOV KvplOV c a n mean a d i r e c t r e c e i v i n g

f r o m t h e L o r d , w i t h o u t i t b e i n g n e c e s s a r y t o t h i n k o f a v i s i o n

o r o f e x c l u d i n g m i d d l e members t h r o u g h whom t h e L o r d H i m s e l f

i m p a r t s t h e p a r a d o s i s . " ^ 6

Numerous c r i t i c s have been s e n s i t i v e t o t h e g e n e r a l l y u n -

P a u l i n e t e n o r o f t h e words o f i n s t i t u t i o n i n 1 C o r i n t h i a n s .

A g a i n s t t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e words "Do t h i s i n remembrance o f

me" c o n s t i t u t e a d i s t i n c t i v e l y P a u l i n e a d d i t i o n , E. Lohmeyer

e m p h s i s e s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e word GHV&pL%rr)0'i£ i s u s e d nowhere

e l s e by P a u l , and t h a t t h e p a r a l l e l i s m o f v s s . 24 and 25 i n d i -57

c a t e s a l i t u r g i c a l s o u r c e . Schuermann has l i s t e d s e v e n

o t h e r f e a t u r e s o f t h e p e r i c o p e w h i c h a r e a t y p i c a l o f P a u l ' s

s t y l e : ( 1 ) t h e p a r t i c i p l e £V^oip7ffZtj(Jclf, w h i c h P a u l n o r m a l l y

u s e s w i t h t h e d a t i v e , b u t w h i c h h e r e i s u s e d a b s o l u t e l y ; ( 2 )

t h e p h r a s e K&l CtTTCV , w h i c h he does n o t use e l s e w h e r e t o i n -

t r o d u c e a q u o t a t i o n ; (3).a> (TiOjUOi , o t h e r w i s e u s e d by P a u l

o n l y t o r e f e r t o t h e community ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f 1 Co. 10;

16 , w h i c h i s a e u c h a r i s t i c p a s s a g e ) ; jUCtd w i t h t h e i n f i n i ­

t i v e , and t h e word I V , f o u n d o n l y h e r e i n t h e P a u l i n e

c o r p u s ; ( 5 ) (X>Or€*>\>%U)<; K&it an i n d i c a t i o n o f l i t u r g i c a l s t y l e ;

( 6 ) t h e c o n c e p t o f new c o v e n a n t , w h i c h P a u l d o e s n o t e l s e w h e r e

c o n n e c t w i t h t h e d e a t h o f C h r i s t and ( 7 ) t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f

" b l o o d " w i t h t h e c o v e n a n t r a t h e r t h a n w i t h c u l t i c s a c r i f i c e ,

a s u s u a l i n P a u l . ^ 8

We may c o n c l u d e , t h e n , t h a t P a u l ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e L a s t

S u p p e r , i n c l u d i n g t h e i n j u n c t i o n t o r e p e a t , i s an e d i t e d v e r -

24

s i o n o f a p r e - P a u l i n e l i t u r g i c a l s o u r c e . Does t h i s mean t h a t

o f t h e t h r e e r e p o r t s o f J e s u s * uiords o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n P a u l ' s

i s t h e most o r i g i n a l ? A number o f a u t h o r i t i e s , i n c l u d i n g

B e h m , ^ D i x , ^ and L e e n h a r d t b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s i s t h e c a s e .

I n f a v o u r o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s a r e a number o f d i f f i c u l t i e s c o n ­

n e c t e d w i t h t h e cup s a y i n g i n Mar k . M a r k ' s cup s a y i h i g a p p e a r s

t o have been made p a r a l l e l t o t h e b r e a d s a y i n g , as a r e s u l t o f

t h e l i t u r g i c a l t e n d e n c y t o s y m m e t r y . I t seems a l s o t o have

been a s s i m i l a t e d t o Ex. 2 4 : 8 , " B e h o l d t h e b l o o d o f t h e c o v e n a n t C O

w h i c h t h e L o r d has made w i t h y o u . " P a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i s

th e f a c t t h a t t h e Mar c a n e x p r e s s i o n TO CiijUOi jLLOu Trjg Jl®i&rfl<7j£

c a n n o t be t r a n s l a t e d i n t o A r a m a i c , s i n c e A r a m a i c d oes n o t a l l o w 63

t h e c o n s t r u c t c a s e t o t a k e a p r o n o m i n a l s u f f i x . B ut t h i s may i n d i c a t e t h a t o n l y t h e g e n i t i v a l p h r a s e " o f t h e c o v e n a n t " i s

64 s e c o n d a r y , and t h e o b j e c t i o n c a n be a p p l i e d w i t h e q u a l f o r c e

t o P a u l ' s juov... to aco/xa ro vrrep ujuCJ1 c o . n : 2 4 ) .

A l l t h i n g s c o n s i d e r e d , i t i s n o t l i k e l y t h a t t h e p r e s e n t f o r m

o f t h e P a u l i n e t e x t more a c c u r a t e l y r e p r o d u c e s J e s u s ' words than

t h e o t h e r w i t n e s s e s . I t i s b e s t u n d e r s t o o d a s a " R a b b i n i s a t i o n

o f t h e t r a d i t i o n . " 6 6

We have s e e n a l r e a d y t h a t t h e L u c a n words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

a r e s i m i l a r i n s t r u c t u r e and c o n t e n t t o P a u l ' s , and we may won­

d e r t h e r e f o r e w h e t h e r Luke has b o r r o w e d d i r e c t l y f r o m P a u l , o r

w h e t h e r , g i v e n t h a t P a u l has r e w o r k e d an e x i s t i n g l i t u r g i c a l

s o u r c e , Luke has drawn f r o m t h e same s o u r c e . W h i l e i t i s p o s -

25

s i b l e that the t h i r d e v a n g e l i s t was a companion of P a u l , and

was acquainted with the e u c h a r i s t i c p r a c t i c e of the P a u l i n e

churches, a number of c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t Luke

22:19-20 having been d e r i v e d from 1 Co. 11:24f. I f t h i s were

the case, we should not have expected Luke to suppress the

second "command to repeat." Furthermore, i n s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s

where Luke d i f f e r s from P a u l , the changes cannot be a t t r i b u t e d

to Luke's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t y l e . KdX . U)0~ct%JZ(22:20)

i s c o n t r a r y to the Lucan word order (Luke p l a c e s A3dr a f t e r ­

ward, as i n 20:31; c f . 5:10,33; 10:32; 2 2 : 3 6 ) , 6 7 and i t i s not

usual f o r Luke to omit the copula (22:20) or use £jUO$ i n the

a t t r i b u t i v e sense, as i n CV z£> ayu&Zri (22:20) . 5 8 The i n ­

ference i s that Luke has used the p r e - P a u l i n e l i t u r g i c a l source

(or a very s i m i l a r one), and i n the cases c i t e d , where Luke

d i f f e r s from P a u l , Luke i s to be p r e f e r r e d . On the other hand,

the phrase "which i s poured out f o r you" (Lk. 22:20) i s not

found i n 1 Co. 11:25, and must depend on l*lk. 14:24. 6 9

These o b s e r v a t i o n s might suggest that the o l d e s t a t t a i n ­

a ble form ( U r b e r i c h t ) of the words of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i f not to

be found i n 1 Co. 11:24ff., i s preserved i n Lk. 22:19f., i f we

d i s c o u n t two c o r r e c t i o n s which are presumably Luke's {'AC'^COV

f o r Ken cilTCV i n v. 19a, and the a d d i t i o n TO VtTcp V/A£OV t s

£K^VWqU£VOIS i n v. 20b) and one which Luke has found i n h i s ver«

s i o n of the source (the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of UfCfjXVCtJf i n v. 20a).

26

70 71 S u c h i s t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f J . B e t z and H. S c h u e r m a n n . B e t z

c o n j e c t u r e s t h a t t h e s o u r c e uias d e r i v e d f r o m an e a r l y A n t i o -

c hene l i t u r g y , and t h a t i t o r i g i n a t e d i n P a l e s t i n e i n t h e m i d -72

f o r t i e s . ( T h i s i s n o t a l t o g e t h e r i m p r o b a b l e , and f o r l a c k

o f a b e t t e r t e r m , we s h a l l d e s i g n a t e t h i s s o u r c e as " A n t i o -

c h e n e " ) . I n t h i s A n t i o c h e n e s o u r c e t h e p a r a l l e l p r e d i c a t e s

a r e body and c o v e n a n t , w h i l e i n Mark t h e y a r e body and b l o o d . The f o r m e r , B e t z b e l i e v e s , i s an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e e a r l i e r S u f f e r i n g S e r v a n t c h r i s t o l o g y , w h e r e a s t h e l a t t e r r e p r e s e n t s

a s h i f t t o t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f C h r i s t ' s d e a t h a s a J e w i s h c u l t i c 73

s a c r i f i c e .

A s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p o r t i o n o f s c h o l a r s , h o w e v e r , b e l i e v e

t h a t t h e M a r c a n r e p o r t i s more r e l i a b l e b e c a u s e o f i t s numerous / a, • 74 u . . 75 _ , 76 . . . 77 A r a m a i s m s ( s o J e r e m i a s , H i g g i n s , T a y l o r , L i e t z m a n n ,

78 79 80

F u l l e r , G a u g l e r , and C l a r k ) . J e r e m i a s , who has i n v e s ­

t i g a t e d t h e q u e s t i o n most t h o r o u g h l y , d e t e c t s no f e w e r o t h a n

t w e n t y - t h r e e S e m i t i s m s i n t h e whole M a r c a n a c c o u n t ( i . e . , i n

t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e t t i n g , t h e words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,

and t h e vow o f a b s t i n e n c e ) . Among t h e more i m p o r t a n t w h i c h a r e

p e c u l i a r t o Mark a r e : t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f K&1 i n 14:22-24 , A&f$>^V

( 1 4 : 2 3 ) , w h i c h d e s i g n a t e s t h e e l e v a t i o n o f t h e cup b e f o r e be­

n e d i c t i o n , TTOA^&V w i t h o u t t h e a r t i c l e , m e a n i n g " a l l " ( 1 4 : 2 4 ) ,

and tfyU^V ( 1 4 : 2 5 ) . I f t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p r o v e t h e p r i o ­

r i t y o f Mark and i f , as we have shown, t h e e x p r e s s i o n " o f t h e

c o v e n a n t " (fflk. 14:24) must be s e c o n d a r y , t h e n t h e e a r l i e s t a t -

27

t a i n a b l e f o r m o f t h e words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w o u l d b e , " T h i s

i s my body; t h i s i s my b l o o d w h i c h i s p o u r e d o u t f o r many."

I n t h i s c a s e t h e c o n c e p t o f c o v e n a n t w o u l d be a b s e n t , t h e p a ­

r a l l e l p r e d i c a t e s w o u l d be body ( p r o b a b l y = A r a m a i c b i s r a )

and b l o o d , and t h e p r e d o m i n a t i n g i d e a w o u l d be t h a t o f c u l t i c

s a c r i f i c e .

A g a i n s t t h i s c o n c l u s i o n we c a n a d v a n c e t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t

t h e A ramaisms i n M a r k ' s a c c o u n t e s t a b l i s h n o t h i n g b e c a u s e t h e y 81

o c c u r t h r o u g h o u t t h e g o s p e l . Even more p e r s u a s i v e i s K i l -

m a r t i n ' s o b j e c t i o n : "The p r e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e number o f

S e m i t i s m s w o u l d be d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c e d t h r o u g h t h e c o n s t a n t use

o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l a c c o u n t i n a H e l l e n i s t i c m i l i e u i s u n d e r ­

mined by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e P a u l i n e f o r m u l a t i o n , w r i t t e n a b o u t 8 2

t e n y e a r s b e f o r e L u k e , has f e w e r ' S e m i t i s m s ' t h a n L u k e . " I n

a s s e s s i n g t h e v a l u e o f M a r k , t h e d e c i s i v e q u e s t i o n i s , as S c h w e i -

z e r o b e r v e s , how c o u l d t h e p a r a l l e l i s m o f t h e M a r c a n s a y i n g s

have been u p s e t i n f a v o u r o f t h e n o n - p a r a l l e l s t r u c t u r e i n

F o r t h i s v e r y r e a s o n we may c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e words o f

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o v e r t h e cup s a y i n g a r e more o r i g i n a l i n t h e

" A n t i o c h e n e " a c c o u n t t h a n i n M a r k ' s . But we c a n n o t be r e a d i l y

s u r e t h a t t h e same i s t r u e f o r t h e b r e a d s a y i n g , w h i c h i n t h e

A n t i o c h e n e s o u r c e has t h e a d d i t i o n " . . . w h i c h i s £givenj f o r

y o u ; Do t h i s i n remembrance o f me." T h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o s u p -

P a u l ? 83

p o s e t h a t t h e word i s n o t an a d d i t i o n o f L u k e ' s ,

28

a n d , as uie have s e e n , t h e P a u l i n e w o r d i n g o f t h i s VJT£p - c l a u s e

c a n n o t be r e n d e r e d i n A r a m a i c . I n a d d i t i o n , i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y

d i f f i c u l t t o i m a g i n e t h e VflCp - c l a u s e and t h e words "Do t h i s i n

remembrance o f me" h a v i n g been d e l e t e d f r o m t h e M a r c a n s o u r c e

i f t h e y f o r m e d p a r t o f t h e o r i g i n a l L a s t S u p p e r t r a d i t i o n . I t

i s much e a s i e r t o s u r m i s e t h a t t h e y o r i g i n a t e d i n a l i t u r g i c a l

c o n t e x t where t h e e u c h a r i s t i c m e al was c o n s c i o u s l y c o n n e c t e d t o

t h e L a s t S u p p e r . B e n o i t ' s o f t - r e p e a t e d e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e

o m i s s i o n o f t h e i n j u n c t i o n t o r e p e a t i n M a r k , "On ne r e c i t e pas / 84

une r u b r i q u e , on l ' e x e c u t e , " h a r d l y s e t t l e s t h e q u e s t i o n . 85 86

Even i f , as J e r e m i a s and D i x b e l i e v e , t h e s a y i n g n e e d n o t

be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a r e q u e s t t o r e p e a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r r i t u a l as

a new f o r m o f w o r s h i p , we w o u l d n e e d more e v i d e n c e t o e s t a b l i s h

c o n c l u s i v e l y t h a t i t goes back t o J e s u s . The most p l a u s i b l e

s o l u t i o n i s t h a t t h e words o v e r t h e b r e a d have been more c a r e ­

f u l l y p r e s e r v e d i n t h e f o r m r e c o r d e d by M a r k .

Our a n a l y s i s o f t h e two b a s i c v e r s i o n s o f t h e words o f i n ­

t e r p r e t a t i o n ( i . e . , t h e l i t u r g i c a l s o u r c e u s e d by P a u l and Luke,

and t h a t u s e d by> Mark) t h u s y i e l d s t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t : t h e

e a r l i e s t a t t a i n a b l e f o r m o f t h e b r e a d s a y i n g i s t h a t f o u n d i n

Mark; t h e e a r l i e s t a t t a i n a b l e f o r m o f t h e cup s a y i n g i s s i m i l a r

t o t h a t f o u n d i n L u k e , minus a number o f a d d i t i o n s o r c o r r e c -

t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e PTfSp - c l a u s e ( c f . our r e c o n s t r u c t i o n be­

l o w , p . 33 ) .

29

T h e r e r e m a i n s t o be d i s c u s s e d J e s u s ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l vow

o f a b s t i n e n c e , w h i c h a p p e a r s i n a t w o f o l d f o r m i n Luke ( 2 2 : 1 5 -

16) and a s a s i n g l e s a y i n g i n Mark ( 1 4 : 2 5 ) . The vow d o e s n o t

a p p e a r a t a l l i n 1 C o r i n t h i a n s 1 1 , a f a c t w h i c h m i g h t l e a d us

t o c a l l i n t o q u e s t i o n i t s a u t h e n t i c i t y . The A n t i o c h e n e s o u r c e ,

h o w e v e r , f r o m w h i c h P a u l drew h i s i n s t i t u t i o n a l n a r r a t i v e , i n ­

c l u d e d o n l y t h e words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A l m o s t a l l s c h o l a r s

a g r e e t h a t L k . 22:15-18 i s "an i n d e p e n d e n t u n i t o f t r a d i t i o n ,

s e l f - c o n t a i n e d and i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t . " 8 7

The p r o b l e m o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l vow c a n t h e r e f o r e be

r e d u c e d t o t h r e e q u e s t i o n s : ( 1 ) w h e t h e r i t c o n s i s t e d o f one o r

two s a y i n g s ; ( 2 ) w h e t h e r i t p r e c e d e d o r f o l l o w e d t h e words o f

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; and ( 3 ) w h e t h e r Mark o r Luke r e p o r t s t h e more

o r i g i n a l f o r m o f t h e " f r u i t o f t h e v i n e " s a y i n g .

To a l a r g e e x t e n t o u r a n s w e r s t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s w i l l d e ­

pend on o u r e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f L k . 2 2 : 1 5 - 1 8 . 88 89

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e v i e w a d o p t e d by L i e t z m a n n , M a c D o n a l d , Be-90 91 n o i t , and D i b e l i u s , t h i s p a s s a g e c o n s t i t u t e s a l i t e r a r y

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t h i r d e v a n g e l i s t i n w h i c h Mark 14:25 has

been t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e m e a l , and t o w h i c h a

p a r a l l e l e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a y i n g r e f e r r i n g t o t h e m eal as a w h o l e

h a s been a d d e d . T h e r e w o u l d t h u s have o r i g i n a l l y been o n l y one

e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a y i n g , v e r y s i m i l a r t o M a r k ' s v e r s i o n i n w o r d ­

i n g and p l a c e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n 92

o v e r t h e c u p . B u t o t h e r a u t h o r i t i e s , s u c h a s M a c G r e g o r ,

30

93 94 95 96 J e r e m i a s , H i g g i n s , C l a r k , and S c h u e r m a n n , a r e i n c l i n e d

t o f a v o u r t h e w i t n e s s o f L u k e , a t l e a s t w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e f i r s t

two o f t h e t h r e e q u e s t i o n s f o r m u l a t e d a b o v e . M a c G r e g o r b e l i e v e s

t h a t t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a y i n g c o u l d n o t a t f i r s t h a ve been a t ­

t a c h e d t o t h e " c o v e n a n t c u p , " b e c a u s e i t s s y m b o l i s m was o f q u i t e

a d i f f e r e n t o r d e r . The o t h e r c r i t i c s m e n t i o n e d h e r e a l l p o i n t

t o t h e f a c t t h a t Luke a l m o s t n e v e r t r a n s p o s e s t h e fflarcan o r d e r

o f e v e n t s , and f a r f r o m c r e a t i n g p a r a l l e l c o n s t r u c t i o n s , he

t e n d s t o e l i m i n a t e them when he f i n d s them i n h i s s o u r c e s . T h i s ,

t h e y b e l i e v e , i n d i c a t e s t h a t L u k e i s d r a w i n g f r o m an i n d e p e n d e n t ,

n o n - l i t u r g i c a l t r a d i t i o n o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t r i n s i c v a l u e . S c h u ­

ermann e v e n p r o p o s e s t h a t Mk. 14:25 i s s e c o n d a r y t o t h e L u c a n 97

v e r s i o n o f t h e s a y i n g , a l t h o u g h J e r e m i a s , H i g g i n s , and C l a r k

a r e p r o b a b l y c o r r e c t i n p r e f e r r i n g t h e l e s s h e a v i l y g r a e c i s e d

w o r d i n g o f M a r k . I t must be c o n c e d e d t h a t t h e a r g u m e n t s i n

f a v o u r o f a p r e - L u c a n s o u r c e f o r t h e t w o f o l d vow a r e more c o n ­

v i n c i n g t h a n t h e a p r i o r i c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a d v a n c e d by t h o s e who go

b e l i e v e t h a t L k . 22:15-18 i s w h o l l y d e p e n d e n t on Mk. 1 4 : 2 5 .

S e v e r a l o f t h e c r i t i c s who a c c e p t t h e t w o f o l d f o r m o f t h e

vow o f a b s t i n e n c e a s p r e - L u c a n d e t e c t a c e r t a i n i n c o n s i s t e n c y

b etween t h e s e s a y i n g s and t h e w o rds o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . L o i s y

b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e l a t t e r c o n s t i t u t e "a h i g h l y d i s t i n c t a f t e r ­

t h o u g h t i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e G o s p e l c a t e c h e s i s , " and t h a t

J e s u s ' o r i g i n a l s a y i n g o v e r t h e bre'ad was s o m e t h i n g c l o s e t o L k . 22:16 ("I s h a l l n o t e a t i t u n t i l i t i s f u l f i l l e d i n t h e

99 k i n g d o m o f G o d " ) . M a c G r e g o r , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , r e j e c t s

31

o n l y t h e " c o v e n a n t c u p " and i t s s a y i n g , on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t

J e s u s c o u l d n o t have e n j o i n e d t h e d r i n k i n g o f b l o o d , and t h a t

t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a c c o u n t s

c o n c e r n t h e " c o v e n a n t c u p . " ' ' 0 0 The o r i g i n a l L a s t S u p p e r n a r ­

r a t i v e m o u l d , a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s v i e w , be v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l 101

w i t h t h e s h o r t e r t e x t o f L u k e . S c h w e i z e r f e e l s t h a t L k .

2 2 :15-18,28-30 r e p r e s e n t s t h e same t r a d i t i o n o f t h e L o r d ' s

S u p p e r a s J n . 1 3-16, a t r a d i t i o n w h i c h p o r t r a y s t h e S u p p e r

s o l e l y i n t e r m s o f J e s u s ' s e r v i n g and o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

p e r s p e c t i v e , w i t h o u t any r e f e r e n c e t o t h e w o rds o f i n t e r p r e ­

t a t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , he b e l i e v e s t h a t t h i s t r a d i t i o n c o u l d

have had i t s o r i g i n s i n a J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n g r o u p w h i c h s t i l l

c e l e b r a t e d t h e P a s s o v e r ( c f . L k . 2 2 : 1 5 ) , and t h a t t h e P a u l i n e

a c c o u n t o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r i s p r o b a b l y a more o r l e s s g e n u i n e . 102 r e p o r t . These t h e o r i e s r e s t on t h e r a t h e r u n w a r r a n t e d a s s u m p t i o n

t h a t t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l vow i s i n c o m p a t i b l e

w i t h t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f one o r b o t h o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l s a y ­

i n g s . F u r t h e r m o r e , e a c h o f t h e t h e o r i e s w o u l d be c o n s i d e r a b l y

weakened i f L k . 22:15-18 were n o t p r i o r t o Mk. 1 4 : 2 5 . W h i l e ,

as we have s a i d , t h e L u c a n v e r s i o n o f t h e vow o f a b s t i n e n c e

p r o b a b l y r e l i e s on a p r e v i o u s t r a d i t i o n , t h i s d o e s n o t i n i t ­

s e l f p r o v e t h e o r i g i n a l i t y o f L k . 22:15 ( t h e vow t o a b s t a i n

f r o m t h e P a s s o v e r ) . Q u i t e t o t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e

s a y i n g i n Mark impugns i t s o r i g i n a l i t y , s i n c e t h e r e i s no a d e ­

q u a t e r e a s o n why i t s h o u l d have been s u p p r e s s e d t h e r e . The

32

s a y i n g i s b e s t u n d e r s t o o d a s h a v i n g o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e p r e -

L u c a n o r a l t r a d i t i o n , p e r h a p s t o r e i n f o r c e t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f

J e s u s ' L a s t S u p p e r as a P a s s o v e r m e a l . We have s e e n a l r e a d y

t h a t t h i s c o n c e p t i o n may have l e d t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e 1 03

f i r s t cup i n L u k e , and t h a t t h e L u c a n w o r d i n g o f t h e " f r u i t

o f t h e v i n e " s a y i n g i s more h e a v i l y g r a e c i s e d t h a n t h e M a r c a n .

We may t h e r e f o r e c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e s i n g l e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a y -

i n g i n Mark ( w i t h o u t K&WOV , t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f w h i c h w o u l d

be u n u s u a l i n A r a m a i c , and w h i c h may t h u s be c o u n t e d as an e d i ­

t o r i a l a d d i t i o n ) ^ ^ i s t h e more o r i g i n a l f o r m o f t h e vow, and

t h a t i t was p r o b a b l y u t t e r e d by J e s u s o v e r t h e same cup as t h e

words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . ' " ^

We c a n now s u m m a r i s e t h e r e s u l t s o f o u r s e a r c h f o r t h e

e a r l i e s t a t t a i n a b l e f o r m o f J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s t i c w o r d s . W i t h

r e g a r d t o J e s u s ' words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o v e r t h e b r e a d and t h e

w i n e , we have d i s c e r n e d two b a s i c t r a d i t i o n s : M a r k , and t h e " A n -

t i o c h e n e " s o u r c e u s e d by P a u l and L u k e . We have f o u n d t h a t

t h e b r e a d s a y i n g i s more a c c u r a t e l y r e p r o d u c e d i n M a r k , b e c a u s e

Mark w o u l d n o t have e x c i s e d t h e a d d i t i o n a l words f o u n d i n t h e

A n t i o c h e n e t e x t . Y e t f o r t h e cup s a y i n g we have p r e f e r r e d t h e

A n t i o c h e n e v e r s i o n , b e c a u s e i t does n o t e x h i b i t t h e l i t u r g i c a l

s ymmetry o f t h e cup s a y i n g i n M a r k . F i n a l l y , w i t h r e g a r d t o

t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l vow o f a b s t i n e n c e , we have s u g g e s t e d t h a t

a l t h o u g h Luke i s d e p e n d e n t on an e a r l i e r s o u r c e , M a r k ' s f o r m

o f t h e s a y i n g i s more o r i g i n a l . We t h e r e f o r e a r r i v e a t t h e

33

f o l l o w i n g r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e e a r l i e s t a t t a i n a b l e f o r m o f

J e s u s 1 words a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r :

R e c o n s t r u c t e d Form Summary o f Re a s o n s

ToVtO <faClV ZO &U>M& JUOV. A t t e s t e d i n a l l a c c o u n t s ; s i m ­p l e s t f o r m i n Ma r k .

T h i s i s my body . — v / c lOVZO^ZO TTOZlipiOV^T} / " C o v e n a n t " i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e i t d>l@*@tji<T] -\z£b etifitdTl i s m e n t i o n e d i n a l l a c c o u n t s ; /UOV, *" "new" o m i t t e d b e c a u s e i t i s n o t T h i s cup i s t h e c o v e n a n t f o u n d i n Mark. The P a u l i n e -i n my b l o o d . L u c a n c o n s t r u c t i o n i s p r e f e r r e d

t o t h e M a r c a n , b e c a u s e M a r k ' s p h r a s e " b l o o d o f t h e c o v e n a n t " c a n n o t be r e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o A r a ­m a i c , and b e c a u s e t h e Ma r c a n f o r m o f t h e s a y i n g i n d i c a t e s t h e t e n ­d e n c y t o l i t u r g i c a l p a r a l l e l i s m .

AjU>)%/ ACyto VjLLIV, OZl, M a r k ' s w o r d i n g i s more S e m i t i c OVKCTC OV jUrf rtCuy £K t h a n L u k e ' s . L u k e ' s " P a s s o v e r Ctn) j ^ v - ^ ^ r o f r>]C < • vow" i s o m i t t e d , b e c a u s e i t i s

y&/uTT<f A o r > ccos r-*;*- rj/UC/xt$ e a s i e r t o s u p p o s e c e r t a i n C h r i s -fKSlVlfg o t a v £%uro JT fvu>^ t i a n s ' h a v i n g c r e a t e d i t t h a n t t o £V C77 jOacrzACic* Toxs &SOX». s u p p o s e M a r k ' s h a v i n g e l i m i n a t e d

i t .

T r u l y , I s a y t o y o u , I s h a l l n o t d r i n k a g a i n o f the f r u i t o f t h e v i n e u n t i l t h a t day when I d r i n k i t i n t h e k i n g d o m o f God.

We s h a l l n o t h e r e a t t e m p t t o r e t r a n s l a t e o u r r e c o n s t r u c ­

t i o n o f t h e s e s a y i n g s i n t o A r a m a i c . We h a v e , on t h e one h a n d ,

a l r e a d y t a k e n a c c o u n t o f t h e A r a m a i c when i t has been a p e r ­

t i n e n t f a c t o r i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e e a r l i e s t a t t a i n a b l e f o r m o f

34

t h e s a y i n g s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , n o t h i n g mould be t h e r e b y

a d d e d t o o u r k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i r c o n t e n t .

Can we be j u s t i f i e d i n b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e s e s a y i n g s were

u t t e r e d i n some e s s e n t i a l l y s i m i l a r f o r m by t h e h i s t o r i c a l

J e s u s ? C e r t a i n c o n t e m p o r a r y c r i t i c s , s u c h as Bornkamm, c o n ­

t e n d t h a t any r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c o v e n a n t must be a t t r i b u t e d t o

" t h e c r e a t i v e f a i t h o f t h e w o r s h i p p i n g c o mmunity . . . w h i c h

i n t e r p r e t s J e s u s ' d e a t h r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y a s t h e r e d e m p t i o n o f

m a n k i n d . " ' ' 0 6 B u t t h e r e seems t o be l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t J e s u s i n

some way c o n n e c t e d t h e c o m i n g o f t h e Kingdom o f God w i t h h i s

p r o c l a m a t i o n o f i t , and we c a n n o t e x c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t

J e s u s a v a i l e d h i m s e l f o f t h e n o t i o n o f c o v e n a n t t o e x p r e s s

t h i s c o n n e c t i o n . IM. P e r r i n , i n h i s r e c e n t s t u d y o f t h e t e a c h ­

i n g o f J e s u s , s u m m a r i s e s J e s u s * message i n t h i s way: " J e s u s

t a u g h t t h e same t h i n g b o t h by p r o c l a m a t i o n and by s i m i l e : t h e

d e c i s i v e a c t i v i t y o f God as k i n g i s now t o be e x p e r i e n c e d by 1 07

men c o n f r o n t e d by h i s m i n i s t r y i n word and d e e d . " I t i s

t r u e t h a t t h e c o v e n a n t m o t i f i s f o u n d o n l y i n J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s ­

t i c w o r d s , b u t we must n o t r e j e c t i t on p u r e l y a p r i o r i g r o u n d s .

G i v e n t h e f a c t t h a t J e s u s c o n n e c t e d t h e c o m i n g o f t h e Kingdom

w i t h h i s p r o c l a m a t i o n o f i t , i t i s n o t i m p o s s i b l e t h a t , i n

t h e c r i s i s o f h i s i m p e n d i n g d e a t h , J e s u s c o u l d have had r e c o u r s e

t o t h e n o t i o n o f c o v e n a n t .

35

P o s s i b i l i t y does n o t , o f c o u r s e , i m p l y p r o b a b i l i t y . I f

uie w i s h t o a f f i r m t h a t t h e e u c h a r i s t i c s a y i n g s go b a c k t o t h e

h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s , uie must show t h a t t h i s i s t h e most p l a u s i b l e

e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e i r o r i g i n .

I n f a v o u r o f t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f J e s u s * e u c h a r i s t i c s a y ­

i n g s i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y meet t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e two

b a s i c c r i t e r i a u s e d by g o s p e l c r i t i c s t o a s c e r t a i n t h e i p s i s -

s i m a vox o f J e s u s , t h e " c r i t e r i o n o f m u l t i p l e a t t e s t a t i o n " and

t h e " c r i t e r i o n o f d i s s i m i l a r i t y . " The f i r s t c r i t e r i o n c o n s t i ­

t u t e s a p r o p o s a l t o a c c e p t a s a u t h e n t i c " m a t e r i a l w h i c h i s a t ­

t e s t e d i n a l l , o r m o s t , o f t h e s o u r c e s w h i c h ca n be d i s c e r n e d 108

b e h i n d t h e s y n o p t i c g o s p e l s . " Some s c h o l a r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y 1 09

T.W. S a n s o n , b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s i s t h e most v a l u a b l e c r i t e r i o n

f o r d e t e r m i n i n g J e s u s ' a c t u a l w o r d s , b u t P e r r i n has p o i n t e d o u t

t h a t i t s u s e f u l n e s s i s somewhat r e s t r i c t e d , s i n c e a u n i t o f t h e

t r a d i t i o n may have m u l t i p l e a t t e s t a t i o n o n l y b e c a u s e o f t h e 110

r o l e p l a y e d by i t i n e a r l y P a l e s t i n i a n C h r i s t i a n i t y . The

c r i t e r i o n , n e v e r t h e l e s s , i s u n d o u b t e d l y h e l p f u l i n e s t a b l i s h i n g

t h e o l d e r s t r a t a o f t h e t r a d i t i o n , and may t h e r e f o r e b e / v a l u -

a b l e when u s e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e c r i t e r i o n o f d i s s i m i ­

l a r i t y . I t has been shown a l r e a d y t h a t t h e New T e s t a m e n t v e r ­

s i o n s o f t h e words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e d e p e n d e n t upon two

e a r l i e r s o u r c e s , t h a t u s e d by Mark and t h a t u s e d by P a u l and

L u k e . S i n c e t h e f o r m e r , w i t h i t s o m i s s i o n o f t h e i n j u n c t i o n t o

r e p e a t , c o u l d n o t have been a r e d a c t i o n o f t h e A n t i o c h e n e s o u r c e ,

t h e r e must have been two i n d e p e n d e n t t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e s a y i n g s

36

by t h e t i m e 1 C o r i n t h i a n s was w r i t t e n ( c . A.D. 5 5 ) . T h e r e a r e

p r o b a b l y no o t h e r s a y i n g s o f J e s u s i n w h i c h we c a n f i n d a s p e ­

c i f i c d o u b l e a t t e s t a t i o n a t s u c h an e a r l y d a t e . S i m i l a r l y , we

have s e e n t h a t t h e r e w e r e , i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d , two p r e - s y n o p t i c

t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a y i n g s , t h e p r e - M a r c a n and

t h e p r e - L u c a n . We may c o n c l u d e , t h e n , t h a t J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s t i c

words b e l o n g t o t h e e a r l i e r s t r a t a o f t h e s y n o p t i c t r a d i t i o n .

The c r i t e r i o n o f d i s s i m i l a r i t y i s somewhat more r i g o r o u s .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s c r i t e r i o n , a s a y i n g a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s must

be d i s c r e d i t e d i f a p l a u s i b l e o r i g i n c a n be f o u n d f o r i t i n t h e

p r a c t i c e o f t h e e a r l y C h u r c h o r i n c o n t e m p o r a r y J u d a i s m . As

B u i t m a n n f o r m u l a t e s t h e c r i t e r i o n ,

We c a n o n l y c o u n t on p o s s e s s i n g a g e n u i n e s i m i ­l i t u d e o f J e s u s w h e r e , on t h e one h a n d , e x p r e s s i o n i s g i v e n t o t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n J e w i s h m o r a l i t y and p i e t y and t h e d i s t i n c t i v e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l tem­p e r w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i s e d t h e p r e a c h i n g o f J e s u s ; and where on t h e o t h e r hand we f i n d no s p e c i f i ­c a l l y C h r i s t i a n f e a t u r e s . ' 1

W i t h r e g a r d t o J e s u s ' vow o f a b s t i n e n c e , i t i s h a r d t o c o n c e i v e

o f a c a t e c h e t i c a l o r l i t u r g i c a l S i t z im L e b e n o u t o f w h i c h i t

c o u l d have been c r e a t e d . Even t h o s e c r i t i c s who, l i k e L o i s y ,

r e j e c t t h e words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a r e i n c l i n e d t o f a v o u r t h e

a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e vow. There w o u l d seem t o be as much r e a s o n

t o a c c e p t t h i s a s any o t h e r o f J e s u s ' s a y i n g s . C o n c e r n i n g t h e

words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , we have f o u n d t h a t l i t u r g y p r o v i d e d a

medium f o r t h e i r t r a n s m i s s i o n , b u t t h i s d o e s n o t mean t h a t a

3 7

l i t u r g i c a l s i t u a t i o n was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r o r i g i n . I f

t h i s were t h e c a s e , we s h o u l d have t o i m a g i n e a r a t h e r h i g h l y

d e v e l o p e d s a c r a m e n t a l t h e o l o g y i n t h e f i r s t d e c a d e s o f C h r i s ­

t i a n i t y , f o r t h e r e a r e no o t h e r e a r l y C h r i s t i a n m o t i f s w h i c h

c o u l d a c c o u n t f o r t h e i r o r i g i n . Our r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e

words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n has e l i m i n a t e d t h o s e e l e m e n t s w h i c h

c a n be a c c o u n t e d f o r s t r i c t l y on t h e b a s i s o f C h r i s t i a n w o r ­

s h i p o r c a t e c h e s i s , and t h e r e i s n o t h i n g i n i t w h i c h c o u l d

have been b o r r o w e d by the C h u r c h f r o m J u d a i s m . A S i t z im

L e ben J e s u , v i z . , J e s u s ' L a s t S u p p e r b e f o r e h i s d e a t h , p r o ­

v i d e s a more p l a u s i b l e o r i g i n f o r t h e words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

t h a n w o u l d a S i t z im L eben E c c l e s i a e .

F i n a l l y , o u r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e e a r l i e s t a t t a i n a b l e

f o r m o f J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s t i c w o rds c o n t a i n s some p o s i t i v e i n d i ­

c a t i o n s o f t h e i p s i s s i m a vox o f J e s u s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e i n t r o ­

d u c t i o n o f t h e vow o f a b s t i n e n c e , "Amen I s a y t o you , . . ."

i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i d i o m o f J e s u s : i n J u d a i s m t h e word "Amen"

was u s e d o n l y t o a s s e n t t d a p r a y e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e words

o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e a s i m i l i t u d e o r p a r a b o l i c e x p r e s ­

s i o n , and t h i s manner o f s p e a k i n g i s , i n t h e words o f J e r e m i a s , 1 1 2

"an e x p r e s s p e c u l i a r i t y o f J e s u s . " The c u m u l a t i v e w e i g h t o f

t h e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t we c a n a f f i r m w i t h r e a s o n a b l e c e r ­

t a i n t y t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s t i c s a y i n g s .

38

What Type o f M e a l Was t h e L a s t S u p p e r ?

I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s t i c words were n o t

u t t e r e d i n i s o l a t i o n : t h e y were s a i d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a

m e a l , and were a c c o m p a n i e d by s p e c i f i c a c t i o n s r e l a t e d t o

t h e e a t i n g o f t h a t m e a l . There i s no r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h e

u n a n i m o u s a f f i r m a t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n t h a t t h i s meal was

h e l d by J e s u s w i t h h i s d i s c i p l e s s h o r t l y b e f o r e h i s d e a t h .

I n d e e d , i t i s s c a r c e l y p o s s i b l e t o i m a g i n e any o t h e r s i t u ­

a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e s a y i n g s w o u l d make s e n s e . B u t i t i s a

q u e s t i o n o f p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e f o r o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

t h e s e words w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e S u p p e r was somei-j p a r t i c u l a r

t y p e o f J e w i s h r e l i g i o u s m e a l , and e s p e c i a l l y w h e t h e r o r n o t

i t was a P a s s o v e r s u p p e r . I f t h e L a s t S u p p e r were a P a s s o v e r ,

t h e n t h e words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w o u l d p r o b a b l y have been an

e l a b o r a t i o n on t h e P a s c h a l h a q q a d a h . I f on t h e o t h e r hand i t

were n o t , we s h o u l d wonder w h e t h e r t h e L a s t S u p p e r was some

o t h e r s o r t o f s o l e m n r e l i g i o u s m e a l , and i f o u r k n o w l e d g e o f

s u c h a meal c o u l d t h r o w l i g h t on J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s t i c w o r d s .

S e v e r a l n o n - P a s c h a l t y p e s o f m e a l s , u s u a l l y v a r i e t i e s o f t h e

k i d d u s h ( f e a s t day s a n c t i f i c a t i o n ) o r h a b u r a h ( f e l l o w s h i p o f

f r i e n d s ) r e p a s t s , have been s u g g e s t e d .

There has been much d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

J e s u s ' L a s t S u p p e r and t h e a n n u a l P a s s o v e r m e a l , b u t i t has

n o t y e t y i e l d e d any d e f i n i t i v e c o n s e n s u s . C r i t i c a l s c h o l a r -

39

s h i p i n t h e f i r s t f o u r d e c a d e s o f t h i s c e n t u r y uias i n c l i n e d t o

t h e v i e w t h a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r uias n o t a P a s s o v e r m e a l , b u t

s i n c e t h e n t h e uiork o f J . J e r e m i a s has r a i s e d a s t r o n g d i s ­

s e n t i n g v o i c e . The p r o b l e m h e r e i s n o t s i m p l y one o f t h e r e l i ­

a b i l i t y o f t h e s o u r c e s , b u t t h a t o f tuio c o n f l i c t i n g c h r o n o l o ­

g i e s f o u n d i n t h e New T e s t a m e n t i t s e l f . W h i l e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

w i t n e s s o f t h e s y n o p t i c s t h e L a s t S u p p e r was i n d e e d a P a s s o v e r

meal ( M k . 1 4 : 1 2 f f . ; P i t . 2 6 : 1 7 f f . ; L k . 22:7ff.)» t h e F o u r t h

E v a n g e l i s t d e p i c t s t h e e v e n t s o f P a s s i o n Week i n s u c h a way

t h a t P a s s o v e r f a l l s on t h e n e x t d a y , J e s u s ' c r u c i f i c t i o n c o i n ­

c i d i n g w i t h t h e s l a u g h t e r o f t h e P a s c h a l l a m b s ( J n . 1 3 : 1 f f ; ;

1 8 : 2 8 ; 1 9 : 1 4 ; 1 9 : 3 1 , 4 2 ) . The P a u l i n e i n s t i t u t i o n n a r r a t i v e

makes no r e f e r e n c e t o t h e L a s t S u p p e r as a P a s s o v e r , and P a u l ' s

d e s c r i p t i o n o f C h r i s t as " o u r P a s s o v e r " (1 Co. 5:7) has been

u s e d by d e f e n d e r s o f b o t h c h r o n o l o g i e s . Those who s u p p o r t t h e

J o h a n n i n e c h r o n o l o g y b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s a l l u s i o n o f P a u l ' s i m ­

p l i e s t h a t J e s u s was s a c r i f i c e d on t h e Day o f P r e p a r a r t i o n .

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h o s e who a c c e p t t h e s y n o p t i c v i e w c a n c l a i m

t h a t P a u l ' s a n a l o g y goes back t o J e s u s h i m s e l f , i . e . , t h a t

J e s u s , d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e P a s c h a l m e a l , i n t e r p r e t e d h i s 113

d e a t h as t h e P a s c h a l s a c r i f i c e .

Much o f t h e d e b a t e on t h i s q u e s t i o n has c e n t e r e d on t h e

c o n s i s t e n c y o r i n c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h h t h e P a s s o v e r r i t u a l o f c e r ­

t a i n d e t a i l s w h i c h t h e G o s p e l s r e p o r t i n t h e i r a c c o u n t s o f t h e

40

e v e n t s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e L a s t S u p p e r . Among t h o s e f a c t o r s w h i c h

have been b r o u g h t a g a i n s t t h e P a s c h a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e

L a s t S u p p e r a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

1) The word u s e d f o r b r e a d i n Mk . 14:22 p a r . i s n o t aty\>jU£i,

t h e n o r m a l word f o r u n l e a v e n e d b r e a d , b u t efpZ'OZ , w h i c h u s u a l l y 114

d e s i g n a t e s l e a v e n e d b r e a d .

2) A c c o r d i n g t o some a u t h o r i t i e s , e v e n i n t h e t i m e o f J e s u s

i n d i v i d u a l c u p s were u s e d i n t h e P a s s o v e r r i t u a l ; y e t t h e New T e s t a m e n t i n d i c a t e s t h a t a s i n g l e common cup was u s e d a t t h e

115

L a s t S u p p e r .

3) As a r u l e women p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e P a s s o v e r m e a l , y e t

by a l l a c c o u n t s o n l y J e s u s and t h e Twelve were p r e s e n t a t t h e . c 116 L a s t S u p p e r .

4) The s y n o p t i c a c c o u n t s o f t h e S u p p e r l a c k any s p e c i f i c

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p e c u l i a r f e a t u r e s o f t h e P a s s o v e r r i t u a l .

T h ere i s no m e n t i o n o f t h e P a s c h a l l a m b , o r o f t h e b i t t e r h e r b s ; n o r i s t h e r e any a l l u s i o n t o t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f t h e P e o p l e f r o m

117

E g y p t .

5) There a p p e a r s t o be a c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t ween Mk. 1 4 : 1 f .

( a n d p a r . Mt. 2 6 : 1 - 5 ) , w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t J e s u s was n o t t o be

a r r e s t e d " d u r i n g t h e f e a s t , " CV £7) CopZTj , and t h e c h r o n o ­

l o g y r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e r e s t o f t h e Ma r c a n P a s s i o n n a r r a t i v e .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e l a t t e r , J e s u s was a r r e s t e d i n t h e c o u r s e o f 118

t h e f e a s t , a f t e r t h e P a s s o v e r S u p p e r .

6) F i n a l l y , t h e r e a r e a number o f i n c i d e n t s r e p o r t e d i n

Mk. 14:17-15:47 w h i c h , i t i s a l l e g e d , c o u l d n o t p o s s i b l y have

41

t a k e n p l a c e on t h e f i r s t day o f t h e f e a s t o f U n l e a v e n e d B r e a d .

These i n c l u d e : J e s u s ' l e a v i n g J e r u s a l e m f o r Gesthemane d u r i n g

P a s s o v e r n i g h t , t h e m e e t i n g o f t h e S a n h e d r i n and t h e condem­

n a t i o n o f J e s u s d u r i n g t h i s n i g h t , t h e b e a r i n g o f arms by t h e

t e m p l e g u a r d s and J e s u s ' d i s c i p l e s , t h e e x e c u t i o n o f J e s u s on

t h e h i g h f e a s t d a y , t h e p u r c h a s e o f l i n e n by J o s e p h o f A r i m a -

t h e a , and t h e t a k i n g down and b u r i a l o f J e s u s ' b o d y .

A l t h o u g h n o t a l l o f t h e s e o b j e c t i o n s a r e o f e q u a l f o r c e ,

t h o r o u g h and s y s t e m a t i c r e p l i e s have been g i v e n t o them by two

o f t h e most a r d e n t d e f e n d e r s o f a P a s c h a l L a s t S u p p e r , J . J e r e ­

m i a s and A . J . B . H i g g i n s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e two s c h o l a r s , t h e

d i f f i c u l t i e s m e n t i o n e d above c a n be d i s c a r d e d i n l i g h t o f t h e

f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s :

1) T h e r e a r e numerous i n s t a n c e s i n t h e LXX, P h i l o , and

J o s e p h u s where t h e s h e w b r e a d and o t h e r t y p e s o f u n l e a v e n e d V 1 1 9 b r e a d a r e d e s i g n a t e d as &f>iZO£ .

2) From t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A.D. o n w a r d s , t h e r e a r e i n

R a b b i n i c s o u r c e s h y g i e n i c o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e p r a c t i c e o f d r i n k ­

i n g f r o m a s i n g l e c u p . These v e r y o b j e c t i o n s p o i n t t o t h e

f a c t t h a t i t was n o t u n u s u a l f o r a common cup t o be u s e d a t 120

t h e P a s s o v e r i n t h e t i m e o f J e s u s .

3) One must n o t , i n J e r e m i a s ' v i e w , assume " t h a t t h e

women m e n t i o n e d i n Mark 1 5 : 4 0 ; Luke 23:49,55 were e x c l u d e d ; i n E a s t e r n t e x t s t h e a r g u m e n t f r o m s i l e n c e i s i n a d m i s s a b l e i n

121 s u c h c a s e s . " The e v a n g e l i c a l e m p h a s i s on t h e Twelve i s ,

42

he a r g u e s , an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t o n l y a s m a l l , i n t i m a t e c i r c l e o f

J e s u s ' f o l l o w e r s was p r e s e n t a t t h e S u p p e r , and i s t h e r e f o r e 122

e v i d e n c e o f t h e P a s c h a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e m e a l .

4) The f o u r t h o b j e c t i o n - - t h e a b s e n c e o f any r e f e r e n c e t o

t h e most i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s o f t h e P a s c h a l m e a l - - i s p e r h a p s t h e

most f o r m i d a b l e . B u t J e r e m i a s and H i g g i n s a r g u e t h a t t h i s f a c t

c a u s e s a p r o b l e m o n l y i f one e x p e c t s torn f i n d a v e r b a t i m r e p o r t

o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r i n t h e g o s p e l n a r r a t i v e s . S i n c e t h e s e n a r ­

r a t i v e s a r e n o t an a t t e m p t t o g i v e a c o m p l e t e h i s t o r i c a l d e s ­

c r i p t i o n o f t h e e v e n t , b u t o n l y p o r t r a y t h o s e p a r t s o f i t w h i c h

were c o n s t i t u t i v e f o r t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e e a r l y 123

C h u r c h , t h e o m i s s i o n o f c e r t a i n d e t a i l s i s q u i t e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . . <• •

5) The word topct] c a n mean f e s t a l " a s s e m b l y " o r " c r o w d , " as

i t d o e s i n J o h n 7:11, " t h e y were l o o k i n g f o r h i m a t t h e f e a s t

j V ZT\ COpZtj J •" Thus t h e e x p r e s s i o n ju^f CVZ.?} COpZ'V) i n

Mk. 14:1 c a n be r e n d e r e d , " n o t i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e f e s t a l

c r o w d , " i . e . , i n s e c r e t . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w o u l d remove t h e 124

d i s c r e p a n c y i n t h e M a r c a n c h r o n o l o g y .

6) I t i s a r g u e d t h a t e a c h o f t h e i n c i d e n t s w h i c h s u p p o s e d l y

c o u l d n o t have t a k e n p l a c e d u r i n g a f e a s t day was, u n d e r t h e

c i r c u m s t a n c e s , e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e . As f o r J e s u s ' d e p a r t u r e t o

Gesthemane d u r i n g t h e n i g h t , i t i s c l a i m e d t h a t G e s t h e m a n e , a t

t h e w e s t e r n f o o t o f t h e Mount o f O l i v e s , "was r e c k o n e d w i t h i n

t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e c i t y f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h e P a s s o v e r . " 1 2 ^

43

The t r i a l and e x e c u t i o n o f J e s u s d u r i n g t h e f e a s t i s e x p l a i n e d

by r e f e r e n c e t o a R a b b i n i c s t a t e m e n t u i h i c h d e c r e e s t h a t f a l s e 12 6

p r o p h e t s a r e t o be t r i e d and e x e c u t e d even d u r i n g a f e a s t .

F u r t h e r , i t i s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e b e a r i n g o f arms on t h e Sab­

b a t h o r o t h e r f e a s t day uias p e r m i t t e d by an e a r l i e r h a l a k a h 127

w h i c h uias i n f o r c e a t t h e t i m e o f J e s u s . F i n a l l y , i n c a s e s o f n e e d , b u r i a l and t h e p u r c h a s e o f m a t e r i a l s f o r b u r i a l

128

were p e r m i t t e d on a f e a s t d a y .

Those uiho s u p p o r t t h e v i e w t h a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r uias a

P a s s o v e r (who, i n a d d i t i o n t o J e r e m i a s and H i g g i n s , i n c l u d e 129 130 131 132 B i l l e r b e c k , E. G a u g l e r , J . K l a u s n e r , M. T h u r i a n , 133 134 135

|Yl. de l a T a i l l e , A. J a u b e r t , and l\l. Hook ) have a l s o

a d v a n c e d a number o f p o s i t i v e a r g u m e n t s i n d e f e n c e o f t h e i r

t h e s i s . They b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s y n o p t i c t r a d i t i o n , and e v e n ,

i n some c a s e s , t h e J o h a n n i n e , has p r e s e r v e d r e m i n s c e n c e s o f

c e r t a i n d e t a i l s u i h i c h p r o v e t h a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r was a P a s s o v e r

m e a l . The most i m p o r t a n t a r g u m e n t s a d d u c e d i n f a v o u r o f t h i s

v i e w a r e a s f o l l o w s :

1) A c c o r d i n g t o b o t h t h e s y n o p t i c s (Mk. 14:13 p a r . , 14:26

p a r . ) and J o h n ( 1 8 : 1 ) , t h e L a s t S u p p e r t o o k p l a c e i n J e r u s a l e m .

At a t i m e when t h e c i t y i t s e l f w o u l d have been c r o w d e d w i t h

p i l g r i m s , i t i s "by no means a m a t t e r of c o u r s e " t h a t t h i s

s h o u l d have been t h e c a s e . The s y n o p t i c g o s p e l s r e p o r t t h a t

d u r i n g h i s s t a y i n J e r u s a l e m J e s u s r e g u l a r l y l e f t t h e h o l y c i t y

i n t h e e v e n i n g (Mk. 11:11 p a r . ; 1 1 : 1 9 ; 14:3 p a r . ; L k . 2 1 : 3 7 ;

44

2 2 : 3 9 ) . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t uias l a i d down t h a t t h e P a s c h a l 136

lamb had t o be e a t e n w i t h i n t h e g a t e s o f J e r u s a l e m .

2) The L a s t S u p p e r t o o k p l a c e i n t h e e v e n i n g and e x ­

t e n d e d i n t o t h e n i g h t (Wlk. 1 4 : 1 7 ; 14:30 p a r . ; J n 1 3 : 3 0 ; 1 Co.

1 1 : 2 3 ) . U s u a l l y t h e main m e a l o f t h e day was t a k e n i n t h e l a t e

a f t e r n o o n , b u t i t was o b l i g a t o r y f o r t h e P a s s o v e r s u p p e r t o 1 37

t a k e p l a c e a t n i g h t .

3) The s y n o p t i c s and J o h n a l s o a g r e e t h a t J e s u s and h i s

d i s c i p l e s r e c l i n e d a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r (Mk. 1 4 : 1 8 ; Mt. 2 6 : 2 0 ;

L k . 2 2 : 1 4 ; J n . 13:12 , 2 3 , 2 5 ) . J e r e m i a s s t a t e s f l a t l y : " I t i s

a b s o l u t e l y i m p o s s i b l e t h a t J e s u s and h i s d i s c i p l e s s h o u l d have

r e c l i n e d a t t a b l e f o r t h e i r o r d i n a r y m e a l s " ( i t a l i c s h i s ) . E x ­

c e p t f o r t h e P a s s o v e r — w h e n Jews r e c l i n e d as a s i g n o f t h e i r 138

l i b e r t y — t h e J e w i s h c u s t o m i n J e s u s ' t i m e was t o s i t f o r m e a l s .

4) The d r i n k i n g o f wi n e a t t h e meal i s a f u r t h e r i n d i ­

c a t i o n o f i t s P a s c h a l c h a r a c t e r , s i n c e , a c c o r d i n g t o J e r e m i a s ,

wine was d r u n k o n l y on f e s t i v e o c c a s i o n s . M o r e o v e r , r e d w i n e

was d r u n k a t t h e P a s s o v e r , and J e s u s ' c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e wi n e 139

w i t h h i s b l o o d s u g g e s t s t h a t i t must have been r e d .

5) The t r a d i t i o n r e p o r t s t h a t J e s u s b r o k e b r e a d d u r i n g t h e

c o u r s e o f t h e meal (-Mk. 14:22 p a r . ) , w h e r e a s o r d i n a r y m e a l s

began w i t h t h e b r e a k i n g o f b r e a d . The P a s s o v e r s u p p e r was t h e

o n l y meal o f t h e y e a r i n w h i c h t h e s e r v i n g o f a d i s h p r e c e d e d

t h e b r e a k i n g o f b r e a d . ' ' 4 0

6) The g o s p e l s s a y t h a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r c o n c l u d e d w i t h

t h e s i n g i n g o f a hymn (Mk. 1 4 : 2 6 ; Mt. 2 6 : 3 0 ) . T h i s must be a

45

r e f e r e n c e t o . t h e P a s s o v e r h a l l e l , s u n g a t t h e c l o s e o f t h e . 141 m e a l .

7) A f t e r t h e m e a l , J e s u s d i d n o t r e t u r n t o B e t h a n y , as

he had t h e p r e v i o u s n i g h t s (H)k. 11 :11 f . ; mt, 2 1 : 1 7 ) , b u t

s t a y e d u i i t h i n t h e a r e a o f J e r u s a l e m (;|Y)k. 14:26 p a r . ; 14:32

p a r . ) . A c c o r d i n g t o c o n t e m p o r a r y r e g u l a t i o n s , p i l g r i m s had 1 42

t o s p e n d t h e n i g h t o f P a s s o v e r i n t h e h o l y c i t y .

8) One f i n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s f o r J e r e m i a s " o f a b s o ­

l u t e l y d e c i s i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e , " and " t h e c o n v i n c i n g a r g u m e n t

f o r t h e p a s c h a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r . " T h i s i s n o t h i n g

o t h e r t h a n J e s u s ' s p e a k i n g t h e uiords o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o v e r t h e

b r e a d and m i n e . T h i s " a l t o g e t h e r e x t r a o r d i n a r y manner o f a n ­

n o u n c i n g h i s p a s s i o n " c a n be u n d e r s t o o d o n l y i n l i g h t o f t h e

f a c t t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c e r t a i n e l e m e n t s o f t h e meal i s a 1 43

f i x e d p a r t o f t h e P a s s o v e r r i t u a l .

I f t h e s e a r g u m e n t s mere a c c e p t e d as c o n v i n c i n g , t h e n uie

s h o u l d n a t u r a l l y t u r n t o P a s c h a l c o n c e p t i o n s i n o r d e r t o d i s ­

c e r n t h e m e a n i n g o f J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s t i c u i o r d s . An e x a m p l e o f

a r i g o r o u s l y P a s c h a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s e s a y i n g s i s t h a t

p r e s e n t e d by A . J . B . H i g g i n s . F o r H i g g i n s t h e vow o f a b s t i n e n c e

s i m p l y e x p r e s s e s J e s u s ' l o o k i n g f o r w a r d t o t h e t i m e when t h e 144

P a s s o v e r p r o m i s e s o f j o y and r e d e m p t i o n w o u l d be f u l f i l l e d .

The words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w e r e , he b e l i e v e s , p r o m p t e d by t h e

P a s s o v e r h a q q a d a h , and i n f a c t by them J e s u s c ompared h i m s e l f 14 5

t o t h e P a s s o v e r l a m b . The two s a y i n g s " T h i s i s my body"

46

and " T h i s i s my b l o o d w h i c h i s p o u r e d o u t f o r many" mere

i n t e r p o l a t i o n s i n t o t h e P a s s o v e r r i t u a l a t two v i t a l p o i n t s :

a t t h e e a t i n g o f u n l e a v e n e d b r e a d w h i c h began t h e c e n t r a l

p o r t i o n o f t h e m e a l , and a t t h e t h i r d P a s s o v e r cup w h i c h c o n -147

e l u d e d t h i s p o r t i o n . T h i s w r i t e r a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t J e s u s '

s a y i n g s may have been i n t e n d e d t o e v o k e t h e n o t i o n o f t h e

s c a p e g o a t , b e c a u s e i t was p o s s i b l e t o use a g o a t i n s t e a d o f a

lamb a t P a s s o v e r . He p o i n t s t o t h e f a c t t h a t 1 P e t e r ( 1 : 1 8 - 2 0 )

a s s o c i a t e s t h e s c a p e g o a t w i t h t h e P a s s o v e r lamb when d e s c r i b ­

i n g t h e a t o n i n g work o f C h r i s t , and m a i n t a i n s t h a t the a s s o c i a -1 48

t i o n m i g h t have o r i g i n a t e d w i t h J e s u s . T hrough t h e words o f

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e n , J e s u s r e f e r s t o h i s i m p e n d i n g d e a t h a s

t h e t r u e P a s c h a l s a c r i f i c e , and p e r h a p s makes a c o m p a r i s o n b e ­

tween h i s d e a t h and t h e a t o n i n g d e a t h o f t h e s c a p e g o a t . The

word " i s " i n t h e s e s a y i n g s , w h i c h w o u l d have been o n l y i m p l i e d

i n A r a m a i c , must s i g n i f y "means," o r " r e p r e s e n t s . " "The d i s ­

c i p l e s a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r a r e n o t t o be r e g a r d e d a s e a t i n g

( s y m b o l i c a l l y ) t h e f l e s h o f C h r i s t i n p a r t a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d ,

and as d r i n k i n g h i s b l o o d i n t a k i n g t h e w i n e , b u t as remem-149

b e r i n g h i s s a c r i f i c i a l a c t . " The b r e a d and w i n e , i n o t h e r

w o r d s , s e r v e a f u n c t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e P a s c h a l lamb:

j u s t as t h e l a t t e r r e p r e s e n t e d t h e d e a t h o f t h e lambs i n E g y p t

w i t h o u t any i n h e r e n t e f f i c a c y o f t h e i r own, so do t h e b r e a d 1 SO

and wine r e p r e s e n t t h e a t o n i n g d e a t h o f C h r i s t . ' When, f i -

47

n a l l y , J e s u s s a y s "Do t h i s i n remembrance o f me" ( a s a y i n g

u i h i c h H i g g i n s r e g a r d s as a u t h e n t i c ) , he i s a s k i n g t o be r e -1 51

membered a n n u a l l y i n t h e P a s s o v e r .

J . J e r e m i a s ' e x e g e s i s o f J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s t i c uiords i s

s i m i l a r , t h o u g h someuihat l e s s c o n j e c t u r a l . T h i s a u t h o r , uiho

a l s o h o l d s t o t h e p r i o r i t y o f M a r k , r e c o n s t r u c t s J e s u s ' w ords

o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as den b i s r i and den i d m i i n A r a m a i c , o r

z e h b e s a r i and z e h dami i n Hebrew. J e s u s t h u s has d e l i b e r ­

a t e l y c h o s e n t h e l a n g u a g e o f c u l t i c s a c r i f i c e i n u s i n g t h e

p a r a l l e l p r e d i c a t e s " f l e s h " and " b l o o d . " By p a r a b o l i c a l l y

c o m p a r i n g h i m s e l f t o t h e b r o k e n b r e a d and t h e r e d w i n e , J e s u s s p e a k s o f h i m s e l f as t h e s a c r i f i c i a l , e s c h a t o l o g i c a l P a s c h a l

1 52

l a m b . T h i s i s a s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t h e s a v i n g power o f h i s

d e a t h : i t i s a v i c a r i o u s d e a t h u i h i c h w i l l b r i n g a b o u t t h e f i n a l

d e l i v e r a n c e . F u r t h e r , J e s u s s p e a k s o f h i s d e a t h as a d e a t h

ZO tkXVVVOJXCVOV VtTCp 1ToX\u>V. The word TtoWfiv i s a r e f e ­

r e n c e t o t h e r a b b i m o f I s a i a h 5 3 , u i h i c h i n p r e - C h r i s t i a n Jew­

i s h e x e g e s i s (1 E noch 4 6 : 4 f . ; Wisdom o f Solomon 5:1-23) i s

u n d e r s t o o d as t h e G e n t i l e s and t h e g o d l e s s among t h e Jews and

t h e G e n t i l e s . By t h i s p h r a s e , t h e n , J e s u s c l a i m s t o be t h e

S u f f e r i n g S e r v a n t o f I s a i a h , who o f f e r s h i s l i f e a s an a t o n e -1 53

ment f o r t h e s i n s o f t h e p e o p l e s o f t h e w o r l d . T h e r e a r e

t h e r e f o r e t h r e e f u n d a m e n t a l m o t i f s i n J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s t i c w o r d s :

P a s s o v e r , c u l t i c s a c r i f i c e , and t h e S u f f e r i n g S e r v a n t .

48

I n J e r e m i a s 1 e s t i m a t i o n , J e s u s ' words " a r e n o t o n l y 1 54

p a r a b l e and i n s t r u c t i o n . " F o r , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Jew­

i s h t h o u g h t o f t h e t i m e , t h e t a b l e f e l l o w s h i p i s c o n s t i ­

t u t e d by t h e r i t e o f t h e b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d , and e a c h

o f t h o s e who e a t t h e b r e a d t h e r e b y become r e c i p i e n t s o f

t h e b l e s s i n g . When, t h e r e f o r e , J e s u s g i v e s h i s d i s c i p l e s

t h e b r e a d and w i n e , "by e a t i n g and d r i n k i n g he g i v e s them 1 SS

a s h a r e i n t h e a t o n i n g power o f h i s d e a t h . " J U Through

t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s g i f t , t h e d i s c i p l e s become t h e

redeemed community o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e r a . Thus J e s u s '

e u c h a r i s t i c s a y i n g s and a c t i o n s have an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s i g ­

n i f i c a n c e : "As r e c i p i e n t s o f J e s u s ' g i f t t h e d i s c i p l e s a r e

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e new p e o p l e o f God" ( j e r e m i a s * itah 156 157 l i e s ) . H owever, as we have s e e n , J e r e m i a s does n o t

i n t e r p r e t t h e s a y i n g "Do t h i s . . ." as a command t o r e p e a t

J e s u s ' words and a c t i o n s o r as t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f a new

r i t e . He b e l i e v e s , r a t h e r , t h a t t h e e a r l i e s t e u c h a r i s t i c

m e a l s grew o u t o f J e s u s ' r e g u l a r t a b l e f e l l o w s h i p w i t h h i s

d i s c i p l e s .

These i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f H i g g i n s and J e r e m i a s , w h i l e

n o t d e v o i d o f v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t s , a r e e n c u m b e r e d w i t h c e r ­

t a i n f o r m i d a b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s . One s u c h d i f f i c u l t y i s t h e

l a c k o f r i g o u r w i t h w h i c h t h e y make use o f t h e " c r i t e r i o n

o f d i s s i m i l a r i t y . " I s i t n o t p o s s i b l e , o r e v e n l i k e l y , t h a t t h e S u f f e r i n g S e r v a n t m o t i f f o u n d i n t h e words o f i n t e r p r e ­t a t i o n s h o u l d be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e C h r i s t o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t i o n s

49

o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y ? And c a n n o t t h e same be s a i d f o r t h e

n o t i o n o f J e s u s a s t h e P a s c h a l lamb o r s c a p e g o a t ? B o t h o f

t h e s e a u t h o r s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , m o r e o v e r , p r e s u p p o s e t h e

v a l i d i t y o f t h e a r g u m e n t s p r o p o s e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e

L a s t S u p p e r uias a P a s s o v e r m e a l . Y e t a c r i t i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n

o f t h e s e a r g u m e n t s u i i l l e x p o s e s e r i o u s d e f i c i e n c i e s i n them.

As N. C l a r k has p o i n t e d o u t , t h e a n s w e r s g i v e n by J e r e m i a s

and H i g g i n s t o t h e o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e t h e s i s o f a P a s c h a l

L a s t S u p p e r a r e n o t as c o n c l u s i v e as t h e y m i g h t a t f i r s t a p ­

p e a r . F o r e x a m p l e , J e r e m i a s ' e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e p h r a s e /LIT)

CV £TJ tOptfl a s meaning " n o t i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e f e s t a l 1 59

c r o w d " i s " c o n j e c t u r a l i n t h e e x t r e m e . " H a r d l y more s u c ­

c e s s f u l i s t h e a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n t h e e v a n g e l i c a l o m i s s i o n o f

any r e f e r e n c e t o t h e P a s s o v e r lamb o r c e n t r a l P a s c h a l c o n c e p ­

t i o n s . I s i t l i k e l y t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n w o u l d p r e s e r v e p e r i ­

p h e r a l i n d i c a t i o n s o f a P a s c h a l m eal and a t t h e same t i m e

a l l o w t h e most i m p o r t a n t i n d i c a t i o n s t o f a l l i n t o o b l i v i o n ?

Nor a r e t h e p o s i t i v e a r g u m e n t s p r o p o s e d by J e r e m i a s and H i g ­

g i n s much more p e r s u a s i v e . Such t h i n g s a s t h e t i m e and p l a c e

o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r , t h e b r e a k i n g o f b r e a d and d r i n k i n g o f r e d

win e d u r i n g t h e m e a l , and t h e s i n g i n g o f a hymn, a r e i n h a r ­

mony w i t h t h e P a s s o v e r r i t u a l , b u t n o t e x c l u s i v e t o i t . F u r -1 fiO

t h e r m o r e , as C.W. Dugmore has shown, J e r e m i a s ' c l a i m t h a t

i t was n o t c u s t o m a r y i n J e s u s * t i m e t o r e c l i n e a t o r d i n a r y

m e a l s i s f a l s e . Y e t t h e s e a r g u m e n t s a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o e v e n

50

more d a m a g i n g c r i t i c i s m : i f uie mere t o c o n c e d e t h a t t h e d e ­

t a i l s c i t e d p o i n t t o a P a s c h a l m e a l , uihat e v i d e n c e i s t h e r e

f o r t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e s e d e t a i l s t h e m s e l v e s ? S i n c e t h e

S y n o p t i c e v a n g e l i s t s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r uias a

P a s s o v e r m e a l , t h o s e f e a t u r e s o f t h e i r a c c o u n t s uthich a r e

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h i s v i e w c o u l d v e r y w e l l have been added i n

t h e e d i t o r i a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e e v e n t .

A number o f o t h e r s c h o l a r s have a t t e m p t e d t o r e s o l v e t h e

i s s u e t h r o u g h r e c o n c i l i n g t h e S y n o p t i c and J o h a n n i n e c h r o n o -

l g i e s . Thus B i l l e r b e c k p r o p o s e s t h a t , due t o d i s p u t e s a b o u t

t h e d a t e o f t h e new moon, t h e P h a r i s e e s r e c k o n e d P a s s o v e r a

day e a r l i e r t h a n t h e o f f i c i a l d a t e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e S a d d u -

c e e s . J e s u s , i n t h i s v i e w , c e l e b r a t e d t h e P h a r i s a i c P a s s o v e r ,

w h e r e a s t h e a c c o u n t o f t h e f o u r t h e v a n g e l i s t f o l l o w e d t h e o f -1 61

f i c i a l c h r o n o l o g y . B u t t h i s t h e o r y i s h i g h l y c o n j e c t u r a l , 1 62

and w o u l d seem t o r a i s e more d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a n i t s o l v e s .

The most c e l e b r a t e d a t t e m p t t o r e c o n c i l e t h e J o h a n n i n e and

s y n o p t i c c h r o n o l o g i e s i n r e c e n t t i m e s i s t o be f o u n d i n A. 1 fiT

J a u b e r t ' s book, The D a te o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r . M i s s J a u b e r t

b a s e s h e r t h e s i s on t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a s o l a r c a l e n d a r f o u n d i n

t h e Book o f J u b i l e e s . T h i s c a l e n d a r g i v e s l i t u r g i c a l r e f e r e n c e s

t o S u n d a y s , Wednesdays and F r i d a y s , and p r e s c r i b e s t h a t P a s s o v e r

must a l w a y s f a l l on a W e d n e s d a y . ' 0 The a u t h o r b e l i e v e s t h a t

t r a c e s o f t h i s c a l e n d a r have s u r v i v e d i n a p a t r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n

51

r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e D i d a s c a l i a , E p i p h a n i u s , and V i c t o r o f

P o e t o v i o . T h i s t r a d i t i o n p l a c e s t h e L a s t S u p p e r on Tuesday

n i g h t o f H o l y Week, and s e t s a s i d e S u n d a y , Wednesday and F r i -165

day f o r f a s t i n g . M i s s J a u b e r t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s t r a d i t i o n

p r e s e r v e s an a u t h e n t i c r e m i n s i c e n c e , and t h a t J e s u s and h i s

f o l l o w e r s u s e d t h e J u b i l e e s c a l e n d a r . The a p p a r e n t c o n f l i c t 166

i n c h r o n o l o g y s t e m s f r o m J o h n ' s use o f t h e o f f i c i a l c a l e n d a r .

D e s p i t e i t s i n g e n u i t y , t h i s t h e o r y must a l s o be r e j e c t e d

a s s i m p l y i m a g i n a t i v e c o n j e c t u r e . J e r e m i a s i s p r o b a b l y r i g h t

i n h i s a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e c h r o n o l o g y i n J a u b e r t ' s p a t r i s t i c s o u r c e s i s " s e c o n d a r y , and has d e v e l o p e d o u t o f t h e f a s t i n g

1 67 p r a x i s . " P. B e n o i t o b j e c t s t h a t J a u b e r t has a d v a n c e d no v a l i d r e a s o n why J e s u s and h i s a p o s t l e s s h o u l d have u s e d t h e

168

J u b i l e e s c a l e n d a r . F i n a l l y , G. Ogg has a r g u e d t h a t t h e

s u p e r i m p o s i n g o f t h e p a t r i s t i c c h r o n o l o g y on P a s s i o n Week c a n

s e r v e l i t t l e p u r p o s e u n l e s s i t c a n be p r o v e d t h a t Tuesday i n 1 69

P a s s i o n Week f e l l on IMisan 1 4 t h i n t h a t c a l e n d a r . W i t h r e g a r d t o t h i s w h o l e q u e s t i o n , a number o f a u t h o r i -

170 171 t i e s i n c l u d i n g F. L e e n h a r d t , V. T a y l o r , and E. K i l m a r -172

t i n , a r e o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t i t i s q u i t e i m m a t e r i a l w h e t h e r

o r n o t t h e L a s t S u p p e r f e l l on t h e o f f i c i a l d a t e o f P a s s o v e r ,

s i n c e i n any c a s e t h e p r o x i m i t y o f t h e f e a s t w o u l d r e n d e r

J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s t i c words s u s c e p t i b l e t o a P a s c h a l i n t e r p r e t a ­

t i o n . These a u t h o r i t i e s t h u s s e e k t o a v o i d a l t o g e t h e r t h e

c o m p l e x q u e s t i o n o f c h r o n o l o g y . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , one c o u l d

52

e q u a l l y w e l l a r g u e t h a t e v e n i f t h e L a s t S u p p e r were an o f ­

f i c i a l P a s s o v e r , J e s u s c o u l d have g i v e n t h e meal an e n t i r e l y 1 73

neui m e a n i n g , d e v o i d o f t r a d i t i o n a l P a s c h a l c o n c e p t i o n s .

Y e t i t w o u l d s u r e l y make a d i f f e r e n c e t o o u r e x e g e s i s o f

J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s t i c s a y i n g s i f , f o r e x a m p l e , a P a s c h a l lamb

uias p r e s e n t a t t h e S u p p e r . The p r o b l e m o f w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e

S u p p e r was an o f f i c i a l P a s s o v e r c a n n o t , t h e n , be so e a s i l y

a v o i d e d . .

When a l l t h e e v i d e n c e i s c o n s i d e r e d , i t w o u l d seem t h a t

we c a n n o t t u r n t o t h e P a s s o v e r meal t o d i s c e r n t h e m e a n i n g o f

J e s u s ' s a y i n g s a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r . I t i s most p r o b a b l e t h a t

t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r §soa P a s s o v e r goes back t o

t h e t h e o l o g y o f t h e s y n o p t i c e v a n g e l i s t s and t h e C h r i s t i a n 174

g r o u p s b e h i n d them.

Among t h o s e s c h o l a r s who a g r e e t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o

p o s t u l a t e a P a s c h a l L a s t S u p p e r , many have a t t e m p t e d t o p r o ­

p o s e some a l t e r n a t i v e t y p e o f J e w i s h meal w h i c h J e s u s c o u l d

h ave c e l e b r a t e d w i t h t h e a p o s t l e s s h o r t l y b e f o r e h i s d e a t h .

The t y p e s o f m e a l s w h i c h have been p r o p o s e d a r e as f o l l o w s :

1) A K i d d u s h m e a l . T h i s t h e o r y was f i r s t a d v a n c e d by G. 175 176 Box, and was l a t e r t a k e n up by W. O e s t e r l y , G. MacGre-i 17 118 ^ g o r , and W. F r e r e . The word k i d d u s h means " s a n c t i f i -

c a t i o n , " and i t r e f e r s t o t h e w e e k l y b l e s s i n g by u i h i c h a Jew­

i s h f a m i l y u s h e r e d i n and s a n c t i f i e d t h e S a b b a t h . On F r i d a y

e v e n i n g t h e b l e s s i n g was s a i d o v e r a cup o f wine by t h e head

53

o f t h e h o u s e h o l d , a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e m e a l . Those who

a c c e p t t h e k i d d u s h t h e o r y b e l i e v e t h a t i n t h e c a s e o f t h e

L a s t S u p p e r t h e b l e s s i n g was a d v a n c e d t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s , and

was u s e d t o s a n c t i f y t h e P a s s o v e r . lYlacGregor s u g g e s t s t h a t

t h e C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n l a t e r c o n f u s e d t h i s " P a s s o v e r k i d d u s h "

w i t h t h e P a s s o v e r m e a l i t s e l f , and t h a t t h i s c o n f u s i o n r e s u l t e d

i n t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n between t h e s y n o p t i c and J o h a n n i n e c h r o n o -. . 179 l o g i e s .

One o f t h e a r g u m e n t s f o r t h e k i d d u s h h y p o t h e s i s , f i r s t 1 80

p u t / f o r w a r d by O e s t e r l y , i s t h a t t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n p a r a l ­

l e l s b etween t h e k i d d u s h r i t e and J e s u s ' f a r e w e l l d i s c o u r s e r e ­

p o r t e d i n J o h n . The a l l e g e d p a r a l l e l s i n c l u d e : an a l l u s i o n t o

c r e a t i o n ( J n . 1 7 : 4 f . ) , t h e b l e s s i n g o v e r t h e w i n e ( j n . 1 5 : 1 , 8 ,

1 6 ) , a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e n o t i o n o f e l e c t i o n ( J n . 1 3 : 1 8 ; 1 5 : 1 6 ,

1 9 ) , and e x p r e s s i o n s o f j o y ( J n . 1 5 : 1 1 ; 1 6 : 2 2 ; 17:13) and f r e e ­

dom ( J n . 15:15) .

I f t h e v i e w t h a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r was a P a s s o v e r m e a l i l a c k s

p e r s u a s i v e e v i d e n c e , t h i s i s a l l t h e more t r u e f o r t h e t h e s i s

t h a t t h e S u p p e r was a " k i d d u s h m e a l . " The p a r a l l e l s drawn be­

tween t h e k i d d u s h r i t e and t h e f a r e w e l l d i s c o u r s e , t e n u o u s a s

t h e y a r e , h a r d l y p r o v e a n y t h i n g . At t h e most t h e y m i g h t i n d i ­

c a t e t h a t t h e a u t h o r ( o r a u t h o r s ) o f t h e J o h a n n i n e d i s c o u r s e

was i n f l u e n c e d by t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e k i d d u s h p r a y e r . I n a d ­

d i t i o n t o t h i s , t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e k i d d u s h b l e s s i n g 181

c o u l d t a k e p l a c e a t any t i m e o t h e r t h a n F r i d a y e v e n i n g . One

54

f i n a l o b j e c t i o n t o t h e t h e o r y i s t h a t t h e v e r y n o t i o n o f a

" k i d d u s h m e a l " i s f a l s e . The k i d d u s h uias s i m p l y a S a b b a t h 1 82

b l e s s i n g , and i n no s e n s e a s p e c i a l t y p e o f m e a l . /% 183 2) A h a b u r a h m e a l . T h i s i s a s u g g e s t i o n o f L i e t z m a n n ' s ,

184 185 s u b s e q u e n t l y a d o p t e d by A. W a c D o n a l d , F. C i r l o t , J . O u l -186 187 /\ t o n , and G. D i x . A h a b u r a h uias a b r o t h e r h o o d o f f r i e n d s

( h a b e r i m ) d e v o t e d t o t h e p u r s u i t o f p i e t y . L i e t z m a n n b e l i e v e d

t h a t t h e s e h a b u r o t h u i o u l d have g a t h e r e d , when t h e y f e l t t h e

n e e d , b u t on a f a i r l y r e g u l a r b a s i s , t o c e l e b r a t e common, s o ­

lemn r e l i g i o u s m e a l s . The L a s t S u p p e r was t h u s t h e f i n a l one

i n a s e r i e s w h i c h J e s u s had s h a r e d w i t h h i s h a b u r a h , t h e a p o s t l e s ,

and t h e e a r l i e s t e u c h a r i s t s were s i m p l y a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h i s

f e l l o w s h i p .

T h i s t h e o r y i s u n d o u b t e d l y c o r r e c t i n s t r e s s i n g t h a t t h e

L a s t S u p p e r was n o t an i s o l a t e d phenomenon, b u t p a r t o f t h e

r e g u l a r t a b l e f e l l o w s h i p w h i c h J e s u s and h i s f o l l o w e r s s h a r e d .

I t i s a l s o l i k e l y t h a t t h e e a r l i e s t e u c h a r i s t i c m e a l s grew o u t

o f t h i s f e l l o w s h i p . At t h e same t i m e , i t i s v e r y q u e s t i o n a b l e

w h e t h e r t h e r e i s any a d v a n t a g e t o i n v o k i n g t h e n o t i o n o f t h e

h a b u r a h b o r t h e r h o o d t o e x p l a i n t h i s t a b l e f e l l o w s h i p . The i d e a

o f a s p e c i a l meal o f r e l i g i o u s s o l e m n i t y , c e l e b r a t e d by t h e s e

b r o t h e r h o o d s , i s , i n J e r e m i a s ' w o r d s , "an ad hoc c o n j e c t u r e f o r 1 R R

w h i c h t h e r e i s a b s o l u t e l y no e v i d e n c e . " The o n l y i n f o r m a ­

t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e and p r a c t i c e s o f t h e h a b u r o t h

comes f r o m t h e B a b y l o n i a n T a l m u d , and i t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e

55

main a i m o f t h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s was s t r i c t o b s e r v a n c e o f t h e

Law.'' 8^ The m e a l s i n w h i c h t h e s e h a b u r o t h p a r t i c i p a t e d were

e x c l u s i v e l y d u t y m e a l s , s u c h as t h o s e h e l d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h 190

c i r c u m c i s i o n s , e n g a g e m e n t s , w e d d i n g s , and f u n e r a l s .

3) A J e w i s h m y s t e r y m e a l . G. K i l p a t r i c k has s u g g e s t e d

t h a t t h e J e w i s h t r a c t J o s e p h and A s e n e t h , w h i c h he d a t e s be­

tween 100 and 30 B.C., t h r o w s l i g h t on t h e q u e s t i o n r j o f t h e L a s t 191

S u p p e r and e u c h a r i s t i c . o r i g i n s . He c o n t e n d s t h a t t h e c l a i m

t h a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r was a P a s s o v e r r e s t s l a r g e l y oh t h e e l i ­

m i n a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e s ( s u c h as t h e k i d d u s h o r habu_r_ah) , and

t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e s i n t h i s t r a c t t o " t h e b r e a d o f l i f e " a n d

" t h e cup o f b l e s s i n g " o r "cup o f i m m o r t a l i t y " a t t e s t t o t h e

e x i s t e n c e o f m y s t e r y - t y p e m e a l s i n J u d a i s m . " T h e r e i s , " he

s a y s , " e v i d e n c e f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a J e w i s h r e l i g i o u s m e a l

q u i t e d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e P a s s o v e r , and s u f f i c i e n t l y s i m i l a r t o

t h e L a s t S u p p e r f o r t h e s e two t o have a common o r i g i n i n d e -192

p e n d e n t o f t h e P a s s o v e r . "

On e x a m i n a t i o n , t h i s t h e o r y d o es n o t seem t o be any more

h e l p f u l t h a n t h e o t h e r s . Even i f J o s e p h and A s e n e t h does p o i n t

t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f p r e - C h r i s t i a n J e w i s h " m y s t e r y " m e a l s ( t h e r e

i s c o n s i d e r a b l e d o u b t t h a t t h e document s h o u l d be d a t e d s o

e a r l y ) , t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s a r e n o t s o much w i t h t h e L a s t S u p p e r

as w i t h t h e l a t e r C h r i s t i a n e u c h a r i s t . K i l p a t r i c k , m o r e o v e r , b a s e s h i s t h e o r y on an u n w a r r a n t e d p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , v i z . , t h a t i f t h e L a s t S u p p e r was n o t a P a s s o v e r meal i t must have been some o t h e r t y p e o f J e w i s h r e l i g i o u s m e a l .

56

I t d o e s a p p e a r t h a t a l l a t t e m p t s t o f i n d a s p e c i f i c

J e w i s h r i t e w i t h w h i c h J e s u s ' L a s t S u p p e r c a n be i d e n t i f i e d

have f a i l e d . The c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s f a c t i s t h a t we must

t u r n t o t h e i n n e r s t r u c t u r e o f J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y i n o r d e r t o

d i s c e r n t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h a t S u p p e r t o J e s u s .

We b e l i e v e t h a t t h e p r o p e r c o n t e x t o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r i s

n o t any c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h r i t e , b u t an e s s e n t i a l c o n s t i t u ­

e n t o f J e s u s ' own m i n i s t r y , v i z . , a r e g u l a r t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p .

I n a r e c e n t s t u d y o f t h e t e a c h i n g o f J e s u s , IM. P e r r i n has

s o u g h t t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t J e s u s ' t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p w i t h t a x -

c o l l e c t o r s and s i n n e r s was t h e c e n t r a l f e a t u r e o f h i s m i n i s ­

t r y . P e r r i n f i n d s i n t h e f a c t o f t h e C r o s s i t s e l f e v i d e n c e

f o r t h i s t h e s i s . He a r g u e s t h a t t o make s e n s e o f t h e t r i a l

and e x e c u t i o n o f J e s u s , we must p o s i t a f a c t o r i n t h e m i n i s ­

t r y o f J e s u s w h i c h gave g r a v e o f f e n c e t o t h e J e w i s h a u t h o r i ­

t i e s , and he s u g g e s t s t h a t J e s u s ' w e l c o m i n g o f o u t c a s t s i n t o

a r e g u l a r t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p , i n t h e name o f t h e Kingdom o f God, 193

c o n s t i t u t e d s u c h a f a c t o r . F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e i s f o u n d i n

t h e c u l t i c m e a l s o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y , w h i c h , P e r r i n p o i n t s

o u t , e x i s t e d b e f o r e t h e r e was a s p e c i f i c a l l y C h r i s t i a n t h e o ­

l o g y t o g i v e them m e a n i n g . The L a s t S u p p e r i t s e l f c a n n o t have

been t h e o r i g i n o f t h e s e communal m e a l s , b e c a u s e t h e r e i s e v e r y

i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e t h e o l o g i c a l e m p h a s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e L a s t S u p p e r was n o t p r e s e n t i n t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t i c m e a l s a t

194 t h e o u t s e t . The most r e a s o n a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e s e m e a l s

57

i s t h a t t h e y a r e a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f a r e g u l a r p r a c t i c e o f t h e 195

m i n i s t r y o f J e s u s .

P e r r i n b e l i e v e s t h a t we c a n f i n d i n t h e g o s p e l s a g l i m p s e

o f t h i s f e l l o w s h i p . In Mt. 11:19 J e s u s i s d e s c r i b e d a s ?.a

g l u t t o n and a d r u n k a r d , a f r i e n d o f t a x c o l l e c t o r s and s i n ­

n e r s . " T h i s p h r a s e i s a S e m i t i c p a r a l l e l i s m i m p l y i n g a c l o s e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b etween e a c h o f i t s two t e r m s : t h e f i r s t r e f e r s

t o J e s u s * h a b i t o f h o l d i n g a t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p , and t h e s e c o n d

t o t h e p e o p l e w i t h whom he h e l d i t . The words " g l u t t o n , " " d r u n ­

k a r d , " and " f r i e n d " s u g g e s t t h a t t h e f e l l o w s h i p was h e l d i n an 196

a t m o s p h e r e o f j o y . A n o t h e r l o g i o n w h i c h s h e d s l i g h t on t h e

me a n i n g o f t h e f e l l o w s h i p t o J e s u s i s Mt. 8:11: " I t e l l y o u ,

many w i l l come f r o m e a s t and w e s t and s i t a t t a b l e w i t h A b r a ­

ham, I s a a c and J a c o b i n t h e k i n g d o m o f h e a v e n . " P e r r i n c o n ­

t e n d s t h a t J e s u s ' t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p i s an a p t s e t t i n g f o r t h i s

s a y i n g , and t h a t i t i s an a u t h e n t i c l o g i o n o f J e s u s . T h i s

s a y i n g i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t ; a l l u d i n g t o t h e f i g u r e o f t h e m e s s i ­

a n i c b a n q u e t , " i t t e l l s us t h a t t h e f e l l o w s h i p was an a n t i c i -1 Q7

p a t i o n o f t h a t t o be e x p e c t e d i n t h e k i n g d o m . " "

The t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p was t h u s an a c t e d p a r a b l e t h r o u g h

w h i c h J e s u s r a d i c a l l y c a l l e d i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e p a t i o t i s m p i e t y ,

and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . I t i s e n t i r e l y

p r o b a b l e t h a t much o f J e s u s ' p e r s o n a l t e a c h i n g t o h i s d i s c i p l e s ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e L o r d ' s P r a y e r , t o o k p l a c e i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h i s

58

f e l l o w s h i p . The v i v i d n e s s o f t h e memory o f t h e p r e -

E a s t e r f e l l o w s h i p p r o v i d e d t h e p a t t e r n f o r t h e s e n s e o f f e l ­

l o w s h i p between t h e e a r l i e s t C h r i s t i a n s and t h e i r r i s e n

199

l o r d , and i n f a c t t h e e a r l i e s t e u c h a r i s t i c m e a l s were

s i m p l y t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h i s t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p .

T h e r e i s a s e n s e , t h e n i n w h i c h we c a n s a y t h a t t h e e u ­

c h a r i s t was p r i o r t o t h e L a s t S u p p e r , r a t h e r t h a n v i c e v e r s a .

I t i s u n n e c e s s a r y t o t u r n , as K. Kuhn h a s , ^ ^ t o t h e r i t u a l

m e a l s o f t h e Qumran community i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e g u ­

l a r c u l t i c m e a l s o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y . I t was J e s u s h i m s e l f

who r e g a r d e d h i s t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p as a f o r e t a s t e o f t h e m e s s i ­

a n i c b a n q u e t . The L a s t S u p p e r was t h u s f o r J e s u s ( e v e n i f , i n

t h i s c a s e , o n l y h i s d i s c i p l e s were p r e s e n t ) t h e l a s t i n a

s e r i e s o f m e a l s w h i c h f o r h i m s i g n a l e d t h e c o m i n g o f t h e K i n g ­

dom o f God.

The L a s t S u p p e r was n o t t h e o n l y one o f t h e s e m e a l s w h i c h

a c q u i r e d a s p e c i a l p r o m i n e n c e . One o t h e r m e a l - - t h e f e e d i n g o f

b r e a d and f i s h e s t o t h e m u l t i t u d e — s t a n d s o u t i n t h e e v a n g e l i ­

c a l t r a d i t i o n . The s e e m i n g l y " s a c r a m e n t a l " n a t u r e o f t h i s

m eal has been r e c o g n i s e d by c o m m e n t a t o r s f o r some t i m e . F o r

e x a m p l e , A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r w r o t e : The f e e d i n g o f t h e m u l t i t u d e was more t h a n a l o v e -f e a s t , a f e l l o w s h i p m e a l . I t was f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f J e s u s a s a c r a m e n t o f s a l v a t i o n , . . .a v e i l e d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a c r a m e n t . . . . T h i s m e al must have been t r a n s f o r m e d by t r a d i t i o n i n t o a m i r a c l e , a r e s u l t w h i c h may have been i n p a r t due t o t h e r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e wonders o f t h e M e s s i a n i c f e a s t w h i c h were d o u b t l e s s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e p r a y e r s , n o t t o s p e a k o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e n t h u s i a s m w h i c h t h e n p r e v a i l e d u n i v e r s a l l y .201

59

I n a s i m i l a r v e i n , D.E. Nineham d e s c r i b e s t h e e v e n t as

...an a n t i c i p a t i o n , more o r l e s s s a c r a m e n t a l i n c h a r a c t e r , o f t h e M e s s i a n i c B a n q u e t , d e ­s i g n e d t o c o m m u n i c a t e J e s u s ' c o n v i c t i o n t h a t he uias t h e one uihom men w o u l d s o o n s e e p r e s i ­d i n g o v e r t h e M e s s i a n i c B a n q u e t , and p e r h a p s a l s o t o c o n s e c r a t e t h o s e who s h a r e d t h e f o o d as p a r t a k e r s i n t h e c o m i n g m e s s i a n i c f e a s t , and t o g i v e them a g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e y who had s h a r e d h i s t a b l e i n t h e t i m e o f h i s o b ­s c u r i t y would a l s o s h a r e i t i n t h e t i m e o f h i s g l o r y . 2 0 2

W h i l e J e s u s may n o t have been s o c e r t a i n o f h i s r o l e i n t h e

m e s s i a n i c d r a m a , i t does seem l i k e l y t h a t he s p o k e o f t h e meal

i n t e r m s o f t h e m e s s i a n i c f e a s t . F.W. B e a r e a g r e e s " t h a t we

must e n t e r t a i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t u n d e r n e a t h t h e m i r a c l e

s t o r y t h e r e may l a y a n o n - m i r a c u l o u s a c c o u n t o f a r i t u a l m e a l ,

c o n c e i v e d o f as a s y m b o l and f o r e t a s t e o f t h e M e s s i a n i c B a n ­

q u e t . " 2 0 3

What has been s a i d o f t h e f e e d i n g o f t h e m u l t i t u d e c a n ,

i n l i g h t o f P e r r i n ' s c o n c l u s i o n s , be s a i d o f J e s u s ' t a b l e -

f e l l o w s h i p g e n e r a l l y : i t i s a " s a c r a m e n t " o f t h e c o m i n g e s c h a ­

t o l o g i c a l r e d e m p t i o n . F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e f o r t h i s c a n be f o u n d

i n t h e L o r d ' s P r a y e r , u i h i c h , as we have r e m a r k e d , p r o b a b l y had

i t s s e t t i n g i n t h e t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p . The f o u r t h p e t i t i o n o f

TjflW ZO K&@ 7JjU£f>Gll> i n L u k e . The most p l a u s i b l e r e n d e r i n g y /

o f t h e word CfTlOVVlOS , u i h i c h a p p e a r s o n l y h e r e i n G r e e k , i s " f o r t h e f u t u r e , " o r " o f t h e morrow. I I 204 I f t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

60

i s c o r r e c t , then Jesus i s d e s c r i b i n g the bread eaten i n the

t a b l e - f e l l o u i s h i p as e s c h a t o l o g i c a l bread, bread of the heavenly

banquet. The meals which Jesus shares with the p u b l i c a n s , s i n ­

n e r s , and h i s d i s c i p l e s are a true a n t i c i p a t i o n of the f e a s t i n

the Kingdom of God.

We t h e r e f o r e a r r i v e at the p o i n t where we can p i c t u r e the

s e t t i n g of the Last Supper: Jesus, aware that he i s about to

be betrayed and executed, i s gathered f o r the l a s t time with

h i s c l o s e s t d i s c i p l e s to share i n that t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p which

has been a t the very centre of h i s m i n i s t r y , and which he r e ­

gards as the f o r e t a s t e of the messianic banquet. But, as w®

have seen, Jesus b e l i e v e d t h a t the advent of the Kingdom was

somehow connected with h i s proclamation of i t . One t h i n g we

can be c e r t a i n o f , says Bornkamm, i s that "Jesus c e l e b r a t e s

the Supper with h i s d i s c i p l e s i n the e x p e c t a t i o n of the ap-2 D R

proaching kingdom of God and of h i s p a r t i n g from them." u

Faced with a desperate s i t u a t i o n , Jesus turns to a r a d i c a l so­

l u t i o n : i t w i l l be through h i s death that the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

covenant w i l l be r a t i f i e d .

The accounts of the Last Supper i n d i c a t e that i t f o l ­

lowed the r e g u l a r p a t t e r n of a formal Jewish meal: b l e s s i n g

and d i s t r i b u t i o n of bread a t the beginning, f o l l o w e d by the meal i t s e l f , with a solemn b l e s s i n g over the wine at the con-

2 06 e l u s i o n . S i n c e , t h e r e f o r e , the bread and cup sayings were o r i g i n a l l y separated by an e n t i r e meal, each was a s e l f -

207 contained u n i t and must be i n t e r p r e t e d as such.

61

At t h i s L a s t S u p p e r , J e s u s c o m b i n e d s y m b o l i c g e s t u r e s w i t h

s y m b o l i c w o r d s . The e v a n g e l i c a l t r a d i t i o n a t t e s t s t h a t p a r a ­

b o l i c a c t i o n s a s w e l l as p a r a b o l i c s a y i n g s and s t o r i e s were n o t

uncommon i n J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y : i n a d d i t i o n t o h i s e x t e n s i o n o f

h o s p i t a l i t y t o o u t c a s t s , r e f e r e n c e c a n be made t o h i s h e a l i n g s ,

r e j e c t i o n o f f a s t i n g (Mk. 2 : 1 9 f . , p a r . ) , and h i s s e t t i n g a c h i l d 206

i n t h e m i d s t o f h i s d i s c i p l e s . A t t i m e s J e s u s a l s o made use

o f some m a t e r i a l o b j e c t as t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r a p a r a ­

b o l i c u t t e r a n c e , as when he c u r s e d t h e f i g t r e e (Mik. 1 1 : 1 3 f . ) .

B e a r i n g t h i s i n m i n d , we may now e x a m i n e e a c h o f J e s u s ' t h r e e

e u c h a r i s t i c s a y i n g s , i n t h e i r e a r l i e s t a t t a i n a b l e f o r m ; a s we

have p r e v i o u s l y r e c o n s t r u c t e d them. 1 ) T h i s i s my bod y . S i n c e J e s u s u t t e r e d t h i s s a y i n g a t

t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e m e a l , when t h e b r e a d was b l e s s e d and b r o ­

k e n , i t s m e a n i n g c a n n o t be d i s c e r n e d by c o n s i d e r i n g i t i n c o n -

n e c t i o n w i t h t h e cup s a y i n g . The words aiOjitX and OLIJLiSK a r e n o t , t h e r e f o r e , c o r r e l a t i v e s t o g e t h e r r e f e r r i n g t o t h e w h o l e p e r s o n

209

o f J e s u s , n o r c o u l d t h e y be t h e component t e r m s o f t h e l a n ­

guage o f c u l t i c s a c r i f i c e . Most p r o b a b l y , t h e n , t h e A r a m a i c

word u n d e r l y i n g t h e Greek oitijusx i s quph' a , t h e n o r m a l word f o r

"body," r a t h e r t h a n b i s r ' a , " f l e s h . " I f t h e A r a m a i c t e r m had

been " f l e s h , " i t w o u l d be q u i t e i n e x p l i c a b l e why t h e Greek

t r a n s l a t o r s h o u l d have c h o s e n t h e word "body," w h i c h was n o t 210

n o r m a l l y c o m b i n e d w i t h " b l o o d . "

62

The uiord " t h i s " r e f e r s t o t h e b r o k e n b r e a d . I t i s u n ­

l i k e l y t h a t i t m i g h t r e f e r a l s o t o t h e a c t i o n o f b r e a k i n g t h e

b r e a d , s i n c e t h e s a y i n g uias u t t e r e d a f t e r t h e b r e a k i n g , a t t h e 211

d i s t r i b u t i o n . The word " i s , " a b o u t u i h i c h t h e r e has been s o

much c o n t r o v e r s y , mould p r o b a b l y n o t have been e x p r e s s e d i n

A r a m a i c .

The l o g i o n i s b e s t u n d e r s t o o d as a r s i m p l e p a r a b o l i c a n a ­

l o g y . J e s u s s p e a k s o f t h e b r o k e n b r e a d as h i s b o d y , t h e r e b y

a n n o u n c i n g h i s P a s s i o n t o t h e d i s c i p l e s . I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e

t h a t , i n d i s t r i b u t i n g t h e b r o k e n b r e a d t o h i s d i s c i p l e s , J e s u s

i s a s k i n g them t o s h a r e u i i t h h i m i n h i s s u f f e r i n g s . And s i n c e

J e s u s had i n t h e L o r d ' s P r a y e r s p o k e n o f t h e b r e a d s h a r e d i n

t h e t a b l e - f e l l o u i s h i p as t h e b r e a d o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b a n q u e t ,

t h e r e may a l s o be a h i n t i n t h i s s a y i n g o f J e s u s * b e l i e f t h a t

h i s d e a t h mould b r i n g a b o u t t h e K i n g d o m . But t h e r e i s n o t h i n g

i n t h e s a y i n g m h i c h demands a s a c r i f i c i a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; s t i l l 212 213 214 l e s s i s t h e r e , as S c h w e i t z e r , S c h u e r m a n n , and B e t z

b e l i e v e , a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e S u f f e r i n g S e r v a n t . I t i s t r u e t h a t

t h e S u f f e r i n g S e r v a n t m o t i f may be p r e s e n t i n t h e l a t e r New

T e s t a m e n t f o r m u l a t i o n s o f t h e words o f i n s t i t u t i o n , b u t t h a t

m o t i f i s u n d o u b t e d l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e S e r v a n t c h r i s t o l o g y

o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y .

2) T h i s cup i s t h e c o v e n a n t i n my b l o o d . T h i s s a y i n g i s

p e r h a p s more d i f f i c u l t t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s o n e , s i n c e t h e c o v e n a n t

theme i s n o t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f J e s u s ' p r o c l a m a t i o n . N e v e r t h e -

6 3

l e s s , the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l redemption to come uias d e s c r i b e d i n

terms of a neui covenant i n Jeremiah ( 3 1 : 3 1 f f . ) . The n o t i o n

i s i n no may a l i e n to the t e a c h i n g of Jesus, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n

vieui of the n o n - l e g a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of covenant i n J e r e ­

miah. The uiord "covenant" i n t h i s s a y i n g can be regarded as

synonymous uiith the coming of the Kingdom of God. I t might

a l s o have here the connotation,"which the uiord has i n profane

Greek l i t e r a t u r e , of a l a s t w i l l or testament.

The word "cup," i n a d d i t i o n to r e f e r r i n g to i t s contents

(wine), i s a symbol of s u f f e r i n g (Mk. 10:38; 14:36; Jn. 18:11).

The use of the word "blood" here could not have been intended

to evoke the n o t i o n of c u l t i c s a c r i f i c i a l blood, s i n c e i t i s

not p a r a l l e l e d with " f l e s h . " Blood, however, was i n Hebrew

thought conceived of as the e s s e n t i a l substance of l i f e (Lev.

7:11,14; Deut. 12:23; c f . Ez. 35:6; Mt. 27:4), and i t n a t u r a l ­

l y b r i n g s to mind the idea of shedding blood, or death. Jesus,

then, by p a r a b o l i c a l l y using the (probably red) wine and the

symbol of the cup, t e l l s h i s d i s c i p l e s that h i s death w i l l

b r i n g about the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l covenant.

We must, at t h i s p o i n t , bear i n mind an important d i s t i n c ­

t i o n : "a s a c r i f i c e o f f e r e d at the c o n c l u s i o n of a covenant i s

a very d i f f e r e n t t h i n g from a s a c r i f i c e of p r o p i t i a t i o n . I t

has nothing to do with the c a n c e l l i n g of s i n s , but i s only an

a c t c o n f i r m i n g the compact." ' Jesus' s a y i n g i s thus to be

64

u n d e r s t o o d i n l i g h t o f E x o d us 24:8-11, where t h e i n s t i t u t i o n

o f t h e c o v e n a n t i s a c c o m p a n i e d by a b l o o d s a c r i f i c e and a

h e a v e n l y m e a l :

And Moses t o o k t h e b l o o d and t h r e w i t upon t h e p e o p l e , and s a i d , " B e h o l d t h e b l o o d o f t h e c o v e ­n a n t w h i c h Yahweh has made w i t h you i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a l l t h e s e w o r d s . " Then Moses and A a r o n , Na-d a b , and A b i h u , and s e v e n t y o f t h e e l d e r s o f I s ­r a e l went up , and t h e y saw t h e God o f I s r a e l ; and t h e r e was u n d e r h i s f e e t as i t were a pavement o f s a p p h i r e s t o n e , l i k e t h e v e r y h e a v e n f o r c l e a r ­n e s s . A n d . . . t h e y b e h e l d God, and a t e and d r a n k .

V iewed i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h i s p a s s a g e , t h e cup s a y i n g a f f i r m s

t h a t J e s u s ' m i s s i o n w i l l n o t be a f a i l u r e b e c a u s e o f h i s d e a t h ,

b u t r a t h e r t h a t h i s d e a t h w i l l be t h e c o v e n a n t s a c r i f i c e w h i c h

w i l l b r i n g i n t o o p e r a t i o n t h e f i n a l e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d rama.

In t h e c a s e o f t h e c u p , J e s u s ' a c t o f d i s t r i b u t i o n i s

p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t . We s h o u l d be r e m i n d e d , t h o u g h , , t h a t

i t i s v e r y u n l i k e l y t h a t J e s u s was a s k i n g h i s d i s c i p l e s t o i n

some s e n s e d r i n k h i s " b l o o d . " S u c h an i d e a w o u l d have been

q u i t e r e p u g n a n t t o a Jew, a n d , as K l a u s n e r s a y s , " e v e n i f i t

was meant s y m b o l i c a l l y , c o u l d o n l y have a r o u s e d h o r r o r i n t h e

minds o f J e s u s ' d i s c i p l e s . " 2 ' ' 0 I t was r a t h e r t h e a c t i o n o f

g i v i n g t h a t had i m p o r t a n t s y m b o l i c v a l u e . Schuermann p o i n t s

o u t t h a t t h e g i v i n g o f a s i n g l e cup f o r a l l t h o s e p r e s e n t t o 217

p a r t a k e o f was c o n t r a r y t o t h e u s u a l c u s t o m . J e s u s ' g e s ­

t u r e h e l p s us u n d e r s t a n d h i s w o r d s : i t shows t h a t he " p r o f f e r e d

65

e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a l v a t i o n as t h e f r u i t o f h i s d e a t h , and by

d o i n g so a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d i t s y m b o l i c a l l y . " 2 " ^ 3 ) T r u l y , I_ s a y t o y o u , I_ s h a l l n o t d r i n k a g a i n o f t h e

f r u i t o f t h e v i n e u n t i l t h a t day when 1_ d r i n k i t i n t h e

k i n g d o m o f God. T h i s s a y i n g s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d as a s e q u e l

t o t h e p r e v i o u s o n e . H a v i n g s t a t e d , t h r o u g h p a r a b o l i c w ordoand

a c t i o n , t h a t h i s d e a t h w i l l b r i n g a b o u t t h e K i n g d o m , J e s u s t e l l s

h i s d i s c i p l e s t h a t he w i l l n o t a g a i n s h a r e w i t h them i n t h e

t a b l e f e l l o w s h i p u n t i l t h e t i m e o f t h e t r u e m e s s i a n i c b a n q u e t .

t o you . . ." has g i v e n r i s e t o t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s a y i n g

as a "vow" o f a b s t i n e n c e . J e s u s ' s t a t e m e n t , i n d e e d , b r i n g s t o

mind t h e M a z i r i t e vow o f a b s t i n e n c e , and l i k e t h e l a t t e r may be

an a f f i r m a t i o n o f t o t a l c o n s e c r a t i o n t o God. A vow was a l s o

u s e d t o ; , i n d i c a t e an i r r e v o c a b l e d e c i s i o n , as i n A c t s 2 3 : 1 2 ,

when P a u l ' s J e w i s h o p p o n e n t s ftmade a vow n o t t o e a t o r d r i n k

u n t i l t h e y had k i l l e d P a u l . " F i n a l l y , a vow o f a b s t i n e n c e o r

f a s t i n g was u s e d t o g i v e p r a y e r a s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s ( P s . 6 1 : 5 ;

2 Sam. 1 2 : 1 6 ; (Vlt. 1 7 : 2 1 ; Mk. 9:29; L k . 2:37; A c t s 1 4 : 2 3 ; 1 3 : 219

2 f . ) . J e s u s ' vow may t h e r e f o r e be i n t e r p r e t e d as a s t a t e ­

ment o f h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o u n d e r t a k e s u f f e r i n g and d e a t h f o r

t h e s a k e o f t h e K i n g d o m , and as an e m p h a t i c r e p e t i t i o n o f h i s

p l e a , "may y o u r k i n g d o m come." J e s u s w i l l n o t a g a i n p a r t a k e

i n t h e t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p , w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n h i s i m p e n d i n g d e a t h ,

u n t i l he p a r t a k e s i n t h e Kingdom u i h i c h t h a t d e a t h w i l l b r i n g

a b o u t .

The s o l e m n e m p h a t i c i n t r o d u c t i o n , " T r u l y I s a y

66

J e s u s ' t h r e e e u c h a r i s t i c s a y i n g s a r e p e r f e c t l y c o m p r e h e n ­

s i b l e i n t h e c o n t e x t o f h i s m i n i s t r y , a m i n i s t r y w h i c h p r o ­

c l a i m e d t h e c o m i n g o f t h e Kingdom o f God t h r o u g h p a r a b l e and

p a r a b o l i c a c t i o n , a m i n i s t r y w h i c h J e s u s b e l i e v e d was i n s t r u ­

m e n t a l i n t h e f i n a l , e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s , and i n t h e c o n ­

t e x t o f t h e d e s p e r a t e s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e y were u t t e r e d .

G i v e n t h e i n e v i t a b l e emotion and dramaKwhich muist have accom­

p a n i e d J e s u s ' l a s t m e e t i n g w i t h h i s d i s c i p l e s i n t h a t f e l l o w ­

s h i p w h i c h had been a t t h e v e r y c o r e o f h i s a c t i v i t y , a n d w h i c h

he had c o n s i d e r e d as an a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e K i n g d o m , t h e y b e ­

come e v e n e a s i e r t o u n d e r s t a n d .

T here was n o t h i n g J e s u s s a i d o r d i d a t t h i s L a s t S u p p e r

w h i c h c o u l d be c o n s t r u e d as a r e q u e s t t o r e p e a t h i s a c t i o n s .

J e s u s ' s a y i n g s and a c t i o n s were a r e s p o n s e t o a s p e c i f i c c o n ­

c r e t e s i t u a t i o n , and t h o u g h t h e y were p r e s e r v e d by t h e t r a d i ­

t i o n and l a t e r became c e n t r a l i n t h e c h u r c h ' s w o r s h i p , i t i s

d i f f i c u l t t o i m a g i n e any r e a s o n why he s h o u l d want them r e ­

p e a t e d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p

d i d n o t end w i t h J e s u s ' d e a t h . To t h e s u b s e q u e n t h i s t o r y o f

t h a t f e l l o w s h i p , and t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t ,

we now t u r n .

47

NOTES TO CHAPTER I

1. Reported i n Rosemary Ruether, The Church Against I t s e l f (London: Sheed and Ward, 1967), p. 51.

2. The term " e u c h a r i s t , " as w i l l be seen i n the second chapter, i s somewhat problematic f o r the New Testament p e r i o d . I t w i l l be used i n t h i s t h e s i s to d e s c r i b e a sacred meal, or p a r t of a sacred meal, where one or more elements are i s o l a t e d and charged with symbolic s i g n i f i c a n c e . I t i s to be d i s t i n ­guished from "agape," which r e f e r s to an a c t u a l d i n n e r . The ex p r e s s i o n "Lord's Supper" i s avoided as a generic term, s i n c e i t i s not at a l l c l e a r that f o r Paul the Lord's Supper was synonymous with what we have d e f i n e d as the e u c h a r i s t .

3. Louis Bouyer, R i t e and Man (London: Burns and Oates, 1963) , p. 64.

4. Eugene Masure, The C h r i s t i a n S a c r i f i c e (New York: P . J . Kennedy, 1943), pp. 1 9 1 f f . , e s p e c i a l l y p. 195; The S a c r i ­f i c e of the M y s t i c a l Body (London: Burns and Oates, 1954j^ p. 135f.

5. The O r i g i n of the Lord's Supper (London: 1893).

6. Die Enstehunq der Speisesakramente ( H e i l d e l b e r g : 1912).

7. Les mysteres pa'iens et l e mystere C h r e t i e n ( P a r i s : 1911). See J . Coppens, " E u c h a r i s t i e , " DBS, II (1928), c o l s . 1163f.

8 » Taufe und Abendmahl b e i Paulus (G o e t t i n g e n : 1903). See Stephen N e i l l , The I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the New Testament 1861-1961 (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966) p. 159f.

9. Rudolf Bultmann, H i s t o r y of the Synoptic T r a d i t i o n (Oxford: B a s i l B l a c k w e l l , 1963) , p. 265f.; Theology of the New Testament, I (New York: S c r i b n e r ' s , 1951) , p . 146f.

10. G.H.C. MacGregor, E u c h a r i s t i c O r i g i n s (London: James C l a r k , 1928), pp. 27-29. As we s h a l l see below i n chap­t e r two, the n o t i o n of e a t i n g with C h r i s t d i d indeed e x i s t i n p r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y , but i t was not a s s o c i a t e d with the Last Supper t r a d i t i o n .

11. I b i d . , p. 32 .

68

12 . Smyrn. 6:2.

13. A.B. MacDonald, C h r i s t i a n Worship i n t h e P r i m i t i v e C h u rch ( E d i n b u r g h : T. and T. C l a r k , 1 9 3 4 ) , p . 63.

14. C. von W e i z s a e c k e r , The A p o s t o l i c Age o f the C h r i s ­t i a n C h u r c h , I I ( L o n d o n : W i l l i a m s and N o r g a t e , T899), pp. 2 5 4 f f . j H. L i e t z m a n n , A H i s t o r y o f t h e E a r l y C h u r c h , I ( C l e v e l a n d : M e r i d i a n Books, 1961) , PP. 1 4 7 f f .

15. O s c a r C u l l m a n n , E a r l y C h r i s t i a n Worship ( L o n d o n : SCM, 1 9 5 3 ) , p . 29. G. D e H i n g i s r e p l y t o C u l l m a n n , i n Worship i n the New T e s t a m e n t ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : W e s t m i n s t e r P r e s s , 1962) , p . 147, t h a t A c t s 2 0 : 7 f f . r e f e r s o n l y t o Sunday w o r s h i p , and t h a t t h e r e was p r o b a b l y s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e two s e r v i c e s on o t h e r d a y s , i s n o t f o u n d e d on any s u b s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e .

16. L o c . c i t .

17. A p o l . 1:67.

18. Apoc. 1:10; I g n a t i u s , Maqn. 9:1; D i d . 14:1; Ep_. B a r n . 15:8.

19. L. D u c h e s n e , C h r i s t i a n W o r s h i p : I t s O r i g i n and E v o l u ­t i o n ( L o n d o n : S.P.C.K., 1920) , p . 47.

20. E . S c h i l l e b e e c k x , " S e c u l a r Worship and Church L i t u r g y , " i n God t h e F u t u r e o f Man (New Y o r k : Sheed and Ward, 1 9 6 8 ) ,

p. 101 .

2 1 . C i t e d , i b i d . , p. 100.

22. L o c . c i t .

23. See A p p e n d i x I I , t e x t s A, B, C, and D.

24. 0p_. c i t . , p . 50.

25. 0p_. c i t . , p . 145. 26. C f . J . B e t z , D i e E u c h a r i s t i e i n d e r Z e i t d e r q r i e c h i -

s c h e n l / a e t e r , I ( F r e i b u r g : H e r d e r , 19557, PP • 4-11; A.J.B. H i g g i n s , The L o r d ' s Supper i n t h e New Testament ( L o n d o n : SCM, 1 9 5 2 ) , p . 17.

27. B e t z , l o c . c i t . On t h e n o t i o n o f a n a m n e s i s , s e e below, pp. 122, 1 2 8 f . , 1 4 8 f . , and 210-214.

69

28. E. Schweizer, "Abendmahl im Neuen Testament," RGG, I (1957), c o l . 13.

29. a, d, f f , i, and 1_. Tuio other OL mss. (b and e) have the s h o r t e r t e x t i n the f o l l o w i n g arrangement: v s s . 15, 16, 19a, 17, 18 ( i . e . , the bread-cup order i s r e s t o r e d ) .

30. F.W. Beare, The E a r l i e s t Records of Jesus (Oxford: B a s i l B l a c k w e l l , 1964), p. 226.

31. The O r i g i n s of the New Testament (E.T., New York: U n i v e r s i t y Books, 1962J, p. 165.

32. Mass and Lord's Supper (E.T., Leiden: B r i l l , 1 9 5 3 — ) , pp. 175f.

33. 0p_. c i _ t . , p. 142.

34. The M i s s i o n and Achievement of Jesus (London: SCM, 1956), p. 67f.

35. An I n t r o d u c t i o n to New Testament Thought ( N a s h v i l l e : Abingdon Cokesbury, 1950), p. 285.

36. Loc. c i t .

37. See MacGregor, op_. c i t . , p. 54.

38. H i s t o r y of the Synoptic T r a d i t i o n , p. 266.

39. "The 'Shorter Text' of S t . Luke XXII 15-20," JTS 38 (1927), p. 367f.

40. 0p_. c i t . , p. 54.

41. H. Schuermann, "Lk. 22:19b-20 a l s u r s p r u e n g l i c h e Textue-b e r l i e f e r u n g , " B i b l i c a 32 (1951), pp. 3 6 4 f f .

42. E. Schweizer, The Lord's Supper a c c o r d i n g to the New Testament ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s P r e s s , 1967), p. 19.

43. "Luke XXII 19b-20," JTS 47 (1946), pp. 49-56.

44. The E u c h a r i s t i c Words of Jesus ( t h i r d e d i t i o n ; London: SCM, 196677~p. 158f.

45. H i g g i n s , op_. c i t . , p. 39.

46. I b i d . , p. 40.

47. 0p_. c i t . , p. 54.

70

48. P. Fein e , J . Behm, Ul. Kuemmel, I n t r o d u c t i o n to the New Testament ( N a s h v i l l e : Abingdon, 1966) , p . 205.

49. The B i r t h of the C h r i s t i a n R e l i g i o n (E.T., New York: U n i v e r s i t y Books, 1962) , p. 244f.

50. 0p_. c i t . , p. 144.

51. So Lietzmann, Mass and L o r d 1 s Supper, p. 208.

52. Mass and Lord's Supper, p. 175f.; C h r i s t i a n Worship i n the P r i m i t i v e Church, p. 142.

53. 0p_. c i t . , p. 182.

54. 0p_. c i t . , p. 25.

55. " ' K y r i o s ' as D e s i g n a t i o n f o r the Oral T r a d i t i o n c oncerning Jesus ( P a r a d o s i s and K y r i o s ) , " SJT 3 (1050), pp. 180-197.

56. I b i d . , p. 189. Cf. E. K i l m a r t i n , The E u c h a r i s t i n the P r i m i t i v e Church (Englewood C l i f f s : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1965), p. 31.

57. "Vom u r c h r i s t l i c k e n Abendmahl," Theoloqische Rundschau 9 (1937), p. I83 f .

58. H. Schuermann, Q u e l l e n k r i t i s c h e Untersuchunq des l u k a n i -schen Abendmahlsberichtes Lk. x x i i . 7-38, II (Meunster: Aschen-d o r f f s c h e Uerlagsbuchhandlung, 1953), pp. 7-14.

59. J . Behm, " KMCO ,» TWNT, I I I (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965) , p. 731 .

60. G. Dix, The Shape of the L i t u r g y , (Westminster: Dacre P r e s s , 1945), p. 65.

61. F . J . Leenhardt, Le Sacrement de l a Sain t e Cene (Neu-c h a t e l : Delachaux et NestTe% 1948) , pp. 5 l f f .

62. I b i d . , p. 53; Behm, l o c . c i t .

63. G. Dalman, Jesus-Jeshua (E.T., London: SfcP.C.K., 1929), pp. 160ff.; H i g g i n s , op_. c i t . , p. 32f.; Schweizer, a r t . c i t . , c o l . 13. Jeremias at f i r s t agreed (op_. c i t . , second e d i t i o n , 1955, p. 134), but i n the most recent e d i t i o n of The E u c h a r i s t i c Words of Jesus (1966) he has changed h i s p o s i t i o n on the grounds t h a t the " p r e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t the sequence of words i n Greek must have been a l s o t h a t of the S e m i t i c o r i g i n a l " i s unfounded (p. 194). He suggests that the Aramaic was adam keyami, "my covenant blood" (So J . Guenther, "Das Becherwort Jesu ,*' Theo-

71

l o g i e und G l a u b e A5/1 f1955J , pp. 4 7 - 4 9 ) . T h e r e i s no ex­p lanat ion , h o w e v e r , o f how o r why t h e t r a n s p o s i t i o n o c c u r r e d i n G r e e k . J.A. E m e r t o n , "The A r a m a i c u n d e r l y i n g Z& CITM^C JXOV, ZTtf 6ldGr)i<m i n Mk. x i v . 24," JTS n . s . 6 ( 1 9 5 5 ) , pp. 2 3 8 -2 4 0 , c i t e s t r i e u s e o f t h e p r o n o m i n a l s u f f i x f o l l o w e d by t h e g e n i t i v e i n t h e S y r i a c v e r s i o n o f t h e P s s . B u t , as J e r e m i a s p o i n t s o u t (op_. c i t . , p. 193) t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t o r s o f t h e NT d i d n o t a v a i l t h e m s e l v e s o f t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n . On t h e b a l a n c e , t h e w e i g h t o f e v i d e n c e i s i n f a v o u r o f t h o s e who c o n s i d e r t h e t r a n s l a t i o n i m p o s s i b l e .

6 4 . H i g g i n s , p. 3 3 .

6 5 . D a l m a n , op_. c i t . , p. I 4 4 f . ; H i g g i n s , p. 2 9 ; S c h w e i z e r , a r t . c i t . , c o l . 1 3 .

6 6 . UI.D. D a v i e s , P a u l and R a b b i n i c J u d a i s m ( L o n d o n : S.P.C.K., 1 9 5 5 ) , p. 2 4 9 .

6 7 . J e r e m i a s , op_. c i t . , p. 1 5 4 .

6 8 . S c h u e r m a n n , op_. c i t . , I I , pp. 3 5 f f .

6 9 . M a c G r e g o r , op_. c i t . , p. 58; J e r e m i a s , op_. c i t . , p. 1 7 2 .

^70. 0p_. c i t . , 1/1, pp. 1 5 - 2 6 ; I l / 1 , p. 1 8 . B e t z r e a d s bnep 7TO7<\LO\? i n 1 9 b , on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t i t i s more S e m i t i c t h a n t>n<£p

71 . 0p_. c i t . , I I , p. 1 3 1 f .

7 2 . 0p_. c i t . , I I / 1 , p. 1 7 .

7 3 . I b i d . , pp. 3 6 , 1 3 1 f f .

7 4 » PJ2* £ll»» PP» 1 6 4 - 1 8 4 .

7 5 . 0p_. c i t . , pp. 2 8 - 3 4 .

7 6 . V. T a y l o r , The G o s p e l A c c o r d i n g t o Mark ( L o n d o n : Mac­m i l l a n , 1 9 6 6 ) , pp. 5 4 3 - 5 4 7 .

7 7 . 0£. c i t . , pp. 1 7 8 f f .

7 8 . 0p_. c i t . , p. 6 7 .

7 9 . E. G a u g l e r , Das Abendmahl im Neuen T e s t a m e n t ( B a s l e : M a j e r , 1 9 4 3 ) , p. 1 7 .

72

80. N. C l a r k , An Approach to the Theology of the S a c r a ­ments (London: SCM, 1956), p. 37f.

81. IM. Hook, The E u c h a r i s t i n the Neui Testament (London: The Epuiorth P r e s s , 1964) , p. 51.

82. Qp_. c i t . , p. 32.

83. A r t . c i t . , c o l . 13.

84. P. B e n o i t , "Le r e c i t de l a C^ne dans Lc. XXII, 15-20," RB 48 (1939) , p. 386.

85. Jeremias b e l i e v e s that t h i s s a y i n g , while not p a r t of the e a r l i e s t form of the Lord's Supper n a r r a t i v e (which f o r him i s to be found i n Mk.), i s "an e a r l y , s p e c i a l t r a d i t i o n which found a place only i n the Antiochene branch of the t r a d i t i o n " (op. c i t . , p. 238). His i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the s a y i n g as mean­ing "Do t h i s t h a t God may remember me" (op_. c i t . , pp. 2 4 4 f f . ) has not r e c e i v e d s c h o l a r l y consensus ( c f . K i l m a r t i n , op_. c i t . , p. 69).

86. Dix (op_. c i t . , p. 67f.) contends that i n s a y i n g "Do t h i s . . . " Jesus was not r e f e r r i n g to the breaking of the bread and the d r i n k i n g of the wine, because Jesus' d i s c i p l e s would continue to do t h i s anyway as p a r t of t h e i r haburah f e l l o w ­s h i p . What Jesus was a s k i n g , i n D i x 1 o p i n i o n , was f o r h i s d i s c i p l e s to remember him i n t h e i r f u t u r e f e l l o w s h i p meals.

87. Beare, op_. c i t . , p. 225.

88. 0p_. c i t . , p. 175f.

89. 0p_. c i t . , p. 142..

90. A r t . c i t . , p. 380.

91. M. D i b e l i u s , From T r a d i t i o n to Gospel (London: Ivor Nicholson and Watson, 1934), p. 210.

92. 0p_. c i t . , p. 61 .

93. 0p_. c i t . , pp. 160-164.

94. 0p_. c i t . , p. 42.

95. 0p_ c i t . , p. 40.

96. 0£ c i t . , I, passim.

97. 0p_. c i t . , I, pp. 42-45.

73

9 8 . J e r e m i a s , op_. c i t . , p p . 9 6 - 1 0 0 .

9 9 . The O r i g i n s o f t h e New T e s t a m e n t , p . 1 0 1 .

1 0 0 . 0p_. c i t . , p p . 6 5 f f .

1 0 1 . I n r e p l y t o M a c G r e g o r • s a r g u m e n t s , uie have a l r e a d y shown t h a t t h e s h o r t e r t e x t o f Luke i s s e c o n d a r y , and t h a t o r i g i n a l l y t h e p a r a l l e l p r e d i c a t e s were n o t body and b l o o d , b u t body and c o v e n a n t . See a b o v e , p p . p p . 1 8 f f . and 2 8 .

1 0 2 . A r t . c i t . , c o l s . 1 4 - 1 6 .

1 0 3 . See a b o v e , p . 2 0 .

10 4 . J e r e m i a s , op_. e x t . , p. 1 8 4 .

1 0 5 . The q u e s t i o n o f houi many c u p s were u s e d a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r i s o f c o u r s e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e L a s t S u p p e r was P a s s o v e r . I t w i l l be shown b e l o w t h a t t h e r e i s no d e c i s i v e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h i s was t h e c a s e .

1 0 6 . G. Bornkamm, J e s u s o f N a z a r e t h (New Y o r k : H a r p e r and Row, 1 9 6 6 ) , p. 161 .

1 0 7 . N. P e r r i n , R e d i s c o v e r i n g t h e T e a c h i n g o f J e s u s (New Y o r k : H a r p e r and Row, 1967) , p. 8 2 . I t a l i c s m i n e .

1 0 8 . I b i d . , p . 4 5 .

1 0 9 . T.W. Manson, The T e a c h i n g o f J e s u s ( C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r ­s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 5 ) , p. 1 0 f .

1 1 0 . 0p_. c i t . , p. 4 6 .

1 1 1 . H i s t o r y o f t h e S y n o p t i c T r a d i t i o n , p. 2 0 5 .

1 1 2 . 0p_. c i _ t . , p . 2 0 2 .

1 1 3 . E . g . , J e r e m i a s , op_. c i t . , p p . 5 9 f . , 2 2 2 f . ; H i g g i n s , o p . c i t . , p . 6 5 . M a c G r e g o r a r g u e s on t h e c o n t r a r y (p_p_. c i t . , p . 157) t h a t when P a u l s e e k s an O l d T e s t a m e n t t y p e t o t h e e u ­c h a r i s t , he f i n d s i t n o t i n t h e P a s s o v e r b u t i n t h e d i s t r i b u ­t i o n o f manna i n t h e d e s e r t , ( 1 Co. 1 0 : 3 ) .

1 1 4 . M a c G r e g o r , op_. c i t . , p. 3 9 .

1 1 5 . G.H. B o x , "The J e w i s h A n t e c e d e n t s o f t h e E u c h a r i s t , " JTS 3 ( 1 9 0 3 ) , p. 3 5 9 ; M a c G r e g o r , op_. c i t . , p. 4 1 .

1 1 6 . E. S c h w e i z e r , op_. c i t . , p . 3 0 f .

74

117. Bornkamm, op_. c i t . , p . 161.

118. D i b e l i u s , op_. c i t . , p . 191; Theo P r e i s s , L i f e i n C h r i s t ( L o n d o n : SCM, 1 9 5 4 ) , p . 82.

119. J e r e m i a s , op_. c i t . , pp. 6 3 f f . ; H i g g i n s , op_. c i t . , p.17.

120. J e r e m i a s , p . 6 9 f . ; H i g g i n s , l o c . c i t .

121. 0p_. c i t . , p . 46.

122. I b i d . , p. 4 7 .

123. J e r e m i a s , p . 6 6 f . ; H i g g i n s , p . 19.

124. J e r e m i a s , p . 7 1 f . ; H i g g i n s , p . 18.

125. H i g g i n s , p . 18; J e r e m i a s , p . 75; so Dalman, op_. c i t . , pp. 93-95.

126. Tos. Sanh. 11 :7 ( 4 3 2 : 1 ) , R. A k i b a . J e r e m i a s , p p - 7 8 f . ; H i g g i n s , l o c . c i t .

127. Shab. 6:4. J e r e m i a s , p . 7 5 f . ; H i g g i n s , l o c . c i t . ; Dalman, p . 9 6 f .

128. Shab. 151; Tos. Shab. 17:13. J e r e m i a s , p . 77; H i g g i n s , p . 19.

129. Kommentar zum IMeuen T e s t a m e n t I I ( M u n i c h : Oskar Beck, 1924) , pp. 847-853.

130. Das Abendmahl im IMeuen Testament ( B a s l e : M a j e r , 1943) .

131. J e s u s o f N a z a r e t h ( t r a n s . H. Danby, New Y o r k : M a c M i l l a n , 1925) , p . 328.

132. The E u c h a r i s t i c M e m o r i a l , II ( L o n d o n : L u t t e r w o r t h P r e s s , 196TT7 p . 5 1 f .

133. The M y s t e r y o f F a i t h (New Y ork: Sheed and Ward, 1 9 4 0 ) , p . 7 8 f .

134. The Date o f t h e L a s t Supper ( S t a t e n I s l a n d : A l b a House, 1 9 6 5 ) .

135. 0p_. c i t . , p . 30.

136. J e r e m i a s , p . 4 2 f .

137. I b i d . , pp, . 4 4 f f .; H i g g i n s , p . 20.

75

138. Jeremias, p. 48f.; H i g g i n s , l o c . c i t .

139. Jeremias, pp. 5 0 f f . ; H i g g i n s , p. 21.

140. Jeremias, p. 49f.

141. I b i d . , p. 54f.; H i g g i n s , l o c . c i t .

142. Jeremias, p. 55; H i g g i n s , l o c . c i t .

143. Jeremias, pp. 5 5 f f . ; H i g g i n s , l o c . c i t .

144. 0p_. c i t . , p. 47f. Higgins c i t e s R. Joshua ben Hananiah's exegesis of Ex. 12:42 ( c . A.D. 90; M e k h i l t a Ex. 12: 42) i n which the d e l i v e r a n c e from Egypt was i n t e r p r e t e d as the p r e f i g u r a t i o n of an even g r e a t e r redemption to come.

145. Ibid;., p. 50.

146. Biggins, p_p_. c i t . , pp. 28-34.

147. I b i d . , p. 52.

148. I b i d . , p. 50f.

149. I b i d . , p. 52.

150. I b i d . , p. 53.

151. I b i d . , p. 55.

152. 0p_. c i t . , pp. 2 2 1 f f .

153. I b i d . , pp. 2 2 6 f f .

154. I b i d . , p. 231.

155. I b i d . , p. 233.

156. I b i d . , p. 237.

157. I b i d . , pp. 238, 2 4 4 f f . See above, n. 85.

158. I b i d . , p. 66.

159. 0p_. c i t . , p. 42.

160. "The Study of the O r i g i n s of the E u c h a r i s t , " i n G.D. Cuming, ed., Studi e s i n Church H i s t o r y , II (London: Nelson, 1965), p. 6 f .

7 6

161. S t r a c k - B i l l e r b e c k , op_. c i t . , I I , pp. 846-8.

162. Dugmore, a r t , c i t . , p . 5.

163. The Date o f the L a s t S u p p e r , t r a n s . I . R a f f e r t y ( S t a t e n I s l a n d : A l b a House, 1965) .

164. I b i d . , pp. 15-66.

165. I b i d . , p p . 69-91.

166. I b i d . , p p. 95-121 .

167. JTS 10 ( 1 9 5 9 ) , pp. 131-133.

168. RB 64 ( 1 9 5 8 ) , pp. 590-594.

169. NovT 3 ( 1 9 5 9 ) , pp. 149-160.

170. 0p_. c i t M pp. 3 1 f f .

171 . J e s u s and H i s S a c r i f i c e ( L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n and Co., 19 5 5 ) , pp. 180-183.

172. 0p_. c i t . , p . 44.

173. E . S c h w e i z e r , The L o r d 1 s Supper a c c o r d i n g to the New T e s t a m e n t , p . 3 1 f . ; L. B o u y e r , E u c h a r i s t ( t r a n s . C.U. Q u i n n , N o t r e Dame: U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e Dame P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 ) , p . 9 9 .

174. Bornkamm, op_. c i t . , p . 162.

175. A r t . c i t . . pp. 357-369.

176. UI.0.E. O e s t e r l y , The J e w i s h B a c k g r o u n d o f t h e C h r i s ­t i a n L i t u r g y ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 2 5 ) , pp. 1 6 7 f f .

177. 0p_. c i t . , pp. 4 4 f f . ; p . 2 2 0 f .

178. The Anaphora ( L o n d o n : S.P.C.K., 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 7 f .

179. 0p_. c _ i t . , p . 47.

180. 0p_. c i t . , pp. I 8 4 f f .

181. N. C l a r k , OJD. c i t . , p . 44; H i g g i n s , op_. c i t . , p . 15;

J e r e m i i s , op_. c i t . , p . 2 9 .

182. J e r e m i a s , OJD. c i t . , p . 2 7 f .

77

183. Op_. c i t . , p . 181 .

184. Op_. c i t . , p . I 3 5 f .

185. The E a r l y E u c h a r i s t ( L o n d o n : S.P.C.K., 1 9 3 9 ) , pp. I 5 f . , 44, 156.

186. H o l y Communion and H o l y S p i r i t ( L o n d o n : S.P.C.K., 1951) , pp. 9 f f .

187. 0p_. c i t . , pp. 5 0 f f .

188. 0p_. c i t . , p . 30.

189. N. C l a r k , op. c i t . , p . 47; Dugmore, a r t . c i t . , p . 9.

190. J e r e m i a s , p . 30; H i g g i n s , p . 1 5 f .

191. "The L a s t S u p p e r , " ET 64 ( 1 9 5 2 - 1 9 5 3 ) , pp. 4-8. How­e v e r , C.F.D. Moule, Worship i n t h e (Mew T e s t a m e n t ( L o n d o n : L u t ­t e r w o r t h , 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 23, s t a t e s "one would need e x t r e m e l y c o n ­v i n c i n g e v i d e n c e t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e s t o r y has n o t been worked o v e r by some C h r i s t i a n hand, o r composed by someone a t l e a s t a c q u a i n t e d w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y . "

192. A r t . cit., p. 7.

193. 0p_. c i t . , p . 1 0 2 f .

194. I b i d . , p . 104.

195. I b i d . , p . 1 0 4 f .

196. I b i d . , p . 1 0 5 f .

197. I b i d . , p . 106.

198. I b i d . , p . 108.

199. I b i d . , p . 107.

200. "The L o r d ' s Supper and t h e Communal Meal a t Qumran," i n K. S t e n d a h l , e d . , The S c r o l l s and t h e New T e s t a m e n t (New Yo r k : H a r p e r , 1 9 5 7 ) , pp. 65-93.

201. The Quest o f t h e H i s t o r i c a l J e s u s (New Y o r k : mac­millan , 19647, pp. 377, 3 7 9 f .

78

202. Mark ( P e l i c a n G o s p e l C ommentaries, 1 9 6 3 ) , p. 178.

2 0 3 . 0p_. c i t . , p. 127.

204. R.E. Brown, "The P a t e r N o s t e r as an E s c h a t o l o g i c a l P r a y e r , " i n New T e stament E s s a y s (New Y ork: D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 6 8 ) , pp. 3 0 3 f f . ; c f . A. S c w e i t z e r , The M y s t i c i s m o f P a u l t h e A p o s t l e (New Y o r k : S e a b u r y , 1 9 6 8 ) , p. 240.

205. 0p_. c i t . , p. 160.

206. K i l m a r t i n , op_. c i t . , p. 37.

207. S c h w e i z e r , a r t , c i t . , c o l . 14.

208. J . J e r e m i a s , The P a r a b l e s o f J e s u s ( L o n d o n : SCM, 1963), p. 2 2 7 f .

2 0 9 . N. Hook, gp_. c i t . , p. 64. T h i s i s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f J . B o n s i r v e n , T h e o l o g y o f t h e New T e s t a m e n t ( L o n d o n : Burns and O a t e s , 1 9 6 3 ) , p. 81.

2 1 0 . S c h w e i z e r , op_. c i t . , p. 14.

211. H i g g i n s , op_. c i t . , p. 51.

212. A. S c h w e i t z e r , The Kingdom o f God and P r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y ( L o n d o n : Adam, C h a r l e s , and B l a c k , 1 9 6 8 ) , pp. 1 2 2 f f .

213. 0p_. c i t . , II, pp. 9 5 f f .

214. 0p_. c i t . , pp. 1 3 1 f f .

215. A. S c h w e i t z e r , The Kingdom o f God and P r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y , p. 127.

216. 0p_. c i t . , p. 329.

217. H. Schuermann, " J e s u s ' Words i n t h e L i g h t o f h i s A c t i o n s a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r , " C o n c i l i u m 40 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , p. 125; and "Das W e i t e r l e b e n d e r Sache J e s u im n a c h o e s t e r l i c h e n H e r r e n -mahl," BZ 16:1 ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 6.

218. H. Schuermann, a r t . c i t . ( C o n c i l i u m 4 0 ) , p. 130; c f . E . K i l m a r t i n , "The L a s t Supper and E a r l i e s t E u c h a r i s t s o f the C h u r c h , " C o n c i l i u m 40 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , p. 4 1 . Norman A. Beck, "The L a s t Supper as an e f f i c a c i o u s s y m b o l i c a c t , " JBL 89:2 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , pp. 192-198, s p e a k s i n s i m i l a r terms a b o u t J e s u s * s a y i n g o v e r the b r e a d . He r e j e c t s , however, the a u t h e n t i c i t y o f the cup s a y i n g , on a c c o u n t o f the d i f f i c u l t y o f e n v i s a g i n g G a l i l e a n

7 9

Jews d r i n k i n g wine t h a t had been l a b e l e d as b l o o d , the r e f e ­r e n c e s t o " b r e a k i n g o f b r e a d " i n A c t s , " t h e d i s t i n c t i v e l y t h e o l o g i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e cup f o r m u l a compared t o t h e s i m p l i ­c i t y o f t h e words o v e r t h e b r e a d , " and f i n a l l y on a c c o u n t o f the d i f f i c u l t i e s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e l o n g e r t e x t o f Luke ( p . 1 9 6 ) . Our a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e s e o b j e c t i o n s w i l l be o b v i o u s from what has p r e c e d e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r .

219. IV!. T h u r i a n , op_. c i t . , p . 68.

$0

CHAPTER I I

P R I M I T I V E EUCHARISTIC TYPES AND THEIR ASSIMILATION INTO THE SACRIFICIAL-SACRAMENTAL TYPE

The r e a r e i n t h e Neui T e s t a m e n t o n l y tuio d o c u m e n t s i n

u i h i c h uie f i n d an e x p l i c i t d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c u l t i c

m e a l , t h e A c t s o f t h e A p o s t l e s and P a u l ' s f i r s t l e t t e r t o t h e

C o r i n t h i a n s . We have i n a d d i t i o n numerous t e x t s u i h i c h may

c o n t a i n a l l u s i o n s t o t h e e u c h a r i s t i c p r a c t i c e and f a i t h o f

e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y . Such t e x t s i n c l u d e t h e L a s t S u p p e r n a r ­

r a t i v e s , t h e F e e d i n g o f t h e M u l t i t u d e n a r r a t i v e s , t h e R e s u r ­

r e c t i o n - m e a l s t o r i e s i n Luke 24 and J o h n 2 1 , and t h e d e s c r i p ­

t i o n o f t h e H e a v e n l y L i t u r g y i n t h e A p o c a l y p s e . Our t a s k a t

t h i s p o i n t i s t o c o n s t r u c t f r o m t h i s v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s some

s o r t o f c o h e r e n t p i c t u r e o f t h e C h r i s t i a n t a b l e f e l l o w s h i p i n

i t s e a r l i e s t s t a g e s . We s h a l l t h e n be p r e p a r e d t o d i s c u s s t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b etween t h i s e a r l y f e l l o w s h i p and t h a t t y p e o f

c e l e b r a t i o n u i h i c h one n o r m a l l y a s s o c i a t e s w i t h t h e word " e u ­

c h a r i s t . " The l a t t e r , s t a n d a r d f r o m a t l e a s t t h e end o f t h e

s e c o n d c e n t u r y o n , c o n s i s t s o f a s a c r a m e n t a l l i t u r g y w h i c h i s

r e g a r d e d as b e i n g i n some s e n s e a s a c r i f i c e , and i n w h i c h t h e

e l e m e n t s o f b r e a d and w i n e a r e b e l i e v e d t o be i n some s e n s e

c o n v e r t e d i n t o t h e body and b l o o d o f C h r i s t .

81

The " B r e a k i n g o f B r e a d "

Two t e x t s f r o m t h e book o f A c t s f u r n i s h us w i t h b r i e f ,

a l l u s i v e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e c u l t i c meal i n t h e e a r l i e s t

p e r i o d o f C h r i s t i a n i t y :

A c t s 2:42. And t h e y d e v o t e d t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e a p o s t l e s ' t e a c h i n g and f e l l o w s h i p , t o t h e b r e a k i n g o f b r e a d and t h e p r a y e r s .

A c t s 2 : 4 6 f . And day by d a y , a t t e n d i n g t h e t e m p l e t o g e t h e r and b r e a k i n g b r e a d i n t h e i r homes, t h e y p a r t o o k o f f o o d w i t h g l a d and g e n e r o u s h e a r t s , p r a i s i n g God and h a v i n g f a v o u r w i t h a l l t h e p e o p l e .

The s e t t i n g f o r t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s i s t h e e a r l y J e r u s a l e m com­

m u n i t y o f J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s , and t h e r e i s a g e n e r a l s c h o l a r l y

c o n s e n s u s t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n p r e s e r v e d h e r e by t h e a u t h o r o f

A c t s i s r e l i a b l e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e "we" s o u r c e o f A c t s d e s ­

c r i b e s two i n c i d e n t s where P a u l b r e a k s b r e a d , a t T r o a s ( A c t s

2 0:7-12) and on t h e s h i p t o Rome ( A c t s 2 7 : 3 3 - 3 6 ) . But f o r t h e

p r e s e n t we a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e e u c h a r i s t i c m e al i n i t s

e a r l i e s t s t a g e .

What s t r i k e s us i m m e d i a t e l y i s t h e p r i m a f a c i e d i f f e r e n c e

b etween t h e s e e a r l y e u c h a r i s t s d e s c r i b e d i n A c t s 2 on t h e one

h a n d , and t h e L a s t S u p p e r and t h e e u c h a r i s t d e s c r i b e d i n 1 Co­

r i n t h i a n s on t h e o t h e r . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e i s no m e n t i o n o f

t h e c u p , w h i c h i s s o c e n t r a l t o b o t h t h e L a s t S u p p e r and P a u l ' s

e u c h a r i s t , and t h e r e i s n o t h i n g w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e was

any c o n n e c t i o n made between t h e s e e a r l y c u l t i c m e a l s and t h e

d e a t h o f C h r i s t .

82

I t i s p o s s i b l e , o f c o u r s e , t h a t t h e t e r m " b r e a k i n g o f

b r e a d " i s s i m p l y a p a r s p r o t o t o f o r t h e t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t i c

c e l e b r a t i o n d e s c r i b e d by P a u l . T h i s mould seem t o be t h e

most p l a u s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f o r t h o s e who h o l d t o t h e a u t h e n ­

t i c i t y o f t h e command t o r e p e a t and b e l i e v e t h a t t h e e a r l i e s t

e u c h a r i s t s a r e i n d i r e c t l i n e a r d e s c e n t f r o m t h e L a s t S u p p e r .

T h i s v i e u i i s f o r t i f i e d by t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h e tuio p a s s a g e s i n

A c t s where P a u l " b r e a k s b r e a d " t h e r e i s no m e n t i o n o f t h e cup

o r o f t h e d e a t h o f C h r i s t . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , we have s e e n i n

t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r t h a t t h e e a r l i e s t c u l t i c m e a l s i n t h e

c h u r c h were an o u t g r o w t h o f J e s u s 1 t a b l e f e l l o w s h i p w i t h t h e

p u b l i c a n s , s i n n e r s , and h i s d i s c i p l e s , and t h a t t h e r e i s no

r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t J e s u s e x p e c t e d h i s f o l l o w e r s t o r e p e a t

t h e p r o c e d u r e o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r .

A number o f a u t h o r i t i e s , n o t a b l y L i e t z m a n n , have a r g u e d

t h a t m a t e r i a l s f r o m a much l a t e r p e r i o d c a n t h r o w l i g h t on

t h i s q u e s t i o n o f t h e p r i m i t i v e " b r e a k i n g o f b r e a d . " L i e t z -

mann's method i s t o work b a c k w a r d f r o m t h e d e v e l o p e d l i t u r g i e s

o f t h e p a t r i s t i c p e r i o d . He t r a c e s t h e W e s t e r n l i t u r g i e s back

t o t h e a n a p h o r a o f H i p p o l y t u s , i n w h i c h t h e r e i s an e m p h a s i s

on r e d e m p t i o n and a m e m o r i a l o f J e s u s ' s a c r i f i c e , and i n w h i c h

t h e words o f i n s t i t u t i o n a p p e a r q u i t e n a t u r a l l y . The E a s t e r n

l i t u r g i e s , h o w e v e r , he shows t o be r e a r r a n g e m e n t s o r r e v i s i o n s

o f t h e A p o s t o l i c C o n s t i t u t i o n s , w h i c h , i n t u r n , s h a r e s a b a s i c

s t r u c t u r e w i t h t h e E g y p t i a n r i t e o f S e r a p i o n . The p r i m i t i v e

83

E g y p t i a n r i t e , when d i s e n g a g e d f r o m t h e l a t e r e l a b o r a t i o n s

i n t h e e u c h o l o g y o f S e r a p i o n , e x h i b i t s an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l em­

p h a s i s and l a c k s b o t h t h e words o f i n s t i t u t i o n and t h e e l e m e n t

o f a n a m n e s i s . I t i s t h u s r e l a t e d t o t h e t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t i c

p r a y e r f o u n d i n t h e D i d a c h e . The D i d a c h e , i t w i l l be remem­

b e r e d , p l a c e s t h e cup b e f o r e t h e b r e a d , i n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n

t o b o t h t h e P a u l i n e and H i p p o l y t o - R o m a n p r a c t i c e . " T h u s , "

c o n c l u d e s L i e t z m a n n , "we have h e r e a t y p e o f t h e L o r d ' s S u p p e r

w i t h no r e f e r e n c e t o t h e t r a d i t i o n e x t a n t i n Mark and P a u l . " 2

I n t h e D i d a c h e , t h e p r a y e r s o v e r t h e b r e a d a r e c e n t r a l .

The cup p o r t i o n o f t h e c e l e b r a t i o n a p p e a r s t o have been added

w i t h o u t y e t b e i n g t h o r o u g h l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e l i t u r g y .

T h i s i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e l i t u r g i c a l t r a d i t i o n a n t e c e ­

d e n t t o t h e D i d a c h e may have c o n s i s t e d o f a c e l e b r a t i o n w i t h

b r e a d o n l y . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l p a s s a g e s i n t h e a p o ­

c r y p h a l w r i t i n g s w h i c h d e s c r i b e e u c h a r i s t s w i t h o n l y one e l e ­

ment, b r e a d ( A c t s o f Thomas 2 9 ; 3 7 ; 4 9 f . ; A c t s o f J o h n 85;

A c t s o f P e t e r , V e r c e l l i e MS, 5; a l s o C l e m . Horn. 1 4 ) . 4 W h i l e

t h e s e s e c o n d and t h i r d c e n t u r y a c c o u n t s a r e l e g e n d a r y , t h e y

may be a c c e p t e d as w i t n e s s e s t o t h e p o p u l a r p r a c t i c e o f t h e i r

t i m e i n a t l e a s t some C h r i s t i a n c i r c l e s . B e i n g c o n t r a r y t o

t h e o f f i c i a l p r a c t i c e o f o r t h o d o x , G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e y

may be r e g a r d e d a s "a r e a l d e p o s i t o f v e r y a n c i e n t t r a d i t i o n s

whose t e s t i m o n y h o l d s up w e l l . " 5

We must, t h e r e f o r e , i n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i m p o r t o f t h e

" b r e a k i n g o f b r e a d " i n A c t s 2, b e a r i n mind two i m p o r t a n t

84

f a c t s : on t h e one hand t h e r e i s no p o s i t i v e e v i d e n c e w h a t ­

e v e r t h a t t h i s c e l e b r a t i o n uias a m e m o r i a l o f J e s u s ' d e a t h ,

o r made use o f t h e c u p , and on t h e o t h e r hand t h e r e i s a

l a t e r tradition o f e u c h a r i s t i c m e a l s c e l e b r a t e d s u b una

s p e c i e , w i t h o u t e i t h e r words o f i n s t i t u t i o n o r a n a m n e s i s .

These two f a c t s w o u l d seem t o i m p l y t h e e x i s t e n c e o f

a t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t i c m e al q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t d e s ­

c r i b e d by P a u l i n 1 C o r i n t h i a n s , a t y p e w h i c h was u s e d by

t h e e a r l i e s t J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s and w h i c h s u r v i v e d f o r some

t i m e , e s p e c i a l l y i n E g y p t , an a r e a n o t p r o s e l y t i s e d by P a u l .

The word " t y p e , " when u s e d i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e e a r l y e u c h a ­

r i s t , s h o u l d n o t be c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e word " r i t e . " The

l a t t e r s u g g e s t s s i m p l y a l i t u r g i c a l v a r i a n t o f a s p e c i f i c

e u c h a r i s t i c p a t t e r n , w h i l e " t y p e " i s u s e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h

b e tween c u l t i c m e a l s w h i c h d i f f e r i n f u n d a m e n t a l ^ s t r u c t u r e

and t h e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e .

What were t h e e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s f i r s t

t y p e ? To b e g i n w i t h , we c a n be c e r t a i n t h a t t h e c e l e b r a t i o n

i n c l u d e d t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f an a c t u a l m e al ( c f . " f o o d , " A c t s

2:46). A t t h e same t i m e , t h e r e c a n be l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t t h e

r i t e o f b r e a k i n g b r e a d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e meal a c q u i r e d

a s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e , and was r e g a r d e d as t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f

t h e c u l t i c m e a l . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n c a n be d e d u c e d f r o m t h r e e

f a c t s : f i r s t , t h e e x p r e s s i o n " b r e a k i n g o f b r e a d " was n e v e r

u s e d i n J e w i s h s o u r c e s b e f o r e t h e New T e s t a m e n t t o d e n o t e a

w h o l e m e a l ; u s e c o n d , i n t h e l a t e r e v o l u t i o n o f t h i s t y p e

85

( a s a t t e s t e d i n t h e a p o c h r y p h a l a c t s ) t h e r i t e c o n s i s t e d o f

a b r e a d e u c h a r i s t a l o n e , w i t h o u t t h e m e a l ; and f i n a l l y , t h e

e a r l y C h r i s t i a n a n a p h o r a s c a n be c o n s i d e r e d a d e v e l o p m e n t o f 7

t h e p r a y e r o f t h a n k s g i v i n g o v e r t h e b r e a d . S i n c e t h i s f i r s t

t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t d e v e l o p e d o u t o f J e s u s ' r e g u l a r t a b l e -

f e l l o u i s h i p ( c o n s i s t i n g o f o r d i n a r y m e a l s ) , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e

t o s a y a t what e x a c t p o i n t t h e e l e m e n t o f b r e a d a c q u i r e d t h i s

s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . I n any c a s e , i t was q u i t e e a r l y , and

may have i n p a r t been due t o J e s u s ' own d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e

b r e a d o f t h e t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p a s t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b r e a d o f

th e K i n g d o m .

As i n t h e p r a y e r s o f t h e D i d a c h e , t h e d o m i n a n t mood i n

t h i s e a r l y b r e a k i n g o f b r e a d was one o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l j o y .

T h i s c a n be d i s c e r n e d f r o m A c t s 2:46, " b r e a k i n g b r e a d a t home,

t h e y t o o k t h e i r f o o d w i t h r e j o i c i n g " (cv otycOi^ldCtCi ) . The

word oiyaTCWaens d e n o t e d t h e j o y e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e h o p e f u l

e x p e c t a t i o n o f t h e r e t u r n o f t h e L o r d and t h e c o m i n g o f t h e

Kin g d o m :

1 P e t . 4:13. . . . t h a t you may a l s o r e j o i c e w i t h e x c e e d i n g j o y (ffiPtyZC l&tfa>SsSl&jiL£\>o-v ) when h i s g l o r y i s r e v e a l e d .

J u d e 2 4 . ... b e f o r e y t h e p r e s e n c e o f h i s g l o r y w i t h r e j o i c i n g (Iv hyc%S>iXOt(X£.X ).

A p o c . 1 9 : 7 . L e t us be g l a d and r e j o i c e (<iyptWi£)U£y()c and g i v e h o n o u r t o h i m , f o r t h e m a r r i a g e o f t h e lamb i s come.

8 6

The same c o n c e p t i o n i s f o u n d i n t h e A r a m a i c l i t u r g i c a l f o r ­

mula marana' t h a 1 ("Our L o r d c o r n e l " ) , w h i c h i s p r e s e r v e d i n

1 Co. 16:22 and D i d a c h e 1 0 : 6 , and i n Greek t r a n s l a t i o n i n

A p o c . 2 2 : 2 0 .

I t i s s o m e t i m e s s t a t e d t h a t t h e s e e a r l i e s t e u c h a r i s t s

were c o n s i d e r e d by t h e i r p a r t i c i p a n t s a s m e a l s w i t h t h e

r i s e n C h r i s t . T h i s t h e o r y i s a t t r a c t i v e , f o r i t w o u l d p r o ­

v i d e a l i n k b e t w e e n t h e t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p o f J e s u s and t h e

l a t e r n o t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f C h r i s t i n t h e e l e m e n t s . Un­

f o r t u n a t e l y , h o w e v e r , t h e r e i s a b s o l u t e l y no e v i d e n c e t h a t

t h e p a s s a g e s a d d u c e d as e v i d e n c e f o r t h i s t h e s i s b e l o n g t b a

t h e e a r l i e r s t r a t a o f t h e t r a d i t i o n . As Dodd h a s p o i n t e d

o u t , t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n - m e a l s t o r i e s i n Luke 24 have a l l t h e q

a p p e a r a n c e o f a h i g h l y - p o l i s h e d l i t e r a r y c o m p o s i t i o n . The

e a r l i e s t s t a t e m e n t o f t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e s (1 Co. 1 5 :

5-8) "makes no m e n t i o n o f a n y t h i n g l i k e t h i s s t o r y and has no

p l a c e f o r i t , " 1 0 and Mark and M a t t h e w know n o t h i n g o f r e s u r ­

r e c t i o n - m e a l s . S i m i l a r o b j e c t i o n s w e i g h a g a i n s t an e a r l y

d a t e f o r t h e r e l e v a n t p h r a s e i n A c t s 10:41 ("to us . . . who

a t e and d r a n k w i t h h i m a f t e r he r o s e f r o m t h e d e a d " ) . P a r t

o f a s o p h i s t i c a t e d and s t y l i s e d s p e e c h a t t r i b u t e d t o P e t e r ,

t h i s p h r a s e may e v e n have an a n t i - d o c e t i c i n t e n t . J o h n 2 1 ,

w h i c h c o n t a i n s a r e s u r r e c t i o n - m e a l s t o r y , i s r e g a r d e d by most

a u t h o r i t i e s a s an a p p e n d i x t o t h e o r i g i n a l g o s p e l , and i s

l a t e t o s a y t h e l e a s t . The o t h e r p e r t i n e n t t e x t , A p o c . 3:20

( " I f anyone h e a r s my v o i c e and o p e n s t h e d o o r , I w i l l come i n

87

t o him and e a t w i t h h i m , and he w i t h me") i s l i k e w i s e t o o

l a t e t o be a p p l i e d t o t h e e a r l i e s t e u c h a r i s t i c m e a l s .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e s e t e x t s do p o i n t t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f t h e e u c h a r i s t q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t f o u n d i n 1 C o r i n ­

t h i a n s . T h i s l e a d s us t o c o n s i d e r a n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y : t h a t

t h e r e was a t h i r d " t y p e " o f e u c h a r i s t , r e l a t e d t o and g r o w i n g

o u t o f t h e " b r e a k i n g o f b r e a d , " b u t i n w h i c h t h e d o m i n a n t

c o n c e p t i o n was t h a t o f s h a r i n g a meal w i t h t h e r e s u r r e c t e d

C h r i s t . T h e r e i s e v i d e n c e t h a t t h i s m e a l u s u a l l y c o n s i s t e d 11

o f b r e a d and f i s h , and t h a t t h o s e who c e l e b r a t e d . i t l o o k e d

back t o t h e f e e d i n g o f t h e m u l t i t u d e a s t h e moment o f i t s

" i n s t i t u t i o n . "

The b a s i s o f o u r a r g u m e n t i s t h e l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d a x i o m

o f g o s p e l c r i t i c i s m t h a t e a c h e v a n g e l i c a l p e r i c o p e has a p a r ­

t i c u l a r e c c l e s i a s t i c a l S i t z im L e b e n . As r e c e n t T r a d i t i o n s -

q e s c h i c h t e s t u d i e s have shown, s u c h a S i t z im Leben n e e d n o t

n e c e s s a r i l y be t h a t o f t h e c o m p i l e r o f an i n d i v i d u a l g o s p e l ,

b u t may b e l o n g i n t h e o r a l o r w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n a n t e c e d e n t t o

t h e c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h a t g o s p e l . I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e l i t u r g y

o f a c e r t a i n c o mmunity m i g h t i t s e l f have been t h e l i f e - s i t u a ­

t i o n f o r some p a s s a g e s . I f t h i s i s t r u e , i t s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e

t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e o u t l i n e s o f t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e s e c o m m u n i t i e s

t h r o u g h a f o r m - c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e l e v a n t t e x t s .

D.IYl. S t a n l e y has shown t h a t t h e r e a r e f o u r d i f f e r e n t t y p e s

o f l i t u r g i c a l i n f l u e n c e on t h e g o s p e l n a r r a t i v e s :

88

1. The p r a c t i c e o f l i t u r g i c a l r e c i t a l , e v i d e n t i n t h e

p a s s i o n n a r r a t i v e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n John.'* -

2. The i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f l i t u r g i c a l f o r m u l a e i n t o t h e

g o s p e l n a r r a t i v e s . An o b v i o u s i n s t a n c e i s Mt. 2 8 : 1 9 , "Go,

t h e r e f o r e , and make d i s c i p l e s o f a l l n a t i o n s , b a p t i z i n g them

i n t h e name o f t h e F a t h e r and o f t h e Son and o f t h e H o l y 1 3

S p i r i t . " Uie h ave e n c o u n t e r e d t h e same phenomenon i n o u r

s t u d y o f a l l f o u r ^ i n s t i t u t i o n n a r r a t i v e s .

3. The e f f e c t o f c u l t i c o b s e r v a n c e s on t h e u i r i t i n g - u p

o f c e r t a i n e p i s o d e s . S t a n l e y f e e l s t h a t he c a n d e t e c t r e ­

f l e c t i o n s o f l i t u r g i c a l p r a c t i c e i n a number o f s t o r i e s a b o u t

J e s u s . F o r e x a m p l e , two h e a l i n g a c c o u n t s , Mk. 7:31-37 ( c u r e

o f a d e a f man) and Mk. 8:22-26 ( c u r e o f a b l i n d man), seem t o

e x h i b i t a c e r t a i n r i t u a l p a t t e r n . I n b o t h c a s e s J e s u s a p p l i e s

h i s hand and some o f h i s own s a l i v a t o t h e p a t i e n t , and i n t h e

f i r s t c a s e he u t t e r s t h e f o r m u l a " E p h p h a t h a . " 1 A

4. The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e I s r a e l i t e l i t u r g i c a l c y c l e . I n

t h e a c c o u n t s o f J e s u s ' t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n t h e r e a p p e a r t o be r e ­

f e r e n c e s t o t h e F e a s t o f T a b e r n a c l e s , and t h e r e i s some i n d i ­

c a t i o n t h a t t h e w h o l e f r a m e w o r k o f t h e f o u r t h g o s p e l i s s t r u c -1 5

t u r e d a r o u n d t h e I s r a e l i t e f e a s t c y c l e .

I f t h e r e were i n f a c t e a r l y C h r i s t i a n e u c h a r i s t s a t w h i c h

b r e a d and f i s h were consumed, t h e n t h e t r a c e s l e f t i n t h e g o s ­

p e l s w o u l d be o f t h e s e c o n d and t h i r d t y p e s s u g g e s t e d by

S t a n l e y . I t may be t h a t t h e c o n j u n c t i o n o f b r e a d and f i s h i n

M a t t h e w 7 : 9 f . i s an e x a m p l e o f s u c h a t r a c e :

89

Or what man, i f h i s s o n a s k s h i m f o r b r e a d , m i l l g i v e him a s t o n e ? Or i f he a s k s f o r a f i s h w i l l g i v e h i m a s e r p e n t ?

T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e t e x t w o u l d be e v e n more p l a u s i b l e i f

t h e o r i g i n a l f o r m o f t h e s a y i n g i n c l u d e d o n l y a r e f e r e n c e t o

t h e f i s h and s e r p e n t . T h a t s u c h was t h e c a s e i s s u g g e s t e d by

t h e f a c t t h a t o n l y t h e " f i s h " s a y i n g a p p e a r s i n b o t h M a t t h e w

and i n t h e a c c e p t e d r e a d i n g o f t h e L u c a n p a r a l l e l ( 1 1 : 1 0 f . ) ,

and t h a t m o r e o v e r i n t h i s l a t t e r t e x t i t i s t h e " f i s h " s a y i n g

w h i c h p r e c e d e s t h e s a y i n g w h i c h m e n t i o n s an e g g . Thus i f t h e

o r i g i n a l l o g i o n r e f e r r e d o n l y t o t h e f i s h , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f

t h e " b r e a d " s a y i n g i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e i t c o u l d be e x p l a i n e d by

t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a l i t u r g i c a l r i t e i n w h i c h b r e a d and f i s h

were consumed ( i n t h a t o r d e r ) .

Of g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e f o r o u r a r g u m e n t a r e t h e a c c o u n t s

o f t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f t h e l o a v e s and f i s h e s ( t w o e a c h i n

Mark and M a t t h e w , one e a c h i n Luke and J o h n ) . The s t r i k i n g

f e a t u r e o f t h e s e n a r r a t i v e s i s t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y t o t h e s y n o p ­

t i c a c c o u n t s o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r ( s e e A p p e n d i x ) . The same

r i t u a l p a t t e r n a p p e a r s t h r o u g h o u t : J e s u s t a k e s (^tf/*0*x\fiO) t h e

b r e a d , s a y s a b l e s s i n g o v e r i t (Mk. 6 : 4 l f . , Mt. I 4 : 1 9 f . , L k . 9:

1 6 f . , Mk. I 4 : 2 2 f . , Mt. 2 6 : 2 6 f .: £1/A0|*&» ; Mk. 8 : 6 f f . , Mt. 1 5 :

3 6 f . , J n . 6 : 1 1 f . , Lk. 2 2 : 1 9 f . , 1 Co. 11 : 2 3 f . : ev\^pl<rz£09 ), b r e a k s i t , and d i s t r i b u t e s i t . I n Mk. 6 : 4 1 f . , Mk. 8 : 6 f f . ,

J n . 6 : 1 1 f . , Mk. I 4 : 2 2 f . , Mt. 2 6 : 2 6 f . , Lk 2 2 : l 9 f . , and 1 Co. 1 1 :

2 3 f . i t i s s p e c i f i e d t h a t J e s u s a l s o b l e s s e s and d i s t r i b u t e s

t h e s e c o n d e l e m e n t — f i s h o r w i n e .

90

We have a l r e a d y n o t e d i n o u r e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e L a s t

S u p p e r t r a d i t i o n t h a t t h i s s o r t o f l a n g u a g e i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

o f l i t u r g i c a l f o r m u l a e . How t h e n i s i t s p r e s e n c e i n t h e

m u l t i p l i c a t i o n n a r r a t i v e s t o be a c c o u n t e d f o r ? The a c c e p t e d

v i e w i s s t a t e d by R. Brown: "The most p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n

i s t h a t t h e w o r d i n g o f t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n a c c o u n t s i s c o l o u r e d

by t h e e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g i e s f a m i l i a r t o t h e v a r i o u s communi­

t i e s . " 1 6

T h i s v i e w p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t t h e e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g i e s

were o f t h e f a m i l i a r b r e a d and w i n e t y p e , and t h a t t h e r e f o r e

o n l y t h e L a s t S u p p e r t r a d i t i o n s c o u l d r e v e a l t h e a c t u a l l i t u r ­

g i c a l p r a c t i c e o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s i n w h i c h t h e s e s t o r i e s were

p a s s e d down. The r e a s o n i n g i s q u i t e s i m p l e : i n t h e h i s t o r y o f

t h e t r a d i t i o n , t h e L a s t S u p p e r n a r r a t i v e s i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e

l i t u r g i c a l f o r m u l a e o f t h e w o r s h i p p i n g c o m m u n i t y , and a t t h e

same t i m e t h e s e f o r m u l a e c o l o u r e d t h e s t o r i e s o f t h e m u l t i p l i ­

c a t i o n o f l o a v e s and f i s h e s .

H o wever, i t h a s a l r e a d y been e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e b r e a d

and w i n e t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t was n o t u n i v e r s a l . T h i s t h e r e f o r e

u n d e r m i n e s t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n o f t h o s e who b e l i e v e t h a t t h e

s e e m i n g l y l i t u r g i c a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n n a r r a t i v e s

must have been drawn f r o m a " L a s t S u p p e r " t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t i c

c e l e b r a t i o n . I t must be s t r e s s e d : t h e r e i s no more r e a s o n t o

s u p p o s e t h a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r n a r r a t i v e s have i n f l u e n c e d t h e

c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e M u l t i p l i c a t i o n n a r r a t i v e s t h a n v i c e v e r s a .

More p r e c i s e l y , t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h a t e a c h s t o r y has

i t s own l i t u r g i c a l S i t z im L e b e n .

91

I t i s p o s s i b l e , t h e n , t h a t t h e s t o r i e s o f t h e meal o f

b r e a d and f i s h e s a l s o r e f l e c t t h e a c t u a l w o r h s i p o f c e r t a i n

C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s . The f a c t t h a t t h e s y n o p t i c t r a d i t i o n

r e p o r t s t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n s t o r y i n v t w o v a r i a n t j r e d a c t i o n s —

t h e f e e d i n g o f t h e f i v e t h o u s a n d and t h e f e e d i n g o f t h e f o u r

t h o u s a n d - - a t t e s t s t o i t s i m p o r t a n c e i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y .

The i n c l u s i o n o f two v a r i a n t s o f a meal o f b r e a d and f i s h

r e q u i r e s e x p l a n a t i o n . C o u l d i t be t h a t t h e f i r s t n a r r a t i v e

( f e e d i n g o f f i v e t h o u s a n d w i t h f i v e l o a v e s , w i t h t w e l v e b a s ­

k e t s l e f t o v e r — w h i c h may s y m b o l i z e t h e t w e l v e t r i b e s ) i s

t h e p r o d u c t o f a J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y u s i n g b r e a d and

f i s h e u c h a r i s t s , and t h a t t h e s e c o n d n a r r a t i v e ( f e e d i n g o f

f o u r t h o u s a n d w i t h s e v e n l o a v e s , w i t h s e v e n b a s k e t s l e f t o v e r 17

- - w h i c h c o u l d p e r h a p s s y m b o l i z e t h e s e v e n t y g e n t i l e n a t i o n s )

r e p r e s e n t s a r e v i s i o n u n d e r t a k e n by g e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n s who

a d o p t e d t h e same p r a c t i c e ? I t i s n o t e w o r t h y i n t h i s c o n n e c ­

t i o n t h a t t h e word f o r b a s k e t i n t h e f i r s t a c c o u n t {Kofavos

lYlk. 6:43) d e n o t e s a d i s t i n c t i v e l y J e w i s h t y p e o f b a s k e t ,

w h e r e a s t h e t e r m &trt>pl$ i n t h e s e c o n d a c c o u n t (MK. 8:8)

r e f e r s t o an o r d i n a r y f i s h b a s k e t .

The s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n n a r r a t i v e s a r e

r e f l e c t i o n s o f a c t u a l l i t u r g i c a l p r a c t i c e moves f r o m t h e r e a l m

o f p o s s i b i l i t y t o t h a t o f p r o b a b i l i t y when t h e y a r e c o n s i d e r e d

i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e r e s u r r e c t i o m - m e a l n a r r a t i v e s i n Luke

24 and J o h n 21. There i s , as we have s e e n , i n A p o c . 3:20 a

p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e e u c h a r i s t c o n s i s t e d o f

92

s u p p i n g w i t h t h e L o r d . The r e s u r r e c t i o n a c c o u n t s i n Luke and

t h e a p p e n d i x t o J o h n p r e s e n t e v i d e n c e t h a t t h o s e m e a l s i n

w h i c h C h r i s t i a n s b e l i e v e d t h e y were e a t i n g w i t h C h r i s t were

p r i m a r i l y m e a l s o f b r e a d and f i s h :

When he was a t t a b l e w i t h them, he t o o k t h e b r e a d and b l e s s e d and b r o k e i t , and gave i t t o them. And t h e i r e y e s were opened and t h e y r e c o g n i s e d h i m ; and he v a n i s h e d o u t o f t h e i r s i g h t . . . . And t h e y r o s e t h a t same h o u r and r e t u r n e d t o J e r u s a l e m ; and t h e y f o u n d t h e e l e v e n g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r and t h o s e who were w i t h them.... Then t h e y t o l d what had h a p ­pened on t h e r o a d , and how he was known t o them i n t h e b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d . As t h e y were s a y i n g t h i s , J e s u s h i m s e l f s t o o d among them.... And w h i l e t h e y s t i l l d i s b e l i e v e d f o r j o y , and w o n d e r e d , he s a i d t o them, "Have you a n y t h i n g h e r e t o e a t ? " They gave h i m a p i e c e o f b r o i l e d f i s h , and he t o o k i t and a t e b e f o r e them. ( L k . 2 4 : 3 0 f . , 3 3 , 3 6 , 41-43)

When t h e y g o t o u t on l a n d , t h e y saw a c h a r ­c o a l f i r e t h e r e , w i t h a f i s h l y i n g on; i t , and b r e a d . J e s u s s a i d t o them, " B r i n g some f i s h t h a t you have j u s t c a u g h t . " . . . J e s u s s a i d t o them, "Come and have b r e a k f a s t . " None o f t h e d i s c i p l e s d a r e d a s k h i m , "Who a r e y o u ? " They knew i t was t h e L o r d . J e s u s came and t o o k t h e b r e a d and gave i t t o t h e m , and s o w i t h t h e f i s h . ( J n . 21 :9 f ., 1 2 f . )

In b o t h i n s t a n c e s t h e r e i s a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e f a m i l i a r l i t u r ­

g i c a l p a t t e r n f o u n d i n t h e s t o r i e s o f f e e d i n g t h e m u l t i t u d e

( i n Luke " t o o k . . . b l e s s e d . . . b r o k e . . . g a v e , " i n

J o h n 21 " t o o k . . . g a v e . . . and so w i t h t h e f i s h , " c f . J n .

6:11, "he d i s t r i b u t e d them t o t h o s e who were s e a t e d , and s o

a l s o w i t h t h e f i s h . " ) I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t i n t h e New T e s ­

t a m e n t t h i s l i t u r g i c a l p a t t e r n a p p e a r s i n e i g h t a c c o u n t s

93

where b r e a d and f i s h a r e m e n t i o n e d , as o p p o s e d t o o n l y f o u r

where t h e e l e m e n t s a r e b r e a d and w i n e .

The u s e o f f i s h as a component o f c e r t a i n c u l t i c m e a l s

w o u l d have been q u i t e a p p r o p r i a t e i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y .

E. Goodenough's s u r v e y o f R a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e has d i s c l o s e d

t h a t i n P a l e s t i n i a n J u d a i s m t h e d e f e a t and p h y s i c a l c o n ­

s u m p t i o n o f t h e g r e a t f i s h L e v i a t h a n was e x p e c t e d i n t h e

1 B m e s s i a n i c e r a . F i s h was a l s o a s y m b o l o f t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n

1 9

o f t h e d e a d . Thus i t w o u l d have been q u i t e n a t u r a l f o r

e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s t o consume f i s h i n a meal t h e y b e l i e v e d t o

be s h a r i n g w i t h t h e i r r e s u r r e c t e d L o r d . Goodenough i s a l s o

o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e S a b b a t h e v e n i n g m e a l , t h e c e n a p u r a ,

was " p r e - e m i n e n t l y a f i s h m e a l , " and t h a t i t may have been a 20

s y m b o l i c p r e f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e m e s s i a n i c age t o come.

I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e s y n o p t i c e v a n ­

g e l i s t s were t h e m s e l v e s f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e p r a c t i c e o f b r e a d

and f i s h e u c h a r i s t s . I t c o u l d be t h a t t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n and

r e s u r r e c t i o n - m e a l s t o r i e s a c q u i r e d t h e i r p r e s e n t f o r m a t an

e a r l i e r p o i n t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e t r a d i t i o n . The s i t u a ­

t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n f u s i n g i n t h e c a s e o f L u k e - A c t s , where

t r a c e s o f a l l t h r e e o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c t y p e s we have d i s c e r n e d

have s u r v i v e d .

I n t h e c a s e o f J o h n , h o w e v e r , a r e a s o n a b l e a r g u m e n t c a n

be a d v a n c e d t h a t t h e b r e a d and f i s h c u l t i c m e a l was t h e o n l y

one known t o t h e e v a n g e l i s t and t h e t r a d i t i o n b e h i n d h i m . To

b e g i n w i t h , t h e F o u r t h G o s p e l p r e s e n t s an o b v i o u s d i f f i c u l t y

94

f o r t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w t h a t t h e r e was o n l y one t y p e o f e u ­

c h a r i s t i c s e r v i c e i n t h e p r i m i t i v e c h u r c h , v i z . , t h e a b s e n c e

o f an i n s t i t u t i o n n a r r a t i v e i n J o h n ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e L a s t

S u p p e r . M o r e o v e r , u n l e s s we c o u l d e s t a b l i s h on t h e b a s i s o f

some o t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a t J o h n was f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e b r e a d and 21 22 w i n e e u c h a r i s t , we c o u l d n o t f o l l o w C u l l m a n n and B a r r e t t

and o t h e r s i n f i n d i n g s y m b o l i c r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s t y p e i n

s u c h p a s s a g e s a s t h e m a r r i a g e a t Cana ( j n . 2 : 1 - 1 1 ) , t h e

c l e a n s i n g o f t h e Temple ( j n . 2:13-22) where C u l l m a n n f i n d s an

a l l u s i o n t o J e s u s ' e u c h a r i s t i c b o d y ) , and t h e a l l e g o r y o f t h e

v i n e ( J n . 1 5 : 1 - 8 ) . S i m i l a r l y , we w o u l d have t o be s u s p i c i o u s

o f t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h a t one p a s s a g e i n w h i c h v i r t u a l l y

a l l c r i t i c s d e t e c t a s y m b o l i c r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s t y p e : t h e

i s s u e o f b l o o d and w a t e r f r o m t h e wound i n J e s u s ' s i d e ( J n .

19:34) .

T h e r e r e m a i n s i n J o h n o n l y one t e x t w i t h an a p p a r e n t

a l l u s i o n t o t h e " P a u l i n e " t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t : J o h n 6:51-58. 2 3 24 2 R T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a s B u l t m a n n , Bornkamm, and L o h s e have

r e c o g n i s e d , good r e a s o n t o c a l l i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y

o f t h i s p a s s a g e . The c h i e f d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t t h i s s e c t i o n o f

t h e B r e a d o f L i f e d i s c o u r s e i s i n c o n g r u o u s w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g

s e c t i o n ( 6 : 3 5 - 5 0 ) , w h i c h i n t u r n seems t o be more c h a r a c t e r ­

i s t i c a l l y J o h a n n i n e . I n t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e d i s c o u r s e , t h e r e

i s no r e f e r e n c e t o " f l e s h " o r " b l o o d " ; t h e theme h e r e i s s a p i ­

e n t i a l r a t h e r t h a n e u c h a r i s t i c . The " b r e a d o f l i f e " i s C h r i s t ,

95

as the heavenly messenger sent by the Father, and the funda­

mental response to Jesus' p r e s e n t a t i o n of h i m s e l f as "bread"

i s to be b e l i e f (6:35,36,40,47). The use of the uiord "bread"

here i s r e m i n i s c e n t of i t s use as a symbol f o r wisdom i n Pro-

t a t i o n of the bread of l i f e i s confirmed by John 6:27, "Do

not labour f o r the food uihich p e r i s h e s , but f o r the food uihich

endures to e t e r n a l l i f e . " In a d d i t i o n , as Bornkmann has 27

shown, John 6:60ff. r e f e r s back to v s s . 35-50 r a t h e r than

v s s . 51-58. Here the themes are b e l i e f (64), coming to Jesus

(65), and the words of e t e r n a l l i f e ( 68). John 6:63 ("It i s

the s p i r i t t h a t gives l i f e , the f l e s h i s of no a v a i l ; the uiords

that I have spoken to you are s p i r i t and l i f e " ) stands i n con­

t r a d i c t i o n to 6:51-58. The n a t u r a l c o n c l u s i o n i s that John 6:

51-58, with i t s emphasis on e a t i n g the f l e s h and d r i n k i n g the 2 8

blood of C h r i s t , i s the i n s e r t i o n of a l a t e r r e d a c t o r .

It i s h i g h l y u n l i k e l y that there was no c u l t i c meal i n

the C h r i s t i a n c i r c l e from which the f o u r t h gospel emanated,

and we may suppose that the " s i g n " ( J n . 6:14) of the f e e d i n g

of the multitude p o i n t s to a bread and f i s h type. There are

s e v e r a l f e a t u r e s of the Johannine m u l t i p l i c a t i o n n a r r a t i v e

which have p a r a l l e l s i n the Didache and uihich might, t h e r e ­

f o r e , be echoes of a e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g y . For i n s t a n c e , John's

phrase "When they had enough" (u?c 61 0>£n}\rj(r6hl<FClV ) , i s

verbs 9:5 and S i r a c h 15:3. 26 This n o n - e u c h a r i s t i c i n t e r p r e -

96

s i m i l a r to the beginning of the t h a n k s g i v i n g , immediately a f t e r

the prayer of the bread, i n Didache 1 0 : 1 : " A f t e r you have had % v 29

enough" (MfCflf 6t lfA.TlA7)0Qr}vat) • Perhaps an even more

s t r i k i n g p a r a l l e l i s that between John 6 :12 , "Gather up the y

fragments KAOi(T/LCOt l e f t over, that nothing may be l o s t , "

and p a r t s of the Didache's prayer over the bread which read,

"Concerning the fragmented bread KyScxcr/U£* , 'We give you

thanks, our Father . . . . As t h i s fragmented bread was

s c a t t e r e d upon the mountains and became one, so l e t your

church be gathered up from the four corners of the e a r t h i n t o

your kingdom.'" In a d d i t i o n to using the words S'OJf&plO'^eco ,

0~VV@iyco, and KySOiO/Xd , the Johannine m u l t i p l i c a t i o n n a r r a ­

t i v e s t a t e s that the meal took p l a c e on a mountain ( J n . 6 : 3 ) , 30

and makes re f e r e n c e to the n o t i o n of Jesus as king ( 6 : 1 5 ) .

Another i n t e r e s t i n g p o s s i b i l i t y concerns the s t o r y of

Jesus walking on the water, which i n a l l three v e r s i o n s (Mk.

6:45-52 ; Hit. 1 4 : 2 2 - 3 3 ; Jn. 16-21) i s placed immediately a f t e r

the m u l t i p l i c a t i o n n a r r a t i v e . This p e r i c o p e (which i s probably 31

presented i n a more o r i g i n a l form by John) has a l l the appear­

ances of a p o s t - r e s u r r e c t i o n a l s t o r y : Jesus' body i s not con­

f i n e d to the normal e x i g e n c i e s of space and time, and there i s

an emphasis on Jesus' calming the f e a r of h i s d i s c i p l e s when

they e v i d e n t l y do not recognise him. I f the o r i g i n a l form of

t h i s s t o r y was indeed of the p o s t - r e s u r r e c t i o n a l genre, the

t r a n s p o s i t i o n of i t to i t s present place i n the t r a d i t i o n might

97

have been due t o an a s s o c i a t i o n b e t ween t h e b r e a d and f i s h

m e a l and t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a l C h r i s t o p h a n y .

J o h n 6 and 21 a t t e s t t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f b r e a d and f i s h

e u c h a r i s t s i n t h e l a t e f i r s t c e n t u r y . T h i s t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t

may have p e r s i s t e d w e l l i n t o t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , a l t h o u g h s u p ­

p l a n t e d by t h e P a u l i n e u s a g e i n t h o s e c o m m u n i t i e s w h i c h were

b e g i n n i n g t o e n f o r c e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l and l i t u r g i c a l u n i t y .

I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h h i n t s t h a t he m i g h t be aware o f more t h a n

one t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t . When he c a u t i o n s t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a n s

t o use o n l y "one e u c h a r i s t , " he may have i n mind n o t s i m p l y a

s e p a r a t e c e l e b r a t i o n , b u t t h e u s e o f a s e p a r a t e t y p e o f meal

by c e r t a i n C h r i s t i a n s . T h i s may be why he s t r e s s e s s o f o r c e ­

f u l l y , " F o r t h e r e i s one f l e s h o f o u r L o r d , J e s u s C h r i s t , and

one cup o f h i s b l o o d t h a t makes us o n e , and one a l t a r " ( P h i l .

4 : 1 ) . S i n c e he nowhere s p e c i f i e s t h a t t h e " c u p " c o n t a i n s

w i n e , he c o u l d n o t have had i n mind e u c h a r i s t s w h i c h u s e d

some o t h e r l i q u i d . I f he were p o l e m i c i s i n g a g a i n s t some o t h e r

" t y p e s " o f e u c h a r i s t , i t must have been one i n w h i c h s o l i d

f o o d o n l y was consumed.

I t i s w e l l known t h a t f r o m t h e l a t e s e c o n d c e n t u r y t h e

f i s h a p p e a r e d as a s y m b o l f o r C h r i s t . An e a r l y e x a m p l e i s

f u r n i s h e d by T e r t u l l i a n : "We l i t t l e f i s h , l i k e o u r F i s h J e s u s

C h r i s t , were b o r n i n t h e w a t e r , and o n l y by l i v i n g i n t h e 32 33 w a t e r a r e we s a v e d " (De b a p t . 1 ) . C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a

and O r i g e n 3 4 a r e a l s o f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e s y m b o l i s m o f t h e f i s h .

98

The o r i g i n of t h i s symbolism cannot, as many C h r i s t i a n s s i n c e 3 5

Qptatus (De. schism. Donat. 3:2) have supposed, be found i n the Greek a c r o s t i c f o r "Jesus C h r i s t , Son of God, S a v i o u r " :

3 6

the a c r o s t i c i t s e l f presupposes the symbol. I f the hypo­

t h e s i s of a e u c h a r i s t i c meal u s i n g f i s h i s c o r r e c t ^ there can

be no doubt that here l i e s the source of the symbol. I t would

a l s o lead us to c o n s i d e r whether the appearance of f i s h i n

c e r t a i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s i s i n f a c t ,

as has been g e n e r a l l y thought, merely symbolic. Two i n s c r i p ­

t i o n s , u s u a l l y dated from around the end of the second century,

a l l u d e to the consumption of sacred f i s h . The f i r s t , the E p i ­

taph of P e c t o r i o s , found i n a cemetery at Antum, e v i d e n t l y

d e s c r i b e s baptism and a meal of f i s h : 0 race d i v i n e of the c e l e s t i a l F i s h , Guard your heart pure among men, f o r you have r e c e i v e d An immortal source of wondrous water. And so, My f r i e n d , warm your s o u l i n the e v e r l a s t i n g waters Of copious wisdom. Take the honey-sweet food That the Saviour gives h i s holy ones. Sate Your hunger, h o l d i n g the f i s h i n your hands.

Lord and S a v i o u r , feed us then, 1 beg, With t h i s f i s h . We beg you, L i g h t of the deceased, May my mother sleep i n peace. Aschandios, f a t h e r So dear to my h e a r t , together with my sweet mother And my b r o t h e r s , remember ^ 7

P e c t o r i o s i n the peace of the F i s h .

The f i r s t f i v e l i n e s of t h i s poem form the a c r o s t i c IXOT'C •

The second monument, the Abercios I n s c r i p t i o n , c o n t a i n s r e f e r ­

ences to f i s h , wine, and bread:

99

The f a i t h l e d me ev/eruihere; e v e r y w h e r e I t o f f e r e d me as f o o d a f i s h f r o m t h e s p r i n g , L a r g e and p u r e , c a u g h t by a p u r e v i r g i n . And s h e c o n s t a n t l y g i v e s i t t o h e r own d e a r ones To e a t . She h a s an e x c e l l e n t w i n e To d r i n k , w h i c h she o f f e r s w i t h t h e b r e a d .

C. V o g e l p o i n t s o u t t h a t " I t i s h e r e a q u e s t i o n o f two t y p e s

o f meal . . . . I t w o u l d do v i o l e n c e t o t h e t e x t t o s u p p o s e 39

t h a t i t i s a m a t t e r o f one and t h e same m e a l . " The m e n t i o n

o f b r e a d and wi n e i s an o b v i o u s a l l u s i o n t o t h e c l a s s i c a l

t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t u s i n g t h o s e e l e m e n t s , and " i t w o u l d u n d u l y

s i m p l i f y m a t t e r s t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e f i s h m e a l i s a s i m p l e

f i g u r e f o r t h e t r a d i t i o n a l e u c h a r i s t i c m e a l : t h e t e x t f o r c e s

us t o a d m i t two t y p e s o f m e a l , one as " r e a l ' as t h e o t h e r . " 4 ^

T h e r e i s one f u r t h e r f u n e r a r y i n s c r i p t i o n d a t i n g f r o m t h e same

p e r i o d , t h a t o f L i c i n i a A m i a s , f o u n d on t h e V a t i c a n H i l l . I n

a d d i t i o n t o t h e image o f two f i s h s e p a r a t e d by an a n c h o r , i t

c o n t a i n s t h e words IX©TC Z A N T G N , " t h e f i s h o f t h e l i v i n g . " V o g e l b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e m e a n i n g o f t h i s t e x t i s " f i s h o f t h e

41

C h r i s t i a n s . "

These i n s c r i p t i o n s , t h e n , f u r n i s h us w i t h e v i d e n c e o f t h e

c o n t i n u a t i o n o f a c u l t i c f i s h m e a l w e l l a f t e r t h e New T e s t a m e n t

p e r i o d . I n t h i s c a s e , i t i s most l i k e l y a q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e -

f r i q e r i u m , o r s a c r e d f u n e r a r y m e a l . The same c o n c l u s i o n may

be r e a c h e d c o n e r n i n g t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f f i s h i n e a r l y C h r i s ­

t i a n a r t , o f w h i c h one o f t h e f i r s t e x a m p l e s i s t h e L a s t S u p p e r

( ? ) s c e n e f r o m t h e c a t a c o m b o f C a l l i s t u s i n Rome, s h o w i n g J e s u s

100

and h i s a p o s t l e s c o n s u m i n g b r e a d and f i s h r a t h e r t h a n b r e a d 42

and m i n e . F o r some t i m e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s had a t t e m p t e d t o

c l a s s i f y s u c h s e c e n e s as r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f v a r y i n g t y p e s :

f u n e r a r y m e a l s , t h e h e a v e n l y b a n q u e t , t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f

t h e l o a v e s and f i s h e s , and t h e e u c h a r i s t ( o f u i h i c h t h e f i s h \ 43

was a s u p p o s e d s y m b o l ) . V o g e l , h o w e v e r , p o i n t s o u t t h a t

t h e c u r r e n t t r e n d among C h r i s t i a n a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i s t o s e e

i n t h e s e v a r i o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t h e d e p i c t i n g o f an a c t u a l

m e a l : " I n r e a l i t y , i t seems, t h e meal s c e n e s i n c i m e t e r i a l

i c o n o g r a p h y a r e a l l r e a l i s t i c ( i . e . , n o n - s y m b o l i c ) r e p r e s e n ­

t a t i o n s o f r e f r i g e r i a o r f u n e r e a l b a n q u e t s , c e l e b r a t e d down

h e r e by t h e l i v i n g , and n o t i n t h e n e x t w o r l d by t h e b l e s s e d .

The c u m u l a t i v e e v i d e n c e o f t h e p e r i n e n t New T e s t a m e n t

and e p i g r a p h i c a l d a t a t h u s l e a d s us t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t

i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e " P a u l i n e " b r e a d and w i n e t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t

and t h e b r e a d - o n l y t y p e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by L i e t z m a n n , t h e r e e x ­

i s t e d i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y a t h i r d t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t i c m e a l ,

c o n s i s t i n g o f b r e a d and f i s h . T h i s t y p e no d o u b t grew o u t o f

t h e p r i m i t i v e " b r e a k i n g o f br e a d s " 5 ( i n w h i c h t h e meal s e c t i o n

w o u l d p r o b a b l y have s o m e t i m e s c o n s i s t e d o f f i s h ) , and was

c o n c e i v e d o f as a meal w i t h & t h e r i s e n C h r i s t . As t h e b r e a d

and w i n e t y p e l o o k e d back t o t h e L a s t S u p p e r a s i t s " i n s t i ­

t u t i o n , " so t h i s t y p e l o o k e d back t o J e s u s ' f e e d i n g o f t h e

m u l t i t u d e ( t r a n s f o r m e d by t r a d i t i o n i n t o a m i r a c l e ) . D u r i n g

101

t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , t h i s t y p e uias e i t h e r s u p p r e s s e d and r e ­

p l a c e d by t h e e u c h a r i s t i c model commended by t h e A p o s t l e ,

a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o the Agape, o r , as t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i ­

dence a p p e a r s t o s u g g e s t , i n c e r t a i n c i r c l e s t r a n s f o r m e d

i n t o a f u n e r a r y meal uihich e x i s t e d s i d e by s i d e w i t h th e

c l a s s i c a l t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t . These f u n e r a r y meals mould have

been the n a t u r a l o u t g r o w t h o f a r i t e i n w h i c h t h e d o m i n a n t

i d e a was t h a t o f e a t i n g w i t h t h e r e s u r r e c t e d L o r d , and i n ­

deed s u c h a c o n c e p t i o n may w e l l have p e r s i s t e d i n them.

The F o r m a t i o n and E a r l y D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e C l a s s i c a l Type

Our i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t o t h i s p o i n t have l e d us t o d i s t i n ­

g u i s h t h r e e t y p e s o f e u c h a r i s t i c meals i n t h e f i r s t C h r i s t i a n

c e n t u r y . The e a r l i e s t , the " b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d " i n t h e

p r i m i t i v e J e r u s a l e m community was a d i r e c t d e s c e n d a n t o f J e s u s 1

r e g u l a r t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p , and was c e l e b r a t e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n

w i t h an a c t u a l m e a l . I t wassan e x p r e s s i o n o f communion among

the f i r s t C h r i s t i a n s , and i t s d o m i n a n t theme was one o f e s c h a ­

t o l o g i c a l j o y i n t h e hope o f an imminent r e t u r n o f t h e L o r d .

Out o f i t d e v e l o p e d a s e c o n d t y p e , w hich r e f l e c t e d a more a d ­

v a n c e d s t a g e i n t h e C h u r c h ' s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s . N o r m a l l y

c o n s i s t i n g o f a meal o f b r e a d and f i s h , i t s c e l e b r a n t s b e l i e v e d

t h e m s e l v e s t o be s h a r i n g t h e meal w i t h t h e r e s u r r e c t e d C h r i s t ,

and f o u n d a d o m i n i c a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e i r r i t e i n t h e m u l t i ­

p l i c a t i o n o f t h e l o a v e s and f i s h e s . N e i t h e r o f t h e s e r i t e s ,

we have f o u n d , was r e l a t e d t o J e s u s * L a s t S u p p e r o r t o a

102

t h e o l o g y o f J e s u s ' d e a t h .

H a v i n g d i g r e s s e d somewhat i n o r d e r t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e s e

two t y p e s o f e a r l y e u c h a r i s t i c m e a l s , we must now r e t u r n t o

t h e L a s t S u p p e r t r a d i t i o n and t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c l a s s i

c a l o r " P a u l i n e " e u c h a r i s t i c t y p e i I n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r we

have f o u n d t h a t w h i l e J e s u s d i d n o t i n t e n d t o i n s t i t u t e any

r i t e a t h i s L a s t S u p p e r , i t seems t h a t b e f o r e P a u l t h e r e was

a l i t u r g y ( a t t e s t e d i n a t l e a s t two t r a d i t i o n s ) 4 ^ w h i c h was

r e g a r d e d as b e i n g i n some s e n s e a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e L a s t Sup­

p e r . B r e a d and a cup o f w i n e ( o r p o s s i b l y w a t e r ) c o n s t i t u t e d

t h e s p e c i a l e l e m e n t s ; o v e r them were r e p e a t e d J e s u s ' words o f

i n s t i t u t i o n .

S i n c e , as we have s e e n , e a r l y J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n i t y c e l e ­

b r a t e d a " b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d " t y p e e u c h a r i s t , we may s u p ­

pose w i t h B u l t m a n n ^ 0 t h a t h i s L a s t S u p p e r t y p e o r i g i n a t e d i n

p r e - P a u l i n e H e l l e n i s t i c C h r i s t i a n i t y . U s i n g Mark and t h e An­

t i o c h e n e l i t u r g y a s o u r s o u r c e s , we c a n d i s t i n g u i s h f i v e t h e o -47

l o g i c a l m o t i f s i n t h i s p r e - P a u l i n e H e l l e n i s t i c e u c h a r i s t .

F i r s t , t h e r e a r e t h e words " o f t h e c o v e n a n t , " w h i c h i n t e r p r e t

J e s u s ' d e a t h as t h e s a c r i f i c e upon w h i c h t h e new c o v e n a n t i s

f o u n d e d . I t h a s been shown above t h a t t h i s c o n c e p t i o n may be

r e a s o n a b l y a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s h i m s e l f . The d o c t r i n e o f a

c o v e n a n t s a c r i f i c e i s e s s e n t i a l l y e s c h a t o l o g i c a l : t h e i d e a i s

t h a t j u s t as Yahweh's f i r s t c o v e n a n t w i t h I s r a e l was r a t i f i e d

by a b l o o d y s a c r i f i c e ( E x . 2 4 : 8 - 1 1 ) , s o t h e new c o v e n a n t , t h e

new e s c h a t o l o g i c a l o r d e r ( J e r . 3 1 : 3 1 f f . ) , i s b r o u g h t i n t o

103

b e i n g t h r o u g h the d e a t h o f C h r i s t . S e c o n d l y , t h e r e i s the

d o c t r i n e o f e x p i a t o r y s a c r i f i c e f o r s i n s , r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e

words " f o r you" (1 Co. 11:24) o r " p o u r e d o u t f o r many" (flflk.

1 4 : 2 4 ) . There a r e a l l u s i o n s h e r e t o b o t h t h e c u l t i c s a c r i ­

f i c e s o f p r o p i t i a t i o n i n the O l d T e s t a m e n t , and t o the S u f ­

f e r i n g S e r v a n t m o t i f . The body and b l o o d o f C h r i s t have been

o f f e r e d as a s a c r i f i c e t o a t o n e f o r man's s i n ; C h r i s t i s t h e

S u f f e r i n g S e r v a n t who f r e e l y gave h i m s e l f f o r t h e m u l t i t u d e .

T h i r d l y , t h e r e i s what Bultmann c a l l s t h e " s a c r a m e n t a l i n t e r ­

p r e t a t i o n o f t h e a c t , " i . e . , t h e i d e a t h a t t h e b r e a d and wine

a r e o f f e r e d t o t h e p a r t a k e r s o f the meal as t h e body and b l o o d

o f J e s u s . T h i s n o t i o n was a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y p r e - P a u l i n e ; i n

f a c t , B u ltmann, who does n o t a c c e p t t h a t the L a s t S u p p e r t r a ­

d i t i o n goes back t o J e s u s , b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e i d e a o f communion

i n t h e body and b l o o d o f C h r i s t was the o r i g i n a l and d o m i n a n t 48

e u c h a r i s t i c m o t i f . The r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n i n 1 Co. 10:16

s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s c o n c e p t i o n was w e l l known t o P a u l ' s r e a d e r s

and G o g u e l c o n t e n d s t h a t even t h e r h y t h m i c f o r m o f t h e v e r s e 50

i n d i c a t e s a l i t u r g i c a l f o r m u l a :

The cup o f b l e s s i n g which we b l e s s , i s i t n o t a p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the b l o o d o f C h r i s t ? The b r e a d which we b r e a k , i s i t n o t a p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e body o f C h r i s t ?

To t h e s e t h r e e m o t i f s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by Bultmann we may add

a n o t h e r : t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l vow o f a b s t i -

104

n e n c e i n t h e t h r e e s y n o p t i c g o s p e l s , a s w e l l a s P a u l ' s d e ­

c l a r a t i o n t h a t t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n p r o c l a i m s t h e

L o r d ' s d e a t h " u n t i l he comes" (1 Co. 1 1 : 2 6 ) , i n d i c a t e s t h a t

t h e c e l e b r a t i o n uias c o n s i d e r e d an a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e m e s s i ­

a n i c b a n q u e t . F i n a l l y , i n t h e A n t i o c h e n e l i t u r g y a s p e c i ­

f i c a l l y a e t i o l o g i c a l m o t i f uias i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e f o r m o f t h e

i n j u n c t i o n t o r e p e a t . T h i s i n j u n c t i o n g i v e s a f o r m a l v a l i d i t y 51

t o t h e c u l t i c a c t i o n : i t i s noui a f o r m o f s a c r e d l a u i , and

t h r o u g h i t t h e s a v i n g a c t o f C h r i s t i s made p r e s e n t by a n a ­

m n e s i s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e m o t i f s u i h i c h have been d i s c e r n e d f r o m

t h e i n s t i t u t i o n n a r r a t i v e s , a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f t h i s p r i m i t i v e

c l a s s i c a l t y p e e u c h a r i s t may be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m an e x a m i n a t i o n

o f a d i f f e r e n t l i t u r g i c a l f o r m u l a , n a m e l y t h e M a r a n t h a . The

p r e s e n c e o f t h i s f o r m u l a i n t h e l i t u r g y o f t h e D i d a c h e ( 1 0 : 6 )

s u g g e s t s t h a t e v e n i n t h e p e r i o d uie a r e c o n s i d e r i n g noui i t

b e l o n g e d t o t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n . The f a c t t h a t t h e

e x p r e s s i o n i s A r a m a i c i s p r o o f o f i t s a n t i q u i t y , a n d , as was 52

n o t e d i n t h e f i r s t s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r , i t was o r i g i n ­

a l l y u s e d i n i t h e e a r l i e s t c o n t i n u a t i o n o f J e s u s ' t a b l e -

f e l l o w s h i p , i n w h i c h t h e d i s c i p l e s c o n f i d e n t l y e x p e c t e d t h e

i m m i n e n t r e t u r n o f t h e L o r d . H owever, P a u l ' s c i t a t i o n o f t h e

same f o r m u l a (1 r;Co. 16:22) a t t e s t s t o t h e f a c t t h a t i t was

c a r r i e d o v e r i n t o t h e " s a c r a m e n t a l " c e l e b r a t i o n s o f H e l l e n i s ­

t i c C h r i s t i a n i t y . I t s v e r y p r e s e n c e i n t h e s e c e l e b r a t i o n s i s

1 0 5

an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t h e r e t h e f o r m u l a s h o u l d n o t be i n t e r -53

p r e t e d i n a p u r e l y f u t u r i s t i c - e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s e n s e , and t h a t i t i s a s o r t o f p r o t o - e p i c l e s i s , i n v o k i n g t h e p r e s e n c e

54

o f t h e L o r d i n t h e m e a l . The i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e o f t h i s

i n v o c a t i o n i s t h a t i n a l l t h r e e i n s t a n c e s o f i t s a p p e a r a n c e

i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e (1 Co. 1 6 : 2 2 ; A p o c . 22 :20; D i d .

10:6) i t i s i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e d by an a n a t h e m a t i s a t i o n o f o r

c a l l t o r e p e n t a n c e o f u n f a i t h f u l C h r i s t i a n s . T h i s f a c t l e a d s

us t o d educe t h e p r e s e n c e o f a f u r t h e r t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f i n

t h e p r e - P a u l i n e H e l l e n i s t i c e u c h a r i s t ; t h a t o f C h r i s t ' s j u d g e ­

ment. I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e r e uias a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e c o n ­

c e p t i o n o f C h r i s t ' s f u t u r e j u d g e m e n t a t t h e p a r o u s i a , a c o n ­

c e p t i o n t o u i h i c h e x p r e s s i o n uias g i v e n i n t h e e a r l i e s t b r e a k ­

i n g o f t h e b r e a d r i t e , t o t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f C h r i s t ' s p r e s e n t

j u d g e m e n t o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e e u c h a r i s t i c m e a l . T h i s

t r a n s i t i o n mould have o c c u r r e d w i t h t h e c a r r y i n g o v e r o f t h e

Anathema-IYlaranatha f o r m u l a e f r o m t h e e a r l i e r , e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l y -

o r i e n t e d b r e a d f e l l o w s h i p t o t h e H e l l e n i s t i c r i t e u i h i c h was

c o n c e i v e d o f as a communion w i t h t h e L o r d . T h i s p r o c e s s c o n ­

s t i t u t e s an i m p o r t a n t l i n k b e t w een t h e e a r l i e s t c u l t i c m e a l s

and t h e e u c h a r i s t o f P a u l , f o r whom t h e e u c h a r i s t was an o c ­

c a s i o n o f j u d g e m e n t (1 Co. 1 1 : 2 8 - 3 0 ; t h i s a s p e c t o f P a u l ' s

t h e o l o g y i s d i s c u s s e d b e l o w ) .

One f u r t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e e u c h a r i s t i c r i t e

i n h e r i t e d , by P a u l i s a p p r o p r i a t e a t t h i s p o i n t . I n a r e c e n t

106

a r t i c l e , H. Schuermann has p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i n s p i t e o f t h e

d i f f e r e n c e i n i d e a s a t t h e v e r b a l l e v e l b etween J e s u s ' L a s t

S u p p e r and t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n e u c h a r i s t , t h e r e i s a f u n d a -56

m e n t a l u n i t y o f c o n c e p t i o n a t t h e l e v e l o f a c t i o n . The t w o ­

f o l d a c t i o n o f o f f e r i n g t h e b r e a d and t h e c u p - - w h i c h was w i t h ­

o u t p a r a l l e l i n c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h c u s t o m i n s o f a r as t h i s

a c t i o n was a c c o m p a n i e d by words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and i n s o f a r

as a s i n g l e cup was s h a r e d by a l l p r e s e n t — s i g n i f i e d a t b o t h

t h e L a s t S u p p e r and i n t h e l a t e r e u c h a r i s t i c m e a l s t h e o f f e r -57

i n g o f a g i f t o f b l e s s i n g ( S e q e n s q a b e ) ; i n b o t h c a s e s t h i s

b l e s s i n g c a n be u n d e r s t o o d as a p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e new e s ­

c h a t o l o g i c a l o r d e r . 5 8

We t h u s have b e f o r e A.D. 55 o r 56 an e s t a b l i s h e d r i t e

i n w h i c h we f i n d t h e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f t h e " c l a s s i c a l "

t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n . T h i s r i t e i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t

f r o m e i t h e r o f t h e f i r s t two t y p e s w h i c h we have e x a m i n e d . I t

d oes s h a r e w i t h t h e b r e a d and f i s h t y p e a n o t i o n o f communion

w i t h C h r i s t , t o b u t t h i s i s c o n c e i v e d o f i n a v e r y d i f f e r e n t way.

A t t h e same t i m e , i t t o o must have d e v e l o p e d o u t o f t h e o r i g i ­

n a l b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d . Our p r o b l e m a t t h i s p o i n t i s t o

d e t e r m i n e how t h i s o r i g i n a l c e l e b r a t i o n was t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o

a r i t e w h i c h was c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h J e s u s ' d e a t h and w h i c h

o f f e r e d i t s p a r t i c i p a n t s communion i n t h e body and b l o o d o f

C h r i s t .

To c o n f r o n t t h i s p r o b l e m , we must c o n s i d e r t h e d i f f i c u l t

and c o m p l i c a t e d q u e s t i o n o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f G r e e k m y s t e r y

107

r e l i g i o n s on t h e s a c r a m e n t a l t h e o l o g y o f e a r l y H e l l e n i s t i c 59

C h r i s t i a n i t y . T h e r e a r e some, l i k e A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r , mho

b e l i e v e t h a t t h e t y p e o f c e l e b r a t i o n u i h i c h P a u l t o o k o v e r

f r o m p r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y uias e s s e n t i a l l y an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

m e a l , t h o r o u g h l y J e u i i s h i n i t s c o n c e p t i o n s and d e v o i d o f H e l ­

l e n i s t i c i n f l u e n c e . Houiever, uihen one e x a m i n e s t h e t h e o l o g i ­

c a l m o t i f s o f t h i s c e l e b r a t i o n , and c o n t r a s t s them w i t h t h e

d o m i n a n t mood o f t h e J u d a e o - C h r i s t i a n b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d

r i t e , i t seems i m p o s s i b l e t o deny t h e i r a f f i n i t y u i i t h t h e mys­

t e r i e s . " I n H e l l e n i s t i c C h r i s t i a n i t y t h e L o r d ' s S u p p e r , l i k e

b a p t i s m , i s u n d e r s t o o d as a s a c r a m e n t i n t h e s e n s e o f t h e mys­

t e r y r e l i g i o n s ^ " a r g u e s B u l t m a n n . 6 ^ P a u l h i m s e l f h i n t s t h a t

he i s auiare o f t h i s a f f i n i t y , by h i s use o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n

" t h e t a b l e o f t h e L o r d , " a H e l l e n i s t i c t e r m f o r c u l t i c b a n ­

q u e t s , and by t h e uiay i n u i h i c h he c o n t r a s t s t h e cup and t a b l e 61

o f t h e L o r d w i t h h e a t h e n s a c r i f i c i a l m e a l s (1 Co. 1 0 : 2 1 ) .

The t e r m " m y s t e r y r e l i g i o n s " r e f e r s t o t h o s e Greek r e l i *

g i o u s f e l l o w s h i p s u i h i c h were c h a r a c t e r i s e d by s e c r e t r i t e s o f

i n i t i a t i o n and s a c r e d m e a l s i n u i h i c h t h e f a i t h f u l c o m m u n i c a t e d

w i t h t h e d e i t y . Odo C a s e l d e f i n e s them t h u s : M y s t e r i o n , o r more u s u a l l y t h e p l u r a l m y s t e r i a , i s t h e Greek d e s i g n a t i o n f o r t h e a n c i e n t H e l l e n i c and l a t e r H e l l e n i s t i c s e c r e t c u l t s w h i c h a r e u n l i k e t h e c u l t s o f t h e P o l i s ; t h e y g i v e t o t h e w o r s h i p p e r s o f a g o d , who have been s p e c i a l l y i n i t i a t e d and t h e r e ­by j o i n e d t o t h e g o d , a c l o s e r and more p e r s o n a l u n i o n w i t h h i m ; t h i s u n i o n r e a c h e s b e y o n d d e a t h and p r o m i s e s a happy e x i s t e n c e i n t h e n e x t w o r l d .

108

I n c l a s s i c a l G r e e c e , t h e b e s t known m y s t e r i e s a r e t h o s e o f

D e meter and P e r s e p h o n e c e l e b r a t e d a t E l e u s i s . I n t h e H e l l e n ­

i s t i c p e r i o d t h e y were c h i e f l y o f e a s t e r n o r i g i n , c o m i n g f r o m

A n a t o l i a ( C y b e l e - A t t i s ) , E g y p t ( I s i s - O s i r i s ) , S y r i a ( A p h r o ­

d i t e - A d o n i s ) , and P e r s i a ( M i t h r a s ) . W h i l e t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l

b a s i s o f t h e s e m y s t e r i e s d i f f e r e d , e a c h o f them had a s a c r e d

meal ( i n t h e c u l t o f M i t h r a s , t h e p r i e s t u t t e r e d a f o r m u l a

o v e r a p i e c e o f b r e a d and a cup o f w a t e r ; i n t h a t o f O s i r i s ,

t h e f a i t h f u l a t e and d r a n k O s i r i s i n t h e f o r m o f b r e a d and 63

w a t e r ) . I n t h e r i t e s o f C y b e l e and A t t i s t h e i n i t i a t e was

b e l i e v e d t o be r e b o r n t h r o u g h b a p t i s m i n t h e b l o o d o f a b u l l

( t a u r o b o l i u m ) o r ram ( c r i o b o l i u m ) . The p u r p o s e o f t h e s e i n ­

i t i a t o r y r i t e s and s a c r e d m e a l s was t o renew t h e b e l i e v e r

and b r i n g him i n t o a m y s t i c u n i o n w i t h t h e d e i t y . Through

t h e s a c r e d r i t u a l t h e p r i m o r d i a l s a v i n g deed o f t h e god was

b e l i e v e d t o be made p r e s e n t ; t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n , by p e r f o r m i n g

t h e r i t e , t o o k p a r t i n t h e s a v i n g a c t and t h e r e b y won s a l ­

v ation.° 4 "The members o f t h e c u l t p r e s e n t a g a i n i n a r i t u a l ,

s y m b o l i c f a s h i o n , t h a t p r i m e v a l a c t ; i n h o l y words and r i t e s

o f p r i e s t and f a i t h f u l t h e r e a l i t y i s t h e r e once more. The

c e l e b r a n t community i s u n i t e d i n t h e d e e p e s t f a s h i o n w i t h t h e 65

L o r d t h e y w o r s h i p . "

Many o f t h e s e m y s t e r y r i t e s c e l e b r a t e d a r e d e m p t i o n p r o f ­

f e r e d by a d y i n g and r e s u r r e c t i n g g o d . As an e x a m p l e , we c a n

109

c i t e t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s o f L u c i a n (De_ Pea S y r i a 6) c o n c e r n i n g

t h e A p h r o d i t e c u l t :

And I saw i n 8yblos a g r e a t s h r i n e o f t h e A p h r o ­d i t e o f B y b l o s i n w h i c h t h e y a l s o c a r r y o u t t h e O r g i a o f A d o n i s . F o r t h e y s a y t h a t t h e d o w n f a l l o f A d o n i s was b r o u g h t a b o u t i n t h e i r l a n d by t h e w i l d b o a r . I n memory o f h i s s u f f e r i n g t h e y s t r i k e t h e m s e l v e s e a c h ^ y e a r and mourn. They c a r r y o u t t h e m y s t e r i e s (bpy*l&- ) and t h e y c a r r y o u t g r e a t m o u r n i n g f e a s t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e l a n d . B u t when t h e y have s t r u c k t h e m s e l v e s enough and have wept enough t h e y s a c r i f i c e t o A d o n i s ; f i r s t a s a c r i f i c e o f t h e d e a d , as t o one who i s d e a d ; t h e n , on t h e n e x t d a y , t h e y r e c i t e t h e myth t h a t he i s a l i v e , and t h e y s e n d h i m up i n t o t h e a i r .

I n s u c h a r i t e , j u s t as i n t h e b r e a d and cup t y p e e u c h a r i s t

o f H e l l e n i s t i c C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e r e i s an e m p h a s i s on t h e

r e d e e m i n g e f f i c a c y o f t h e god's d e a t h . "The K y r i o s o f a

m y s t e r y i s a god who h a s e n t e r e d i n t o human m i s e r y and s t r u g g l e ,

has made h i s a p p e a r a n c e on e a r t h ( e p i p h a n y ) and f o u g h t h e r e ,

s u f f e r e d , e v e n been d e f e a t e d ; t h e w h o l e s o r r o w o f m a n k i n d i n

p a i n i s b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r i n a m o u r n i n g f o r t h e god who must

d i e . " 6 7

From e v e n t h i s c u r s o r y g l a n c e a t t h e i d e a s and r i t e s o f

t h e m y s t e r y r e l i g i o n s , i t w i l l be o b v i o u s t h a t t h e r e a r e many

s t r i k i n g p a r a l l e l s w i t h e a r l y H e l l e n i s t i c and P a u l i n e C h r i s ­

t i a n i t y , and i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h t h e e u c h a r i s i t i c c e l e b r a t i o n

t a k e n o v e r by P a u l f r o m t h e e a r l i e r G e n t i l e c h u r c h . The

q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n i t y and t h e mys­

t e r i e s i s n o t , as we have s a i d , s i m p l e , and i t i s n o t w i t h i n

110

t h e s c o p e o f t h i s e s s a y t o d i s c u s s i t i n g r e a t d e t a i l .

A t one t i m e R i c h a r d R e i t z e n s t e i n c o u l d c o n f i d e n t l y p r o c l a i m

t h a t he had f o u n d t h e s o u r c e o f C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e i n t h e

I r a n i a n m y s t e r i e s , and W i l h e l m B o u s s e t c o u l d f i n d i n t h e

m y s t e r i e s ' c u l t i c i m i t a t i o n o f t h e d e a t h and r e s u r r e c t i o n o f

t h e god t h e b a s i s f o r t h e P a u l i n e d o c t r i n e o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n

i n t h e d e a t h and r e s u r r e c t i o n o f C h r i s t . F o r a number o f

r e a s o n s , few s c h o l a r s t o d a y w o u l d h o l d t o a d i r e c t g e n e t i c

d e p e n d e n c e o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y upon t h e m y s t e r y r e l i g i o n s .

I n t h e c a s e o f t h e e u c h a r i s t , we have s e e n i n t h e f i r s t c h a p ­

t e r t h a t t h e e u c h a r i s t and t h e L a s t S u p p e r t r a d i t i o n c o u l d

n o t , as b e l i e v e d by H e i t m u e l l e r and o t h e r s , h ave been

c r e a t e d by H e l l e n i s t i c C h r i s t i a n i t y o u t o f p r e - e x i s t e n t mys­

t e r y c o n c e p t i o n s . Some s c h o l a r s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e i n f l u e n c e d

by t h e B a r t h i a n n o t i o n o f t h e i n c o m p a r a b l e n a t u r e o f t h e Gos­

p e l , go s o f a r as t o deny any i n f l u e n c e o f t h e m y s t e r i e s on

t h e p r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n m e s s a g e . They s t r e s s t h a t C h r i s t i a n ­

i t y , u n l i k e t h e m y s t e r i e s , d e r i v e s f r o m a s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l

p e r s o n n a g e , and t h e y c o n t e n d t h a t one c a n a d e q u a t e l y e x p l a i n

t h e t h e o l o g y o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y — i t s d o c t r i n e s o f t h e

r e s u r r e c t i o n , o f r e d e m p t i o n , and e v e n o f t h e s a c r a m e n t s — i n

t e r m s o f J e w i s h c a t e g o r i e s , and w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e t o G r e e k

m y s t e r i e s .

A d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h i s t h a t o f A r t h u r D a r b y Mock, who

r e j e c t s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t ween e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y and t h e

111

m y s t e r i e s on t h e g r o u n d s o f l i n g u i s t i c e v i d e n c e . He f i n d s

t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v o c a b u l a r y o f t h e m y s t e r y r i t e s —

XCACCt] ( i n i t i a t i o n ) , JULVCO) ( i n i t i a t e ) , /UVCTXijplOV ( m y s t e r y )

--do n o t f o r m p a r t o f t h e l a n g u a g e o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y , a t

l e a s t i n t h e s e n s e u i h i c h t h e s e words had i n t h e m y s t e r i e s .

J o h n u s e s none o f t h e s e w o r d s ; P a u l n e v e r u s e s ZtAtZT] ; he

u s e s jUVtk) o n l y once t o d e s c r i b e what l i f e had t a u g h t him

( P h i l . 4 : 1 2 ) , and t h o u g h he u s e s /L4,V(TCr]/>lOV o f t e n , i t i s

o n l y i n t h e LXX s e n s e o f " s e c r e t . " 6 ^ W i t h r e s p e c t t o C h r i s ­

t i a n w o r s h i p , Nock a r g u e s t h a t i t s v o c a b u l a r y , words s u c h as 70

" b l e s s i n g " and " t h a n k s g i v i n g , " a r e t y p i c a l l y J e w i s h . Nock

r e c o g n i s e d t h a t " t h e E u c h a r i s t r e g a r d e d a s t h e a c t u a l i s a t i o n

o f a s o t e r i o l o g i c a l drama i s i n a l i n e w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y mys­

t e r i e s , " y e t he does n o t b e l i e v e t h a t i t i s . t h e c a s e o f one

i n f l u e n c i n g t h e o t h e r , b u t r a t h e r "one o f t h e c l e a r e s t c a s e s 71

o f c o n v e r g e n t r e l i g i o u s d e v e l o p m e n t . "

N e v e r t h e l e s s , we must r e c o g n i s e t h a t m y s t e r y c o n c e p t i o n s

r e p r e s e n t s o m e t h i n g more t h a n s i m p l e t e c h n i c a l v o c a b u l a r y ,

and t h a t t h e m y s t e r y r e l i g i o n s may have p r o v i d e d f o r e a r l y

G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n i t y a k i n d o f s p i r i t u a l a t m o s p h e r e w h i c h may

h ave made p o s s i b l e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f C h r i s t i a n i d e a s i n a

c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n . T h i s i m p l i e s n o t s o much a s i m p l e b o r ­

r o w i n g o f m y s t e r y c o n c e p t i o n s as;:an u n c o n s c i o u s a s s i m i l a t i o n

o f t h e t y p e o f r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e p r e s e n t e d by t h e m y s t e r i e s .

T h i s i s t h e p o s i t i o n o f Odo C a s e l and h i s d i s c i p l e s among t h e

112

monks o f M a r i a L a a c h . A r g u i n g f r o m a t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f

v i e w , C a s e l b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e m y s t e r i e s f u r n i s h e d a p r o v i ­

d e n t i a l f o r e s h a d o w i n g o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . A l t h o u g h , he s a y s ,

C h r i s t i a n i t y h a s r e j e c t e d t h e s e h e a t h e n m y s t e r i e s b e c a u s e

o f God's u n i q u e r e v e l a t i o n i n C h r i s t , " a t t h e same t i m e i t

has u s e d t h e i r l a n g u a g e i n o r d e r t o c l a r i f y f o r t h e f a i t h f u l

t h e e s s e n c e o f r e v e l a t i o n and t h e r e l i g i o n o f t h e n e x t w o r l d ,

and e s p e c i a l l y t h e i n t e r i o r m e a n i n g o f i t s own r i t u a l and

w o r s h i p w h i c h makes p r e s e n t and p e r m i t s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n 72

God's s a v i n g work i n C h r i s t . " F o r C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e f u n d a ­

m e n t a l m y s t e r y i s t h a t o f C h r i s t h i m s e l f , a s i s s u g g e s t e d by

P a u l i n 1 Co. 2:1: "When I came t o y o u , b r e t h e r e n , I d i d n o t

come p r o c l a i m i n g t o you t h e m y s t e r y o f God i n l o f t y w o rds o r

w i sdom. F o r I d e c i d e d t o know n o t h i n g among you e x c e p t J e s u s 73

C h r i s t and h i m c r u c i f i e d . " And i t i s i n t h e m y s t e r y o f

w o r s h i p t h a t t h i s f i r s t and f u n d a m e n t a l m y s t e r y i s c o n t i n u ­

a l l y made p r e s e n t t o t h e c ommunity o f b e l i e v e r s . 7 4

An a d m i s s i o n o f some k i n d o f i n f l u e n c e o f t h e G r e ek mys­

t e r i e s upon e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y must be q u a l i f i e d by t h e r e c o g ­

n i t i o n o f two f a c t o r s . The f i r s t i s t h a t t h e m y s t e r i e s were

p r o b a b l y n o t t h e o n l y f o r m o f H e l l e n i s t i c r e l i g i o u s e x p r e s s i o n

w h i c h e x e r c i s e d an i n f l u e n c e upon e a r l y G r e e k C h r i s t i a n i t y .

B u l t m a n n and Kaesemann m a i n t a i n t h a t an e a r l y f o r m o f

G n o s t i c i s m w i t h a h e a v e n l y r e d e e m e r myth a l s o e x e r c i s e d a

d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e on t h e t h e o l o g y o f p r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y . 7

113

The s e c o n d i s t h a t one must d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e t y p e o f

i n f l u e n c e e x e r c i s e d by t h e m y s t e r i e s on t h e C h r i s t i a n i t y o f

t h e New T e s t a m e n t p e r i o d and t h a t t y p e w h i c h a p p e a r s i n a

l a t e r p e r i o d . Hugo Rah n e r d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h r e e s t a g e s i n t h i s 7 R

p r o c e s s . F i r s t , i n t h e New T e s t a m e n t p e r i o d and e s p e c i a l l y

w i t h P a u l , t h e r e was an u n c o n s c i o u s a s s i m i l a t i o n o f c e r t a i n

m y s t e r y c o n c e p t i o n s ; y e t C h r i s t i a n i t y r e m a i n e d q u i t e a d i f ­

f e r e n t s o r t o f r e l i g i o u s phenomenon, s t i l l s t r o n g l y e s c h a t o ­

l o g i c a l and e x p r e s s i n g i t s e l f c h i e f l y w i t h i n a f r a m e w o r k o f

J e w i s h i d e a s . Then i n t h e s e c o n d and t h i r d c e n t u r i e s , when

t h e m y s t e r i e s themselv/es t o o k on a n e o - P l a t o n i c c h a r a c t e r , we

f i n d on t h e one hand a C h r i s t i a n p o l e m i c a g a i n s t m y s t e r i e s ,

and on t h e o t h e r hand t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f m y s t e r y - r e l i g i o n v o ­

c a b u l a r y ( s u c h as juviTCfJpiOV and s a c r a m e n t u m ) t o C h r i s t i a n

w o r s h i p . F i n a l l y , i n t h e f o u r t h and f i f t h c e n t u r i e s , when t h e

pagan m y s t e r i e s were d r a w i n g t o an end and had c e a s e d t o be a

s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , one f i n d s i n t h e c h u r c h t h e f u l l a p p l i c a t i o n o f what R a h n e r c a l l s "a mannered m y s t e r y t e r -

79

m i n o l o g y , " a s w e l l as s u c h m y s t e r y p r a c t i c e s as t h e d i s c i -

p l i n a a r c a n i . " I t was," Nock o b s e r v e s , "a m a t t e r o f d i p l o m a t i c

and p a e d o g o g i c t e c h n i q u e , and i n v o l v e d a f a i r l y c o n s c i o u s e f -

f o r t . " 8 0

The e a r l y h i s t o r y o f t h e c l a s s i c a l t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t c a n

be u n d e r s t o o d a s an e l e m e n t i n t h e g r a d u a l p r o c e s s o f t h e H e l -

l e n i s a t i o n and d e - e s c h a t o l o g i s a t i o n o f t h e t h e o l o g y and p r a c t i c e

114

o f t h e p r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h . An i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n

t h i s p r o c e s s was t h e i n f l u e n c e , e v e n i f a t f i r s t o n l y i n d i r e c t ,

o f t h e G r e ek m y s t e r y r e l i g i o n s . There can be l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t

t h i s f a c t o r was d e c i s i v e i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e J u d a e o -

C h r i s t i a n b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d i n t o t h e H e l l e n i s t i c C h r i s t i a n

r i t e w h i c h a c t u a l i s e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s o t e r i o l o g i c a l drama and

w h i c h b r o u g h t t h e b e l i e v e r s i n t o a d i r e c t communion w i t h t h e i r

L o r d . E a r l y G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n i t y had i n h e r i t e d b o t h t h e f e l l o w ­

s h i p m e al and t h e o r a l t r a d i t i o n c o n c e r n i n g J e s u s ' L a s t S u p p e r .

W i t h t h e a i d o f t h o s e m y s t e r y c o n c e p t i o n s w h i c h f o r m e d p a r t o f

t h e common c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d , i t was

a s i m p l e m a t t e r t o c o m b i n e t h e s e two t r a d i t i o n s and t h e r e b y

c r e a t e t h e s a c r a m e n t a l c e l e b r a t i o n w h i c h was t o become t h e

b a s i c e u c h a r i s t i c m o d e l . N a t u r a l l y , m y s t e r y c o n c e p t i o n s were

n o t t h e o n l y o n e s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t . F o r

e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s — G r e e k a s w e l l a s J e w i s h — t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t

s e r v e d as a s o u r c e - b o o k f r o m w h i c h t h e y c o u l d draw what t h e y

b e l i e v e d t o be d i v i n e l y r e v e a l e d i d e a s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e s a v i n g

a c t o f C h r i s t . Thus t h e m o t i f s o f c u l t i c s a c r i f i c e , o f t h e

S u f f e r i n g S e r v a n t , a n d , by t h e t i m e o f t h e s y n o p t i c g o s p e l s ,

o f t h e P a s s o v e r , c o u l d e a s i l y be i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e e u c h a r i s ­

t i c c e l e b r a t i o n .

Thus t h e t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t w h i c h P a u l t o o k o v e r f r o m t h e

H e l l e n i s t i c c h u r c h was a l r e a d y , i n a s e n s e , a " m y s t e r y . "

115

P a u l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s a c r e d meal can be v i e w e d as an

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e l i g h t o f h i s own v i e w o f t h e s a l v a t i o n 81

o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e s a c r a m e n t w h i c h he i n h e r i t e d . On t h e one

h a n d , P a u l a s s i m i l a t e d f r o m t h e H e l l e n i s t i c c h u r c h b o t h t h e

e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n ( s p e c i f i c a l l y , i n t h e f o r m o f t h a t

A n t i o c h e n e l i t u r g y w h i c h was a l s o u s e d by L u k e ) and t h e c o n ­

c e p t i o n o f i t as a s a c r a m e n t w h i c h e f f e c t s communion w i t h t h e

c r u c i f i e d and r i s e n C h r i s t . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , as Kaesemann

has p o i n t e d o u t , " a l m o s t t h e w h o l e o f P a u l ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f t h e p r i m i t i v e e u c h a r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n b e a r s t h e mark o f t h e

f a c t t h a t he h a s a d o p t e d and a d a p t e d t h e g n o s t i c myth o f an 82

A r c h e t y p a l Man who i s a l s o t h e Redeemer." Thus P a u l c l o s e l y 8 3

r e l a t e s t h e e u c h a r i s t i c body o f C h r i s t t o t h e m y s t i c a l body

o f C h r i s t , as w e l l as t o t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f t h e G o s p e l as a

p r e s e n t r e a l i t y .

P a u l s p e a k s o f t h e e u c h a r i s t on o n l y two o c c a s i o n s , i n

c h a p t e r t e n and i n c h a p t e r e l e v e n o f 1 C o r i n t h i a n s . I n c h a p ­

t e r t e n P a u l a l l u d e s t o t h e s a c r a m e n t s o f b a p t i s m and t h e e u ­

c h a r i s t i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n o f C h r i s t i a n e t h i c a l

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . I n t h e f i r s t t h i r t e e n v e r s e s o f t h i s c h a p t e r ,

t h e A p o s t l e i s a t t e m p t i n g t o c o r r e c t any f a l s e c o n f i d e n c e 84

w h i c h m i g h t a r i s e o u t o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e s e s a c r a m e n t s .

T h i s he d o e s by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f a t e o f t h e u n f a i t h f u l

I s r a e l i t e s a t t h e t i m e o f t h e E x o d u s :

116

I want you t o know, b r e t h e r e n , t h a t o u r f a t h e r s were a l l , u n d e r t h e c l o u d , and a l l p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e s e a , and a l l a t e t h e same s p i r i t u a l f o o d and d r a n k t h e same s p i r i t u a l d r i n k . F o r t h e y d r a n k f r o m t h e s p i r i t u a l r o c k w h i c h f o l l o w e d them, and t h e r o c k was C h r i s t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , w i t h most o f them God was n o t p l e a s e d , f o r t h e y were o v e r ­t h r o w n i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s (1 Co. 1 0 : 1 - 5 ) .

In t h i s p a s s a g e , P a u l i s s e e k i n g t o e s t a b l i s h n o t m e r e l y

t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s , b u t t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e o l d and t h e new

s a v i n g e v e n t s : i t i s C h r i s t h i m s e l f w h i c h was t h e r o c k a c -85

c o m p a n y i n g t h e w a n d e r i n g s o f t h e J e w s . The p a s s i n g t h r o u g h

t h e Red Sea and j o u r n e y i n g b e n e a t h t h e p i l l a r o f c l o u d c o r ­

r e s p o n d s t o b a p t i s m ; t h e e a t i n g o f manna and d r i n k i n g o f t h e

w a t e r o f t h e r o c k t o t h e e u c h a r i s t . As t h e I s r a e l i t e s were

t h e c h o s e n p e o p l e who were c a l l e d t o t a k e p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e

P r o m i s e d L a n d , so C h r i s t i a n s a r e now t h o s e "upon whom t h e end

o f t h e a g e s has come" (1 Co. 1 0 : 1 1 ) , t h o s e who a r e t h e h e i r s

o f t h e m e s s i a n i c k i n g d o m . P a u l ' s p u r p o s e i n t h u s p o r t r a y i n g

I s r a e l as t h e f i r s t r e c i p i e n t o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s a c r a m e n t s was

t o r e f u t e t h e o p i n i o n o f c e r t a i n C o r i n t h i a n s t h a t t h e i r s a c r a -

ments were i n t h e m s e l v e s a g u a r a n t e e o f s a l v a t i o n : i f t h o s e

who were b a p t i s e d i n t h e c l o u d and t h e s e a , who consumed t h e

f i r s t s p i r i t u a l f o o d and d r i n k , were n o t s e c u r e f r o m p u n i s h ­

ment, n e i t h e r a r e t h o s e i n t h e c h u r c h who r e c e i v e b a p t i s m and

p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e e u c h a r i s t i c m e a l . The s o u r c e o f t h e C o r i n ­

t h i a n m i s c o n c e p t i o n was, a s Kaesemann p o i n t s o u t , t h e H e l l e n ­

i s t i c ( G n o s t i c ) v i e w o f TWLV/** as a h e a v e n l y s u b s t a n c e w h i c h

117

c a n i n v a d e man's e a r t h l y n a t u r e ( &<xp^ ) and r e c a p t u r e him

f o r t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d .

Y e t P a u l h i m s e l f makes use o f t h i s same c o n c e p t i o n o f

TTV£VjUOi t o e x p o u n d h i s own s a c r a m e n t a l d o c t r i n e . Human e x ­

i s t e n c e i s n o t f o r h i m a u t o n o m o u s ; r a t h e r i t i s d e t e r m i n e d by

i t s i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e u n i v e r s e , and i s t h e o b j e c t o f s t r i f e 87

between t h e e a r t h l y and h e a v e n l y p o w e r s . W i t h i n t h e c o n -

t e x t o f t h i s a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l v i e w , t h e d i v i n e TfV£VfiA<* i s f o r

P a u l " t h e s u b s t a n c e o f r e s u r r e c t i o n c o r p o r e a l i t y and t h e d i -88

m e n s i o n i n w h i c h t h e R i s e n One e x i s t s . " T h u s , a c c o r d i n g

t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Kaesemann, t h e m e a n i n g o f many p a s s

s a g e s where P a u l s p e a k s o f C h r i s t " i n u s " o r us " i n C h r i s t y

i s t h a t C h r i s t e n t e r s i n t o us a s TtVCVjUAt , w h i l e we a r e mem-89

b e r s o f C h r i s t as h i s bod y . F o r P a u l , b o t h b a p t i s m and t h e

e u c h a r i s t a r e means by w h i c h we a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e body

o f C h r i s t , and b o t h a r e t h e work o f t h e one S p i r i t . I n 1 Co.

12:13 P a u l d e c l a r e s t h a t "by one S p i r i t we were a l l b a p t i s e d

i n t o one body," and i n t h e p a s s a g e c i t e d a b o v e t h e same c o n ­

c e p t i o n o f S p i r i t i s a p p l i e d t o t h e e u c h a r i s t . H ere fipu>jUO(

TrVSjLMXVLK-OV and TTOjUd TTV£VM^ZLlCOV m e a n f o o d a n d d r i n ( <

90

w h i c h c o n v e y TTVCV^id . B u t f o r P a u l , u n l i k e t h e C o r i n t h i a n

e n t h u s i a s t s , t h i s d o e s n o t r e s u l t i n any a u t o m a t i c s a l v a t i o n ;

r a t h e r i t g i v e s man t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e new

l i f e p r o v i d e d by C h r i s t .

118

I n t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f c h a p t e r t e n ( v s s . 1 4 - 2 2 ) , P a u l

moves on t o warn t h e C o r i n t h i a n s a g a i n s t t h e w o r s h i p o f

i d o l s . He r e c a l l s t o h i s r e a d e r s two a c k n o w l e d g e d f a c t s :

t h a t t h e e u c h a r i s t i c cup and b r e a d a r e a p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

t h e b l o o d and body o f C h r i s t , and t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

h e a t h e n c u l t i c m e a l s i n v o l v e s a f e l l o w s h i p w i t h d e v i l s . To

u n d e r s t a n d P a u l ' s a r g u m e n t h e r e , we must r e a l i s e t h a t f o r

h i m pagan gods were n o t m e r e l y c r e a t i o n s o f men's i m a g i n a -91

t i o n , b u t were a c t u a l demons. I n t h e pagan s a c r i f i c i a l

r i t u a l t o w h i c h P a u l i s r e f e r r i n g , t h e f l e s h o f t h e s l a i n

a n i m a l was d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e p a r t s a f t e r h a v i n g been o f ­

f e r e d t o t h e g o d . One p a r t was b u r n t on t h e a l t a r , and was

s u p p o s e d t o be e a t e n by t h e g o d . The s e c o n d p a r t was g i v e n

t o t h e t e m p l e , and i f t h e t e m p l e d i d n o t need i t , i t c o u l d

be s o l d i n t h e m a r k e t . The t h i r d p a r t b e l o n g e d t o t h e p e r ­

s o n who p r o v i d e d t h e o f f e r i n g , t o be u s e d by h i m f o r a meal

w h i c h t o o k p l a c e a t t h e a t a b l e o f t h e god i n t h e t e m p l e . By

means o f t h i s m e a l , t h e h o s t and h i s g u e s t s e n t e r e d i n t o 92

communion w i t h t h e g o d . W i t h r e g a r d t o meat s o l d i n t h e

m a r k e t , P a u l s a y s s i m p l y t h a t t h e C h r i s t i a n s h o u l d n o t b o t h e r

h i m s e l f e n q u i r i n g as t o w h e t h e r i t has been s a c r i f i c e d ( 1 0 : 2 5 ) .

B u t w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e c u l t i c m e a l , he s t a t e s q u i t e f l a t l y ,

"You c a n n o t d r i n k t h e cup o f t h e L o r d and t h e cup o f demons;

you c a n n o t p a r t a k e o f t h e t a b l e o f t h e L o r d and t h e t a b l e o f

demons" ( 1 0 : 2 0 f . ) .

119

We have s e e n a l r e a d y how P a u l ' s c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e e u ­

c h a r i s t i c cup and t a b l e w i t h H e l l e n i s t i c s a c r i f i c i a l meals

t h r o w s l i g h t on t h e meaning o f t h e f o r m u l a e KOWCOVZOi VOW

mjUaZOf and KOlVU)Vm TOIJ Otojuatzas ZO& KplcrcoGi ( 1 0 : 1 6 ) ,

and t h a t t h e i d e a , and p e r h a p s even t h e f o r m u l a e t h e m s e l v e s ,

were i n h e r i t e d f r o m t h e p r e - P a u l i n e H e l l e n i s t i c c h u r c h . I t

i s , m o r e o v e r , i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e i n t h i s v e r s e t h e e m p h a s i s

p l a c e d on t h e b l e s s i n g o f t h e cup ("the cup o f b l e s s i n g w h i c h

we b l e s s " ) and t h e b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d ("the b r e a d which we

b r e a k " ) : i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e b l e s s i n g o f the cup and the

b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d g i v e t o t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e meal t h e i r

s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r . G o g u e l comments: " I t would be p r e m a t u r e

t o t a l k h e r e o f a c o n s e c r a t i o n o f t h e e l e m e n t s , b u t t h e i d e a • •X

i s h e r e i n e mbryo."* J

In t h e f o l l o w i n g v e r s e , t h e r e i s a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a

c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e body o f C h r i s t i n w h i c h we a r e p a r t i c i p a n t s

t o a c o n c e p t i o n o f the body o f C h r i s t w h i c h we o u r s e l v e s c o n ­

s t i t u t e , and t o make t h i s t r a n s i t i o n , P a u l r e v e r s e s t h e n o r m a l 94

o r d e r o f t h e b r e a d and t h e cup i n v . 16. I t i s i n v e r s e 17

t h a t P a u l ' s t h o u g h t a d v a n c e s upon t h e e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y

w h i c h he i n h e r i t e d . He d e c l a r e s , " B e c a u s e t h e r e i s one b r e a d ,

we who a r e many a r e one body, f o r we a l l p a r t a k e o f t h e one

body." There i s a c l e a r p a r a l l e l between t h i s v e r s e and 1 Co.

12:13, " F o r by one S p i r i t we were a l l b a p t i s e d i n t o one body."

A l i k e power i s p r e d i c a t e d o f t h e "one S p i r i t " and t h e "one

120

b r e a d . " I n d e e d , as has been r e m a r k e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h

v e r s e 1 0 : 3 , t h e e u c h a r i s t i c f o o d and d r i n k i t s e l f c o n v e y s

JTVSOjUct . I t i s t h u s p r e c i s e l y by g i v i n g h i m s e l f t o us a s

HiWyiict , t h a t C h r i s t , t h e A r c h e t y p a l Man, g a t h e r s us t o g e t h e r

and i n c o r p o r a t e s us i n t o h i s body.^°

The s e c o n d p a s s a g e where P a u l s p e a k s o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i s

1 Co. 1 1 : 1 7 - 3 4 . The A p o s t l e ' s p r i m a r y c o n c e r n i n t h i s p a s ­

s a g e i s t o r e b u k e t h e C o r i n t h i a n C h r i s t i a n s f o r t h e i r u n c h a r i ­

t a b l e c o n d u c t a t t h e c ommunity m e a l s . The t e r m " L o r d ' s S u p ­

p e r " ( 1 1 : 2 0 ) , w h i c h P a u l u u s e s t o d e s c r i b e t h e s e m e a l s , e v i ­

d e n t l y r e f e r s t o a s i n g l e c o m m u n i t y f e a s t , c o m p r i s i n g b o t h

what w i l l l a t e r be c a l l e d t h e " a g a p e " and t h e " e u c h a r i s t " ( c f .

11:24).= I n f a c t i t i s l i k e l y t h a t i n t h e C o r i n t h i a n c e l e ­

b r a t i o n t h e " e u c h a r i s t i c " e l e m e n t s ( i . e . , t h e b r e a d and t h e

cup) were s e p a r a t e d by t h e meal p r o p e r . The words " a f t e r s u p ­

p e r " ( 1 1 : 2 5 ) , w r i t t e n i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c u p , s u g g e s t t h a t i t

was d i s t r i b u t e d a f t e r t h e m e a l . We may t h e r e f o r e c o n j e c t u r e

t h a t t h e r i t e o p e n e d w i t h t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e b r e a d , was

f o l l o w e d by t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f t h e " a g a p e , " and was c o n c l u d e d 97

w i t h t h e b l e s s i n g and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c u p . I t seems

P a u l d e s i r e d t o m i n i m i z e t h e a c t u a l meal ( 1 0 : 2 2 , "Do you n o t

have y o u r own! h o u s e s t o e a t and d r i n k i n ? " and 1 0 : 3 4 , " i f any

one i s h u n g r y , l e t him e a t a t home"), t h o u g h i t i s n o t l i k e l y , 98

a s D e l l i n g b e l i e v e s , t h a t he w i s h e d t o f o r b i d a l l e a t i n g

and d r i n k i n g a p a r t f r o m t h e b r e a d and c u p . The " a g a p e " was

121

n o t t o be a r e a l d i n n e r t o s a t i s f y h u n g e r , b u t r a t h e r a

r i t u a l t a b l e f e l l o w s h i p . We m i g h t p o i n t (crat t h a t P a u l n o ­

where s p e c i f i e s t h a t t h e cup c o n t a i n e d w i n e , and t h a t i t i s

p o s s i b l e i n t h e l i g h t o f Ro. 14:21 ( " i t i s r i g h t n o t t o e a t

meat o r d r i n k w i n e o r do a n y t h i n g t h a t makes y o u r b r o t h e r

s t u m b l e " ) , and o f t h e p r a c t i c e o f b r e a d and w a t e r e u c h a r i s t s 99

by t h e fflarcionites and o t h e r s e c o n d c e n t u r y g r o u p s , t h a t

P a u l p r e f e r r e d t h e use o f w a t e r i n t h e c u p .

I d e a l l y , t h i s " L o r d ' s S u p p e r " ( t h e name i n d i c a t e s an

e v e n i n g m e a l ) 1 0 0 was s u p p o s e d t o b e g i n when a l l were p r e s e n t ,

and t h e f o o d was t o be s h a r e d i n common. B u t a p p a r e n t l y t h e

r i c h C h r i s t i a n s ( 1 0 : 2 2 b ) were i n c o n s i d e r a t e t o w a r d s t h e p o o r e r

o n e s , and s t a r t e d b e f o r e t h e o t h e r s ( 1 0 : 2 1 , 3 4 ) . I n s t e a d o f

b e i n g t h e common, s o l e m n c e l e b r a t i o n w h i c h P a u l d e s i r e d , t h e

S u p p e r had d e g e n e r a t e d i n t o a number o f p r i v a t e p a r t i e s . I t

i s a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k g r o u n d t h a t P a u l q u o t e s and comments upon

J e s u s ' words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

Kaesemann has drawn a t t e n t i o n t o t h e number o f l e g a l t e r m s

w h i c h a p p e a r i n t h i s p a s s a g e : CVVSppgcr&ai (11 :27) , <*Vfc*ipu>S ,/ / 1 n?

(11 :27) , and CVO\Of (11 :27) , and 6w9rji<7) ( 1 1 : 2 5 ) . " H e r e , " Kaesemann s a y s , " t h e r e i s b e i n g handed on t o t h e community an

o b l i g a t o r y f o r m u l a o f s a c r e d l a w , t h e u n i m p e a c h a b l e v a l i d i t y

o f u i h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o i t s c o n t e n t and t o t h e s a c r e d n a t u r e o f 103

t h e a c t i o n s e t i n m o t i o n by t h i s c o n t e n t . " The s a c r a m e n t

i s no l o n g e r p r i m a r i l y an a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

122

banquet, but r a t h e r an ordinance t i e d to the time of the church, 1 04

i . e . , from the death of C h r i s t to the p a r o u s i a . The c e l e ­

b r a t i o n of the Lord's 5uppe r--and i n p a r t i c u l a r the "eucha­

r i s t i c " p a r t s , the b l e s s i n g and consumption of the bread and

the c u p — b r i n g s present here and noui C h r i s t i n h i s redeeming

death, and thereby brings the b e l i e v e r s i n t o communion uiith

t h e i r K y r i o s . The e u c h a r i s t i s a "remembrance" (10:24, 25) of

the Cross, conceived of not as a simple remembering, but r a t h e r as " o b j e c t i v e l y r e c a l l i n g the past so that i t i s again present

105 and' living 1!;'" Behm e x p l a i n s that the e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s com­

memorate not merely i n such s o r t t h a t they simply remember, but, r a t h e r i n accordance with the a c t i v e sense of htV&/L4VTj(TL$ . The making present by the l a t e r com­munity of the Lord who i n s t i t u t e d the Supper, and who put a new <Sx&&>JKYi i n t o e f f e c t by h i s death, i s the goal and content of t h e i r a c t i o n , i n which they repeat what was done by Jesus and h i s D i s c i p l e s on the eve of h i s c r u c i f i x i o n . 0 6

In t h i s sense, one can speak of a " r e a l presence" of C h r i s t i n

the e u c h a r i s t , and i t i s i n t h i s context that we must under­

stand the meaning of the words of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f o r P a u l .

There i s a c l e a r connection between these sayings and the

making present of C h r i s t — t h e e a t i n g of the bread and the d r i n k -

i:ng of the cup i s a proclamation of the Lord's death (10:26). Thus t h i s presence i s i n some way mediated by the elements

1 07 themselves. Here the body and blood of C h r i s t and the death

of C h r i s t are one and the same. The words of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

t e l l e x a c t l y what the elements are f o r the p a r t i c i p a n t s i n the

123

c e l e b r a t i o n — t h e s a c r i f i c e d body o f C h r i s t and t h e c o v e n a n t

i n h i s b l o o d . And i t i s t h i s body and b l o o d w h i c h i s p r o ­

f a n e d i n t h e u n w o r t h y c o n s u m p t i o n o f t h e b r e a d and cup ( 1 0 :

2 7 ) . I t i s p o i n t l e s s t o a s k w h e t h e r f o r P a u l ( a n d o t h e r

e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s ) t h e e u c h a r i s t i c p r e s e n c e i s l i t e r a l o r sym­

b o l i c , s i n c e f o r P a u l , and i n a n t i q u i t y g e n e r a l l y , t h a t w h i c h

r e p r e s e n t s a c t u a l l y b r i n g s t h e p r e s e n c e o f what i s r e p r e s e n t e d

and m e d i a t e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i t . T h i s " m y t h o l o g i c a l " c h a r a c ­

t e r o f t h e e a r l y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e u c h a r i s t i c p r e s e n c e w i l l be

f u r t h e r e x p l o r e d i n t h e a p p e n d i x .

I t w i l l be n o t i c e d t h a t words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e

l i t u r g y c i t e d by P a u l p r e s e n t us w i t h two d i f f e r e n t b u t r e l a t e d

c o n c e p t i o n s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e b r e a d f o r m u l a , t h e s a c r a m e n t a l

g i f t i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e c r u c i f i e d body o f C h r i s t ( i . e . ,

t h e d e a t h o f C h r i s t ) , and a c c o r d i n g t o t h e cup f o r m u l a , i t i s

a p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e "new c o v e n a n t . " The word KttlVOf i n

t h e l a t t e r s a y i n g i s t o be u n d e r s t o o d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l y , as 108

r e f e r r i n g t o t h a t w h i c h i s f i n a l . The "new c o v e n a n t " h e r e means C h r i s t ' s a c t u a l i s i n g o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l o r d e r , h i s

109

m a k i n g i t an a l r e a d y p r e s e n t r e a l i t y . The c o n n e c t i o n b e ­

tween t h e two s a y i n g s i s t h a t t h e d e a t h o f J e s u s e s t a b l i s h e s

t h e new c o v e n a n t . The e u c h a r i s t i c cup m e d i a t e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n

i n t h e new d i v i n e o r d e r b e c a u s e i t m e d i a t e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

t h e d e a t h o f C h r i s t ("the c o v e n a n t ijn my b l o o d " ) , on w h i c h

124

t h i s o r d e r i s f o u n d e d . "The e u c h a r i s t g i v e s s a l v a t i o n h e r e

and noui by p u t t i n g b e l i e v e r s i n communion u i i t h C h r i s t and

m a k i n g them members o f h i s b o d y , b e i n g s uiho h e n c e f o r t h b e l o n g

t o t h e w o r l d o f S p i r i t . " 1 1 0

A f t e r h a v i n g warned t h e C o r i n t h i a n c C h r i s t i a n s a g a i n s t u n ­

w o r t h y r e c e p t i o n o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c e l e m e n t s , P a u l goes on t o

a d m o n i s h h i s C o r i n t h i a n r e a d e r s t h u s :

L e t a man e x a m i n e h i m s e l f , and s o e a t o f t h e b r e a d and d r i n k o f t h e c u p . F o r any one who e a t s and d r i n k s w i t h o u t d i s c e r n i n g t h e body e a t s and d r i n k s j u d g e m e n t upon h i m s e l f . That i s why many o f you a r e weak and i l l , and some have f a l l e n a s l e e p ( 1 1 : 2 8 - 3 0 ) .

T h i s t e x t , and p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e p h r a s e jufj OictKpxViOV To COOJULS*.

( v . 2 9 ) , has been much d i s p u t e d . Does t h e word "body" i n t h e

words " w i t h o u t d i s c e r n i n g t h e body" r e f e r t o t h e e u c h a r i s t i c

body o r t o t h e body o f C h r i s t as t h e c h u r c h ? The n o r m a l

P a u l i n e m e a n i n g o f t h e t e r m body o f C h r i s t i s i n d e e d t h e C h r i s ­

t i a n c o m m u n i t y . The f a c t t h a t t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e p a s s a g e as a

whole i s d i s o r d e r i n t h e c h u r c h , and t h e f a c t t h a t P a u l s p e a k s

o n l y o f d i s c e r n i n g t h e "body" and n o t " t h e body and b l o o d , "

l e a d many a u t h o r i t i e s t o b e l i e v e t h a t P a u l must have h e r e i n 111

mind t h e c h u r c h . I f t h i s were t h e c a s e , t h e n e a t i n g and

d r i n k i n g w i t h o u t d i s c e r n i n g t h e body w o u l d r e f e r t o c o n d u c t a t

t h e L o r d ' s S u p p e r a r i s i n g o u t oJF a f a i l u r e t o r e c o g n i s e t h e 112

c h u r c h f o r what i t i s , and t h e j u d g e m e n t i n f l i c t e d upon t h e

u n w o r t h y i n v.30 w o u l d n o t a t a l l be c o n n e c t e d w i t h any power

125

i n t h e e l e m e n t s t h e m s e l v e s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , one c o u l d

a r g u e t h a t t h e words " w i t h o u t d i s c e r n i n g t h e body" must b e f u n -

d e r s t o o d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e two p r e v i o u s v e r s e s , and t h e r e f o r e 114

must r e f e r t o t h e s a c r a m e n t a l e l e m e n t o f t h e b r e a d . I t

w o u l d t h u s be t h e s a c r a m e n t a l body o f C h r i s t w h i c h moves us 11

t o j u d g e o u r s e l v e s , and b r i n g s upon us t h e j u d g e m e n t o f God.

Y e t i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h i s t e x t , we must b e a r i n mind t h a t f o r

P a u l t h e r e a r e n o t two b o d i e s o f C h r i s t . P a u l s a y s , " F o r j u s t

a s t h e body i s one and has many members, and a l l t h e members

o f t h e b o d y , t h o u g h many a r e one b o d y , s o i t i s w i t h C h r i s t "

(1 Co. 1 2 : 1 2 ) , and " B e c a u s e t h e r e i s one b r e a d w h i c h i s t h e

body o f C h r i s t , we who a r e many a r e one body" ( 1 0 : 1 7 ) . F o r

P a u l , t h e body w h i c h i s g i v e n t o us i n t h e e u c h a r i s t i s t h a t

same body w h i c h we o u r s e l v e s a r e , and by e a t i n g t h e body o f

C h r i s t we become i t . We do n o t t h e n , i n 1 0 : 2 9 , have t o s e t

up an o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e e u c h a r i s t i c and the m y s t i c a l body

o f C h r i s t . " W i t h o u t d i s c e r n i n g t h e body" means f a i l i n g t o r e ­

c o g n i s e t h a t c o r p o r e a l s e l f - m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f C h r i s t t h r o u g h

w h i c h me a r e c o n s t i t u t e d a s h i s b o d y . T h i s d o e s n o t mean,

h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e e u c h a r i s t i c e l e m e n t s c o n t a i n some m a g i c a l

p r o p e r t y w h i c h a v e r t s t h e s i c k n e s s and d e a t h r e f e r r e d t o i n

v. 3 0 : The a p o s t l e d o e s not...mean t o i m p l y t h a t t h e w o r t h y r e c e p t i o n o f t h e E u c h a r i s t p r e v e n t s

126

s i c k n e s s and d e a t h . He i s s i m p l y o b s e r v i n g t h a t t h e s e e m i n g l y uncommon e x p e r i e n c e o f s i c k n e s s and d e a t h o u g h t t o be a t t r i b u t e d t o a v i s i b l e j u d g e m e n t o f God on t h e u n w o r t h y r e c e p t i o n o f t h e E u c h a r i s t . F o r t h e u n w o r t h y , t h e E u c h a r i s t b e­comes a m e d i c i n e o f d e a t h i n t h e s e n s e t h a t ±t becomes t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e j u d g e m e n t o f God.

I t i s p o s s i b l e now t o s u m m a r i s e t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

c l a s s i c a l t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t a s f o r m u l a t e d i n t h e t h o u g h t o f

P a u l . The e u c h a r i s t f o r P a u l , as f o r t h e p r e - P a u l i n e H e l l e n ­

i s t i c c h u r c h , was a " m y s t e r y " t y p e o f s a c r a m e n t i n s t i t u t e d by

C h r i s t t o b r i n g b e l i e v e r s i n t o d i r e c t communion w i t h h i m

d u r i n g " t h e t i m e o f t h e c h u r c h . " I n t h i s s a c r a m e n t t h e s a c r i ­

f i c e o f C h r i s t i s made p r e s e n t . C h r i s t o f f e r s h i m s e l f — h i s - ;

r e d e e m i n g body and b l o o d — t o t h e b e l i e v e r s a s lT\>£Xt/uci .

Through t h i s o f f e r i n g t h e b e l i e v e r s a r e g i v e n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

o f a new l i f e i n t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l o r d e r , and t h r o u g h i t t h e y

a r e c o n s t i t u t e d a s t h e m y s t i c a l body o f C h r i s t . B u t t h i s s a c ­

r a m e n t i s by no means an a u t o m a t i c g u a r a n t e e o f s a l v a t i o n , and

u n c h a r i t a b l e c o n d u c t i s a p r o f a m a t i o n o f t h e body o f C h r i s t —

t h e one body o f C h r i s t w h i c h i s m a n i f e s t e d b o t h i n t h e e u c h a r i s ­

t i c c e l e b r a t i o n and as t h e co m m u n i t y i t s e l f - - a n d p r o v o k e s t h e

j u d g e m e n t o f God.

A f t e r P a u l ' s f i r s t l e t t e r t o t h e C o r i n t h i a n s , t h e n e x t

s o u r c e s w h i c h we have c o n c e r n i n g t h e c l a s s i c a l t y p e o f e u c h a ­

r i s t a r e t h e L a s t S u p p e r n a r r a t i v e s i n t h e s y n o p t i c g o s p e l s .

These n a r r a t i v e s do n o t r e v e a l any s t a r t l i n g a d v a n c e o v e r t h e

e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y o f P a u l , and i n d e e d t h e y l a c k t h e i n d i v i -

127

d u a l i t y and s u b t l e t y o f t h e A p o s t l e ' s t h o u g h t . They r e p r e ­

s e n t r a t h e r an a c c e n t u a t i o n o f c e r t a i n themes i n t h e H e l l e n ­

i s t i c e u c h a r i s t w h i c h e x i s t e d a l r e a d y b e f o r e P a u l . As we

have n o t e d i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s s e c t i o n , t h i s p r e - P a u l i n e

e u c h a r i s t o f t h e c l a s s i c a l t y p e a l r e a d y c o n t a i n e d t h e c h a r a c ­

t e r i s t i c themes o f c o v e n a n t , e x p i a t o r y s a c r i f i c e , communion,

and i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e r i t e by C h r i s t . The most s t r i k i n g d e ­

v e l o p m e n t e v i d e n t i n t h e s y n o p t i c e v a n g e l i s t s i s t h e s t r e s s

on t h e i d e a o f a t o n e m e n t , a phenomenon w h i c h c a n be i n t e r ­

p r e t e d as a s t e p i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e d o c t r i n e o f e u c h a r i s ­

t i c s a c r i f i c e . L u k e , who r e p r o d u c e s a v a r i a n t o f t h e l i t u r g y

u s e d by P a u l , has t h e words " g i v e n f o r y o u " and " w h i c h i s

p o u r e d o u t f o r y o u " a dded t o t h e b r e a d and cup s a y i n g s ( 2 2 :

1 9 f . ) . I n Mark (who i s h e r e f o l l o w e d by M a t t h e w ) t h e cup

s a y i n g i s b r o u g h t i n t o l i n e w i t h t h e b r e a d s a v i n g , t h u s em­

p h a s i s i n g t h e n o t i o n o f c u l t i c s a c r i f i c e by m a k i n g "body" and

" b l o o d " p a r a l l e l p r e d i c a t e s . I n M a r k , t h e b l o o d " i s p o u r e d

o u t f o r many f o r t h e f o r g i v e n e s s o f s i n s " ( 2 6 : 2 8 ) . F u r t h e r ,

a l l t h r e e s y n o p t i c s p o r t r a y t h e L a s t .Supper as a P a s s o v e r

m e al (Mk. I 4 : 1 2 f f . ; Mt. 2 6 : 1 7 f f . ; L k . 2 2 : 7 f f . ) , t h e r e b y s u g ­

g e s t i n g t h a t t h e body and b l o o d o f f e r e d i n t h e e u c h a r i s t r e ­

p l a c e t h e p a s c a l l a m b .

To be s u r e , t h e L a s t S u p p e r a c c o u n t s o f e a c h g o s p e l

r e f l e c t t o some d e g r e e t h e p a r t i c u l a r t h e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e

128

o f i t s e v a n g e l i s t ( o r o f t h e c o mmunity w h i c h he r e p r e s e n t s ) ,

and t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n s a r e n o t w i t h o u t i m p o r t a n c e f o r

t h e l a t e r h i s t o r y o f t h i s e u c h a r i s t i c t y p e . Thus M a t t h e w ,

w h i c h has been d e s c r i b e d as t h e " e c c l e s i a s t i c a l g o s p e l , " em­

p h a s i s e s t h a t J e s u s gave t h e b r e a d " t o t h e d i s c i p l e s " ( a s o p ­

p o s e d t o a s i m p l e "them" i n Mark; Mt. 2 6 : 2 6 , Mk. 1 4 : 2 2 ) . The

n o t i o n o f t h e e u c h a r i s t a s a c o r p o r a t e a c t f o u n d e d by C h r i s t ' s

command i s a c c e n t u a t e d by M a t t h e w ' s c h a n g i n g o f M a r k ' s " t h e y

a l l d r a n k o f i t " ( 1 4 : 2 3 ) t o t h e i m p e r a t i v e " D r i n k o f i t , a l l

o f y o u " ( M t . 2 6 : 2 7 ) , and by h i s a d d i t i o n o f " w i t h y o u " t o t h e

vow o f a b s t i n e n c e ( 2 6 : 2 9 ) . M o r e o v e r , M a t t h e w ' s i m p o r t a n t a d ­

d i t i o n o f " f o r t h e f o r g i v e n e s s o f s i n s " t o t h e cup s a y i n g a l s o

has an e c c l e s i o l o g i c a l s i g n i g i c a n c e : f o r M a t t h e w , t h e a u t h o ­

r i t y t o f o r g i v e s i n s had become t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e com­

m u n i t y — t h i s most p r o b a b l y i s t h e p o i n t he w i s h e s t o make i n

t h e s t o r y o f t h e f o r g i v i n g and h e a l i n g o f t h e p a r a l y t i c ( M t . 117

9 : 2 - 8 ) . Thus u n t i l t h e c o m i n g o f t h e p a r o u s i a t h e e u c h a ­

r i s t i s c e l e b r a t e d s o t h a t men may be f r e e d f r o m t h e i r s i n s .

L u k e ' s L a s t S u p p e r n a r r a t i v e i s p e r h a p s e v e n more r e ­

v e a l i n g o f t h e t h e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e a u t h o r t h a n

t h o s e o f t h e o t h e r two s y n o p t i c e v a n g e l i s t s . As Voobus has

p o i n t e d o u t , Luke i s t h e o n l y s y n o p t i c e v a n g e l i s t who r e a l l y

i n t e g r a t e s o r g a n i c a l l y t h e L a s t S u p p e r a c c o u n t i n t o t h e l a r g e r 118

l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p a s s i o n n a r r a t i v e . H i s a d d i t i o n s

t o and a l t e r a t i o n s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n w h i c h he r e c e i v e d a r e i n d i -

129

c a t i v e o f h i s t h e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n , and i n p a r t i c u l a r h i s

c o n c e p t i o n o f s a c r e d h i s t o r y . T h i s c o n c e p t i o n , u i h i c h h a s 119

been e x p l o r e d i n t h e w e l l - k n o w n work o f Hans C o n z e l m a n n ,

was L u k e ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e d e l a y o f t h e p a r -

o u s i a and t h e c o n t i n u i n g e x i s t e n c e o f t h e c h u r c h ; i t was

marked by an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f human h i s t o r y b e i n g d i v i d e d

i n t o t h r e e s t a g e s , t h a t o f " t h e l a w and t h e p r o p h e t s . . .

u n t i l J o h n " ( L k . 1 6 : 1 6 ) , t h a t o f J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y , and t h a t

o f t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e a s c e n s i o n t o t h e p a r o u s i a ("the t i m e

o f t h e c h u r c h " ) . W h i l e , as was r e m a r k e d i n o u r f i r s t c h a p ­

t e r , t h e t w o f o l d f o r m o f t h e vow o f a b s t i n e n c e was i n a l l

p r o b a b i l i t y drawn f r o m a p r e - L u c a n s o u r c e , t h e r e a r e n e v e r ­

t h e l e s s i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h i s s o u r c e has been r e t o u c h e d by

Luke t o b>ring i t i n t o l i n e w i t h n h i s own t h e o l o g i c a l c o n v i c ­

t i o n s . Thus i n t h e vow c o n c e r n i n g t h e c u p , where Mark ( f o l ­

l o w e d q u i t e c l o s e l y by M a t t h e w ) has J e s u s r e n o u n c i n g t h e

f r u i t o f t h e v i n e " u n t i l t h a t day when I d r i n k i t new i n t h e

k i n g d o m o f God" (Mk. 1 4 : 2 5 ; c f . Mt. 2 6 : 2 9 ) , L u k e ' s w o r d i n g i s

" u n t i l t h e k i n g d o m o f God comes" ( L k . 2 2 : 1 8 ) , a f o r m u l a w h i c h

e m p h a s i s e s t h e p e r i o d o f w a i t i n g b e t w e e n t h e end o f J e s u s '

m i n i s t r y and t h e p a r o u s i a .

S i m i l a r l y , i n Luke 22:27-30 ( w h i c h i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t

o f L u k e ' s L a s t S u p p e r n a r r a t i v e ) , t h e p r e s e n t r o l e o f t h e d i s ­

c i p l e s , who may be h e r e u n d e r s t o o d a s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e c h u r c h ,

on t h e one hand l o o k s back t o t h e m i n i s t r y o f J e s u s ( v . 2 8 :

130

"You a r e t h o s e who have c o n t i n u e d w i t h me i n my t r i a l s " ) and

on t h e o t h e r hand l o o k s f o r w a r d t o t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b a n q u e t

and j u d g e m e n t a t t h e t i m e o f t h e p a r o u s i a ( v . 3 0 ) . F o r t h o s e

who a r e p r e s e n t l y s i t t i n g a t t a b l e ( v . 27)--we may s u p p o s e

h e r e t h a t L u k e has i n mind t h e community c e l e b r a t i n g t h e e u ­

c h a r i s t - - J e s u s i s s a i d t o " a p p o i n t " ( v . 29) a k i n g d o m , o r make

a c o v e n a n t (SlcLriBrjjUl ) • F u r t h e r m o r e , L u k e ' s c h o i c e o f t h e

A n t i o c h e n e l i t u r g i c a l s o u r c e o v e r Mark f o r h i s f o r m o f t h e

words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was no d o u b t m o t i v a t e d by t h e same c o n ­

c e p t i o n o f s a c r e d h i s t o r y : t h e command "Do t h i s i n remembrance

o f me" ( L k . 22:19) a u t h e n t i c a t e d t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e e u c h a ­

r i s t i c meal d u r i n g t h e i n t e r i m p e r i o d o f t h e c h u r c h .

I t i s c e r t a i n l y w i t h i n t h i s same c o n t e x t t h a t we must

c o n s i d e r L u k e ' s r e p o r t s o f s a c r e d m e a l s i n p r i m i t i v e C h r i s -120

t i a n i t y . F o r L u k e , t h e b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d ( A c t s 2 : 4 2,

46; 2 0 : 7 , 1 1 ; 27:35) was a r i t e c e l e b r a t e d i n t h e t i m e when t h e

S p i r i t had been g i v e n t o t h e community w h i c h was a w a i t i n g t h e

c o n s u m m a t i o n ( c f . A c t s 1 : 6 f f . ; 2 : 1 f f . ) . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , i t

i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e L u k e ' s r e p o r t t h a t P a u l , i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r

h i s c o n v e r s i o n , "was b a p t i s e d and t o o k f o o d and was s t r e n g t h e n e d "

( A c t s 9 : 1 9 ) . The r e f e r e n c e t o t a k i n g f o o d i s d o u b t l e s s f o r t h e

e v a n g e l i s t an a l l u s i o n t o t h e e u c h a r i s t ; e l s e w h e r e t h i s e x p r e s ­

s i o n i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d ( A c t s 2:46,

2 7 : 3 6 ) . S u c h i s p r o b a b l y a l s o t h e c a s e i n L u k e ' s s t o r y o f t h e

c o n v e r s i o n o f P a u l ' s and S i l a s ' g a o l e r : a meal f o l l o w s i m m e d i ­

a t e l y upon t h e b a p t i s m o f t h e g a o l e r and h i s f a m i l y ( A c t s 16:

131

3 4 ) . The s a c r e d meal i s t h u s f o r Luke c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o bap­

t i s m ( c f . a l s o A c t s 2 : 4 1 f . ) ; t h e tuio r i t e s a r e t h e c o n t i ­

n u i n g s i g n s o f f a i t h ( c f . A c t s 1 6 : 3 1 f . ) and o f t h e p r e s e n c e

o f C h r i s t ( L k . 2 4 : 3 5 , A c t s 2:38) a f t e r h i s a s c e n s i o n and

d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f t h e S p i r i t i n t h e community ( A c t s 1:5;

2 :38; 9:17) .

The D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e C l a s s i c a l Type o f E u c h a r i s t i n

D e u t e r o - J o h n and I q n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h

Touiard t h e c l o s e o f t h e New T e s t a m e n t p e r i o d t h e t h e o ­

l o g y o f t h e e u c h a r i s t o f t h e c l a s s i c a l t y p e u n d e r w e n t a f u r ­

t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h was t o be o f d e c i s i v e i m p o r t a n c e f o r

t h e f u t u r e o f e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y . T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t i s sum­

m a r i s e d i n I g n a t i u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s a c r a m e n t as " t h e

m e d i c i n e o f i m m o r t a l i t y " ( E p h . 2 0 : 2 ) , and i t may be i n t e r ­

p r e t e d as t h e r e s u l t o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g H e l l e n i s a t i o n and d e -

e s c h a t o l o g i s a t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e

n o t i o n o f a communal p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e body and b l o o d o f

C h r i s t , t h e r e was now a d d e d an e m p h a s i s on t h e e u c h a r i s t as a

g u a r a n t e e o f s a l v a t i o n f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s a s p e c t o f

e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y was t o be r e i n f o r c e d by an i n c r e a s i n g

a c c e n t u a t i o n o f t h e s a c r i f i c i a l m o t i f : i n b o t h J o h n 6 and I g ­

n a t i u s t h e e u c h a r i s t i c b r e a d i s d e s i g n a t e d as t h e " f l e s h " o f

C h r i s t , a t e r m w h i c h , when u s e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h " b l o o d , "

i s e s s e n t i a l l y s a c r i f i c i a l .

T h i s t r e n d does n o t r e p r e s e n t a c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f t h e

e a r l i e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e e u c h a r i s t , b u t r a t h e r a d e v e l o p -

1 3 2

ment o u t o f i t . We have s e e n t h a t f o r P a u l t h e e u c h a r i s t i c

c e l e b r a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e d a s h a r i n g i n C h r i s t ' s r e s u r r e c t i o n 121

f o r m o f b e i n g , a n o t i o n u i h i c h uias a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i d e a o f t h e e u c h a r i s t as an a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e m e s s i a n i c

122

b a n q u e t . However, w i t h t h e c o n t i n u i n g d e l a y o f t h e p a r -

o u s i a , t h i s p r i m i t i v e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s e n s e o f i m m i n e n c e gave

way t o t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e e u c h a r i s t as a p r e s e n t g u a r a n ­

t e e f o r t h e f u t u r e r e s u r r e c t i o n .

We s h o u l d n o t e h e r e t h a t t h i s new e m p h a s i s i s c l o s e l y

c o n n e c t e d w i t h a s h i f t i n c h r i s t o l o g i c a l and s o t e r i o l o g i c a l

t h e o r y , a s h i f t w h i c h may a l s o be r e l a t e d t o a l e s s e n i n g

i n t e r e s t i n e s c h a t o l o g y and t o t h e f u r t h e r b o r r o w i n g o f H e l ­

l e n i s t i c i d e a s . I n an e a r l i e r p e r i o d , C h r i s t was s e e n as

l i v i n g w i t h i n t h e c h u r c h i t s e l f , and h i s p r e s e n c e was c o n ­

s i d e r e d a s t h e power w h i c h s u s t a i n s i t s members. I t i s t h u s

t h a t P a u l s p e a k s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n l i f e as a l i f e " i n C h r i s t "

and t h e t h e F o u r t h E v a n g e l i s t s p e a k s o f an " a b i d i n g i n C h r i s t , "

a r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h f o r him i s a n a l o g o u s t o t h a t e x i s t i n g b e­

tween t h e v i n e and i t s b r a n c h e s . But we f i n d w i t h i n t h e New

T e s t a m e n t i t s e l f t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a new t e n d e n c y , n a m e l y t o

p l a c e C h r i s t i n t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l s p h e r e . T h i s t e n d e n c y i s

c l e a r i n s u c h c r e d a l f o r m u l a t i o n s as "who has gone i n t o

h e a v e n , and i s a t t h e r i g h t hadn o f God, w i t h a n g e l s , a u t h o ­

r i t i e s , and p o w e r s s u b j e c t t o h i m " (1 P e t . 5 : 2 2 ) , and "we

have s u c h a h i g h p r i e s t , one who i s s e a t e d a t t h e r i g h t hand

o f t h e t h r o n e o f t h e M a j e s t y i n h e a v e n " (Hb. 8 : 1 ) . 1 2 3 S u c h

133

a c o n c e p t i o n gave r i s e t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e a p o t h e o s i s

w h i c h C h r i s t had g a i n e d t h r o u g h h i s d e a t h and r e s u r r e c t i o n

c o u l d be t r a n s f e r r e d t o i n d i v i d u a l b e l i e v e r s by means o f 124

s a c r a m e n t a l m e d i a t i o n , i . e . , t h a t t h e s a c r a m e n t c o u l d

s e r v e as a b r i d g e between t h e b e l i e v e r and t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t

w o r l d .

A t t h e same t i m e , t h e D e u t e r o - J o h a n n i n e and I g n a t i a n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e e u c h a r i s t r e p r e s e n t s an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f t h e s a c r a m e n t i n t e r m s o f t h e L o g o s t h e o r y . The u s e o f

t h e word &&p% by t h e s e a u t h o r s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e e u ­

c h a r i s t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e y u n d e r s t a n d i t i n t e r m s o f t h e H e l ­

l e n i s t i c d o c t r i n e o f r e d e m p t i o n as a u n i f i c a t i o n o f f l e s h and s p i r i t {SVCOOli C&pKIVy] ZC Kdl TrveVjU&ZrKV] » I g n a t i u s , Ad

12 5 lYiagn. 1 3 : 2 ) . Thus i n t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n t h e r e i s a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h a t u n i o n o f L o g o s - S p i r i t and m a t t e r w h i c h

126

began w i t h C h r i s t . T h i s t h e o r y u l t i m a t e l y l e d t o t h e r e ­

p l a c e m e n t o f t h e p r a y e r f o r t h e r e t u r n o f C h r i s t by t h e e p i -

c l e s i s p r a y e r f o r t h e L o g o s - S p i r i t t o d e s c e n d and u n i t e i t -127

s e l f w i t h t h e e l e m e n t s .

Uie s h a l l t u r n now t o e x a m i n e more c l o s e l y t h e e u c h a r i s ­

t i c t h e o l o g y p r e s e n t e d i n J o h n 6. E a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r we

have a r g u e d t h a t t h e F o u r t h E v a n g e l i s t h i m s e l f was n o t f a m i l i a r

w i t h t h e c l a s s i c a l b r e a d and wi n e t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t , b u t i n ­

s t e a d w i t h a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t s o r t o f c u l t i c m e a l i n w h i c h

134

b r e a d and f i s h were consumed. Few s c h o l a r s , h o w e v e r , have

made t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , and most o f them have assumed t h e

e s s e n t i a l i n t e g r i t y and u n i t y o f t h e G o s p e l . W i t h t h i s a s ­

s u m p t i o n , e x e g e t e s have m e t i c u l o u s l y s e a r c h e d i n J o h n f o r

s y m b o l i c a l l u s i o n s t o t h e c l a s s i c a l e u c h a r i s t . The r e s u l t

o f t h e s e l a b o u r s has been a e u c h a r i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f

s u c h p a s s a g e s a s t h e m a r r i a g e a t C a n a , t h e c l e a n s i n g o f t h e

T emple, t h e a l l e g o r y o f t h e v i n e , and C h r i s t ' s w a s h i n g o f 128

t h e d i s c i p l e s ' f e e t .

The same a s s u m p t i o n has l e d t o c o n s i d e r a b l e c o m p l i c a t i o n

i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e B r e a d o f L i f e d i s c o u r s e i n J o h n

6. The a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e d i s c o u r s e were a l r e a d y

n o t e d by C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a and O r i g e n , who m a i n t a i n e d t h a t

t h e w h o l e o f t h e d i s c o u r s e r e f e r r e d t o t h e n o u r i s h m e n t o f

man's s o u l w i t h t h e word o f C h r i s t . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was

r e v i v e d i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y by t h e P r o t e s t a n t R e f o r m e r s and by C a j e t a n (who u s e d i t i n o r d e r t o d e f e n d communion u n d e r

. 129

one k i n d ) . R. Brown has d i s t i n g u i s h e d f i v e t h e o r i e s c o n ­

c e r n i n g t h e m e a n i n g and c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e d i s c o u r s e w h i c h

have a t t r a c t e d modern s c h o l a r s :

1) T h a t t h e w h o l e d i s c o u r s e ( j n . 6:35-59) r e f e r s t o t h e

r e v e l a t i o n i n J e s u s and h i s t e a c h i n g ( G o d e t , W e i s s , B o r n h a u e -

s e r , Q d e b e r g , S c h l a t t e r ) .

2) T h a t o n l y t h e f i r s t p a r t ( v s s . 35-50 o r 35-51a) has

t h i s " s a p i e n t i a l " theme, v s s . 5 1 (b ) i-58 r e f e r r i n g t o t h e e u -

135

c h a r i s t i c f l e s h o f J e s u s ( L a g r a n g e , S c h w e i z e r , Menoud, W o l l a t ,

M u s s n e r , B u l t m a n n , Dodd, B a r r e t t ) .

3) T hat t h e w h o l e d i s c o u r s e r e f e r s t o t h e e u c h a r i s t i c

b r e a d ( L o i s y , T o g a c , C u l l m a n n , van den B u s s c h e ) .

4) That t h e whole r e f e r s t o b o t h C h r i s t ' s r e v e l a t i o n and

t h e e u c h a r i s t ( L e o n - D u f o u r ) .

5) That t h e f i r s t p a r t r e f e r s p r i m a r i l y t o r e v e l a t i o n ,

and s e c o n d a r i l y t o t h e e u c h a r i s t ; t h e s e c o n d p a r t t o t h e e u -1 30

c h a r i s t o n l y ( F e u i l l e t , R. B r o w n ) .

Uie have a r g u e d a b o v e f o r t h e s e c o n d t h e o r y , on t h e g r o u n d s

o f c e r t a i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b e t ween t h e f i r s t and s e c o n d p a r t s o f

th e d i s c o u r s e and b e c a u s e o f o u r a n a l y s i s o f o t h e r J o h a n n i n e

t e x t s w h i c h p o i n t t o a d i f f e r e n t t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t i c m e al t h a n 1 31

t h a t r e f e r r e d t o i n J n . 6:51b-58. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e

r e a s o n s , we may, w i t h B u l t m a n n , p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e n o t i o n o f

t h e " m e d i c i n e o f i m m o r t a l i t y " f o u n d i n J n . 6:51b-58 i s i n c o n ­

s i s t e n t w i t h J o h n ' s r e a l i s e d e s c h a t o l o g y , and t h a t t h e o f f e n c e

w h i c h t h e Jews a r e s a i d t o t a k e a t J e s u s ' o f f e r o f h i s f l e s h

and b l o o d i s o f q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t s o r t t h a n t h e s k a n d a l a w h i c h a r i s e s f r o m t h e p e c u l i a r J o h a n n i n e d u a l i s m , w h i c h i s m i s s i n g

132

h e r e .

The s e c o n d p a r t o f t h e B r e a d o f L i f e d i s c o u r s e i s , t h e n ,

i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y an i n s e r t i o n by a l e t e r e c c l e s i a s t i c a l r e -133

d a c t o r , p r o b a b l y f r o m t h e e a r l y s e c o n d c e n t u r y , f T h i s r e d a c -

136

t o r f o u n d i n t h e J o h a n n i n e d i s c o u r s e a c o n v e n i e n t model f o r

an e x p o s i t i o n o f h i s e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y , a t h e o l o g y u i h i c h

uias s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f I g n a t i u s , and u i h i c h , as uie

have r e m a r k e d , r e f l e c t e d d i f f e r e n t c h r i s t o l o g i c a l and s o t e r i o -

l o g i c a l c o n c e p t i o n s t h a n t h o s e o f J o h n .

The t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n r e f e r r e d t o i n t h i s

p a s s a g e i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same t y p e a s t h a t r e f e r r e d t o i n

t h e P a u l i n e and s y n o p t i c i n s t i t u t i o n n a r r a t i v e s . Y e t t h i s o b ­

s e r v a t i o n r e v e a l s i m m e d i a t e l y a s t r i k i n g d i f f e r e n c e : i t i s n o t

an i n s t i t u t i o n n a r r a t i v e , and i t i s n o t i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e c o n ­

t e x t o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r . I t may w e l l be t h a t i n t h e c e l e b r a ­

t i o n u i h i c h t h e r e d a c t o r h e r e had i n mind t h e uiords o f i n s t i ­

t u t i o n were r e c i t e d i n some f o r m c l o s e t o t h e P a u l i n e - s y n o p t i c

f o r m u l a e — J n . 6:51, "The b r e a d t h a t I s h a l l g i v e i s my f l e s h

f o r t h e l i f e o f t h e w o r l d , " r e s e m b l e s t h e L u c a n f o r m u l a " T h i s

i s my body w h i c h i s g i v e n f o r y o u , " and c o u l d be a r e w o r k i n g

o f s u c h a f o r m u l a — b u t t h e r e d a c t o r has no i n t e r e s t i n

r e l a t i n g t h e c e l e b r a t i o n back t o t h e L a s t S u p p e r . The r e a s o n

f o r t h i s i s t h a t he has no c o n c e r n f o r t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s ;

what c o n c e r n s him i s t h e r e d e m p t i v e power o f J e s u s * d e a t h .

The g i f t o f i m m o r t a l i t y was won t h r o u g h C h r i s t ' s d e a t h , and

t h u s t h e means o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h i s g i f t , t h e s a c r a m e n t s , a r e

a l s o f o u n d e d on t h i s d e a t h . T h i s i d e a i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e r e ­

p o r t o f b l o o d and w a t e r c o m i n g f r o m J e s u s ' s i d e ( J n . 1 9 : 3 4 b ) .

137

Here b l o o d and m a t e r have a d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g t h a n i n t h e more

p r o p e r l y J o h a n n i n e p a s s a g e 1 J n . 5:6, where t h e w a t e r and b l o o d

d e n o t e p o i n t s o f t i m e i n C h r i s t ' s m i n i s t r y ( h i s b a p t i s m and

d e a t h ) and a r e o f p r i m a r i l y a n t i - d o c e t i c i n t e n t , a f f i r m i n g t h a t

C h r i s t came " n o t o n l y w i t h w a t e r , b u t w i t h w a t e r and b l o o d , " 1 34

i . e . , t h a t he s u f f e r e d a r e a l d e a t h . J n . 19:34b i s t h e r e ­

f o r e d o u b t l e s s l y an a d d i t i o n o f t h e same e c c l e s i a s t i c a l r e d a c ­

t o r who i n s e r t e d J n . 6:51b-58 and J n . 3:5 ( " T r u l y , t r u l y , I

s a y t o y o u , u n l e s s one i s b o r n o f w a t e r and t h e S p i r i t , he

c a n n o t e n t e r t h e Kingdom o f G o d " ) , a n d , as B u l t m a n n s a y s , " I t s

m e a n ing ca n h a r d l y be o t h e r t h a n t h a t i n J e s u s ' d e a t h on t h e

c r o s s , t h e s a c r a m e n t s o f b a p t i s m and t h e L o r d ' s S u p p e r have 135

t h e i r f o u n d a t i o n . " S u c h , i n d e e d , was t h e way i n w h i c h t h e 136

F a t h e r s i n t e r p r e t e d t h i s t e x t .

The a u t h o r o f J n . 6:51b-59 d o e s n o t t h e n s e e t h e e u c h a ­

r i s t as a n a m n e s i s so much as a c h a n n e l t h r o u g h w h i c h " e t e r n a l

l i f e " i s b e s t o w e d , a m e d i a t o r y r i t e f o u n d e d on J e s u s ' d e a t h .

The i m p o r t a n c e o f J e s u s ' d e a t h i s i m p l i e d i n t h e v e r y v o c a b u ­

l a r y w h i c h t h e r e d a c t o r c h o o s e s . As Dodd p o i n t s o u t , " t h e

e x p r e s s i o n OOVVdV ZT\V CdpKOi . . . 6:52 c a n h a r d l y f a i l

t o s u g g e s t t h e i d e a o f d e a t h . And t h e e x p r e s s i o n TltVCW ZO

QLXJUOL 6:54 ,56 , a g a i n , c a n h a r d l y f a i l t o s u g g e s t s h e d b l o o d ,

and t h e r e f o r e v i o l e n t d e a t h . " 1 3 ' ' ' The t e r m s V&p% and cOjuSi a r e

c o r r e l a t i v e s w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e Hebrew t e r m s b a s a r and

dam, t o g e t h e r c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l o f s a c r i f i c e ( F z . 39:

138

1 7 ) . The e u c h a r i s t i c b r e a d i s J e s u s ' f l e s h i)Tl£p . . . ( v .

5 1 ) , i . e . , J e s u s ' f l e s h a s a s a c r i f i c e o f f e r e d f o r t h e redemp­

t i o n o f man.

The u s e o f t h e word <5^y?^ h a s a l s o c h r i s t o l o g i c a l c o n ­

n o t a t i o n s . The c h r i s t o l o g y u n d e r l y i n g t h i s p a s s a g e i s t h e

same a s t h a t o f t h e p r o l o g u e o f J o h n : t h e r e d e e m e r came as a

union o f AoyO* and C*p% . The f u n c t i o n o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i s

t o p e r p e t u a t e t h i s r e d e e m i n g u n i o n f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e b e ­

l i e v e r . Thus t h o s e who r e j e c t t h e i n c a r n a t i o n - - t h e " J e w s " o f

v. 52 as w e l l as D o c e t i c s ( c f . t h e use o f t h e word &cip^ i n

th e p r o b a b l y a n t i - d o c e t i c t e x t 1 J n . 4:2: " E v e r y s p i r i t t h a t

a c k n o w l e d g e s J e s u s C h r i s t come i n t h e f l e s h i s o f G o d " ) — a r e 1 38

s c a n d a l i s e d by t h e e u c h a r i s t .

The r e d a c t o r ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h i s s k a n d a l o n i s t o a f f i r m

i n u n c o n d i t i o n a l t e r m s t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c f l e s h

and b l o o d . He s t r e s s e s t h a t p a r t a k i n g o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i s a

p r e r e q u i s i t e t o s a l v a t i o n ( v . 53) and t h a t C h r i s t ' s f l e s h and

b l o o d c o n s t i t u t e r e a l f o o d and d r i n k ( v . 5 5 ) . The a u t h o r o f

t h i s p a s s a g e p u t s p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s on t h e m a t e r i a l a s p e c t

o f t h e e u c h a r i s t ; t h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y c l e a r i n h i s c h o i c e o f

th e verbTpwyCW, w h i c h means t o m a s t i c a t e o r chew t o p i e c e s ,

i n v s s . 5 4 , 56, and 57. He r e p e a t e d l y c o n n e c t s t h e consump­

t i o n o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c e l e l m e n t s w i t h s a l v a t i o n : v s s . 5 3 , 54,

56, 5 7 , 58. I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t w h e r e a s i n v . 51b i t i s

a q u e s t i o n o f t h e s a l v a t i o n o f m a n k i n d , i n t h e r e s t o f t h e

p a s s a g e t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n c e r n i s t h e s a l v a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l

139

b e l i e v e r s . I n t h e New T e s t a m e n t w r i t i n g s , t h i s e m p h a s i s on

t h e e f f i c a c y o f t h e e u c h a r i s t f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s u n i q u e

t o D e u t e r o - J o h n .

The s a l v a t i o n w h i c h i s o f f e r e d t h e b e l i e v e r i n t h e e u ­

c h a r i s t i s t h e same s a l v a t i o n w h i c h C h r i s t o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h

h i s d e a t h : e t e r n a l l i f e ( v . 5 8 ) , s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n

o f t h e body ( v . 5 4 ) . I t i s t h u s a s a l v a t i o n w h i c h w i l l be

f u l l y r e a l i s e d o n l y i n t h e f u t u r e , on " t h e l a s t d a y " ( v . 54).

I n t h i s r e p s e c t t h e e s c h a t o l o g y o f t h e r e d a c t o r d i f f e r s f r o m

t h a t o f t h e e v a n g e l i s t p r o p e r . To be s u r e , t h e b e l i e v e r i s

a l r e a d y a s s u r e d o f h i s s a l v a t i o n — h e "has e t e r n a l l i f e " — b u t

t h i s o n l y i n s o f a r as he i s p r o m i s e d t h e g i f t o f r e s u r r e c t i o n .

The e u c h a r i s t n e v e r t h e l e s s i s a p r e s e n t communion between t h e

b e l i e v e r and t h e L o r d : t h e r e d a c t o r b o r r o w s t h e J o h a n n i n e

n o t i o n o f " a b i d i n g " {il£V£lV ) i n t h e L o r d , w h i c h J o h n u s e s t o

d e s c r i b e t h e i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t ween t h e b e l i e v e r and

C h r i s t t h e r e v e a l e r ( J n . I 5 : 4 f . ; 1 7 : 2 1 - 2 3 ) , and a p p l i e s i t t o

t h e s a c r a m e n t a l communion. The i n t i m a c y o f t h i s s a c r a m e n t a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p i s c ompared t o t h e i n t i m a c y s h a r e d between C h r i s t

and t h e F a t h e r ( v . 5 7 ) . The e u c h a r i s t i s t h u s b o t h a g u a r a n ­

t e e o f t h e f u t u r e s a l v a t i o n and an a n t i c i p a t i o n o f i t t h r o u g h

t h e communion o f t h e L o r d and t h e b e l i e v e r .

I n o u r g e n e r a l r e m a r k s on t h e e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y r e p ~

r e s e n t e d by D e u t e r o - J o h n and I g n a t i u s , we have s u g g e s t e d t h a t

the p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e s o f t h i s t h e o l o g y were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

140

e s c h a t o l o g i c a l and c h r i s t o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s : t h e s a c r a m e n t i s

r e l a t e d t o t h e f u t u r e r e s u r r e c t i o n , and i t i s a means o f

b r i d g i n g t h e gap between C h r i s t i n h e a v en and t h e b e l i e v e r s

on e a r t h . We s h o u l d l i k e t o s u g g e s t now t h a t t h i s l a t t e r

a s s o c i a t i o n i s made1 e x p l i c i t by t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l r e d a c t o r

h i m s e l f .

I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t a f t e r t h e r e d a c t o r had i n s e r t e d 6:51b-

58 he c o n s i d e r e d J n . 6 : 6 0 f . ( " T h i s i s a h a r d s a y i n g " — " D o you

t a k e o f f e n c e a t t h i s ? " ) as r e f e r r i n g back t o h i s i n s e r t i o n ,

and n o t t o t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e d i s c o u r s e . M o r e o v e r , i f one

t a k e s J o h n 6 as i t o r i g i n a l l y s t o o d , v. 62 ("Then what i f you

s e e t h e Son o f man a s c e n d i n g where he was b e f o r e " ) seems

r a t h e r i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e g e n e r a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p a s s a g e .

One c a n , h o w e v e r , r e l a t e i t t h e o l o g i c a l l y t o v. 58 ( " T h i s i s

t h e b r e a d w h i c h came down f r o m h e a v e n " ) : t h e b r e a d t h a t "comes

down" f r o m h e a v e n i s t h e f l e s h o f h i m who has a s c e n d e d . I n

t h i s c a s e we c o u l d p a r a p h r a s e v. 62 as f o l l o w s : do you n o t

b e l i e v e t h a t i f C h r i s t has a s c e n d e d t h a t he w o u l d p r o v i d e f o r

h i s f o l l o w e r s by g i v i n g them h i s f l e s h , t h e b r e a d f r o m h e a v e n ?

I f t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s c o r r e c t , t h e n we must a t t r i b u t e v .

62 as w e l l t o t h e r e d a c t o r . Such a h y p o t h e s i s i s r e i n f o r c e d

by what seems t o be a s i m i l a r a d d i t i o n i n J o h n 3. I n t h e

v e r s e s f o l l o w i n g t h e b a p t i s m a l t e x t J n . 3:5 ( w h i c h we, f o l l o w ­

i n g B u l t m a n n , have a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e r e d a c t o r , a l o n g w i t h t h e

two o t h e r s a c r a m e n t a l t e x t s o f t h e G o s p e l , 6 : 5 l b - 5 8 and 19:34b)

141

uie f i n d t h e s t a t e m e n t , "Wo one has a s c e n d e d i n t o h e a v e n b u t

he who d e s c e n d e d f r o m h e a v e n , t h e Son o f man" ( 3 : 1 3 ) . The

s e n t e n c e a p p e a r s q u i t e p a r e n t h e t i c a l , a n d , r e m a r k a b l y , i s i n

t h e p e r f e c t t e n s e . I n a d d i n g v . 3:5, t h e r e d a c t o r c l e a r l y

i n t e n d e d t o t r a n s f o r m t h e uihole d i a l o g u e w i t h IMicodemus i n t o

a b a p t i s m a l t e x t . Thus 3:13 was p r o b a b l y a l s o an a d d i t i o n ,

and an e l a b o r a t i o n o f v . 14 m o t i v a t e d by t h e r e d a c t o r s

s o t e r i o l o g i c a l - s a c r a m e n t a l t h e o r y . To s u m m a r i s e o u r a r g u ­

ment h e r e , we p r o p o s e t h a t t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l r e d a c t o r v i e w e d

t h e s a c r a m e n t s o f b a p t i s m and t h e e u c h a r i s t as r i t e s o f m e d i ­

a t i o n between C h r i s t a s c e n d e d i n t o h e a v e n and t h e b e l i e v e r on

e a r t h , and he made t h i s p o i n t by i n s e r t i n g t h e a s c e n s i o n - t e x t s

v s s . 3:13 and 6:32 i n t o t h e d i a l o g u e s ^ w h i c h f o l l o w e d h i s s a c ­

r a m e n t a l a d d i t i o n s t o J o h n .

We c a n s e e , t h e n , t h a t D e u t e r o - J o h n p r e s e n t s a r a t h e r

s p e c i a l f o r m o f t h e t h e o l o g y o f t h e c l a s s i c a l t y p e e u c h a r i s t .

The e u c h a r i s t i s d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e L a s t S u p p e r t r a d i t i o n and

made d e p e n d e n t e x c l u s i v e l y on J e s u s ' d e a t h . Y e t i t i s n o t a

" m e m o r i a l " o f t h i s d e a t h so much as an a c t u a l i s a t i o n o f i t s

r e d e m p t i v e p o w e r . The c o v e n a n t m o t i f i s a b s e n t , and g i v e s

way t o an a c c e n t u a t i o n on t h e s a v i n g power o f J e s u s ' s a c r i f i ­

c i a l f l e s h f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l . The communion a s p e c t o f t h e

r i t e i s g i v e n a much g r e a t e r p l a c e t h a n i n P a u l o r t h e s y n o p ­

t i c s . The e u c h a r i s t , t o g e t h e r w i t h b a p t i s m , i s s e e n as a

s a c r a m e n t a l a c t w h i c h b r i n g s t h e b e l i e v e r i n t o u n i o n w i t h t h e

142

C h r i s t mho has a s c e n d e d i n t o h e a v e n , and as a means o f com­

m u n i c a t i n g t o t h e b e l i e v e r t h e f l e s h o f C h r i s t u i h i c h m i l l

g u a r a n t e e h i s oum r e s u r r e c t i o n on t h e L a s t Day.

We have s e e n t h a t f r o m t h e o u t s e t t h e c l a s s i c a l t y p e o f

e u c h a r i s t uias a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a t h e o l o g y o f s a c r i f i c e . To­

wards t h e end o f t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y , i t seems t h a t t h e c e l e ­

b r a t i o n i t s e l f came t o be d e s i g n a t e d as a s a c r i f i c e , and com­

p a r e d t o t h e s a c r i f i c i a l r i t e s o f t h e o l d c o v e n a n t . A p p a r e n t l y

s u c h uias n o t t h e c a s e a t an e a r l i e r t i m e : t h e a u t h o r o f Hebrews

( c . A.D. 8 0 - 9 0 ) 1 4 0 i n h i s whole d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p r i e s t h o o d

and s a c r i f i c e o f C h r i s t and t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r t h o s e o f t h e

o l d c o v e n a n t , nowhere r e f e r s e x p l i c i t l y t o t h e e u c h a r i s t . 141 142 There i s no r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e , as do B e t z and S a n d v i k ,

t h a t b e h i n d t h i s d i s c u s s i o n t h e r e l i e s a e u c h a r i s t i c S i t z im

L e b e n ; on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e n o t a b l e a b s e n c e o f any e u c h a r i s t i c

a l l u s i o n s i n Hebrews l e a d s us t o wonder i f t h e a u t h o r was e v e n

f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e c l a s s i c a l t y p e c e l e b r a t i o n . C e r t a i n l y t h e

" a l t a r " o f Hb. 13:10 does n o t r e f e r t o a e u c h a r i s t i c a l t a r ; i t

i s t h e s a c r i f i c i a l s y s t e m as i n Hb. 7:13. F o r t h e a u t h o r o f

t h i s F p i s t l e , t h e C h r i s t i a n s a c r i f i c e i s p r a i s e , b e l i e f , and

c h a r i t y (Hb. 1 3 : 1 5 f . ) .

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t C l e m e n t o f Rome

( c . A.D. 96) has t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n i n mind when he

s p e a k s o f s a c r i f i c i a l r i t e s . C l e m e n t d e c l a r e s :

143

He commanded us t o c e l e b r a t e s a c r i f i c e s {ifpov-<f>opei$) and s e r v i c e s {^%Z01>pyid<; ) , and t h a t i t s h o u l d n o t be t h o u g h t l e s s l y o r d i s o r d e r l y , b u t a t f i x e d t i m e s and h o u r s . He has h i m s e l f f i x e d by h i s supreme ..mil 1 t h e p l a c e s and p e r ­s o n s uihom he d e s i r e s f o r t h e s e c e l e b r a t i o n s , i n o r d e r t h a t a l l t h i n g s may be done p i o u s l y a c c o r d i n g t o h i s good p l e a s u r e , and be a c c e p ­t a b l e t o h i s w i l l (1 Clem. 4 0 : 2 f . ) . 1 4 3

Commenting on Clement's c h o i c e o f t h e word TrpOnJ^opa , G o g u e l

w r i t e s :

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s u p p o s e i t t o be a s y m b o l i c d e s i g n a t i o n f o r p r a y e r s , t o u n d e r s t a n d how, i n f a c t , o f f e r i n g s w h i c h a r e p u r e l y s p i r i t u a l c o u l d be made s u b j e c t t o t h e e x a c t r e g u l a t i o n s o f w h i c h C l e m e n t i s s p e a k i n g w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e L e v i t i c a l c u l t . I t c a n o n l y be h e r e a q u e s ­t i o n o f s a c r i f i c e , and t h a t s a c r i f i c e c a n n o t be a n y t h i n g e l s e b u t t h e e u c h a r i s t . 4 4

Thus we may s u p p o s e t h a t a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , i n c e r ­

t a i n c i r c l e s a t l e a s t , t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n was s e e n a s

a s a c r i f i c i a l r i t e a n a l o g o u s t o t h o s e o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t .

T h i s i d e a i s c e r t a i n l y p r e s e n t i n t h e e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o ­

l o g y o f I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h , e v e n i f he does n o t l a b e l t h e

s a c r a m e n t p r e c i s e l y a s a " s a c r i f i c e . " Uie c a n n o t i n t e r p r e t i n

any o t h e r way I g n a t i u s ' r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e e u c h a r i s t i c Ovxy•

ZtfptOV f " a l t a r " o r " s a n c t u a r y " (Ep_h. 5:2 ; 1 4 5 P h i l . 1 4 6 T r a l 1. . 147

7 : 2 ) . T h e r e a r e , f u r t h e r m o r e , d e f i n i t e s a c r i f i c i a l i m p l i ­

c a t i o n s i n I g n a t i u s ' e x c l u s i v e c h o i c e o f t h e word O&p!^ o v e r

&bJjU€l a s a d e s i g n a t i o n f o r t h e s a c r a m e n t a l b r e a d .

144

H e r e , as e l s e w h e r e , I g n a t i u s ' t h e o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t s a r e

v e r y c l o s e t o t h o s e o f t h e J o h a n n i n e r e d a c t o r . L i k e t h e

l a t t e r , he nowhere r e f e r s t o t h e L a s t S u p p e r o r t o J e s u s *

words o f i n s t i t u t i o n . Y e t he does c o n n e c t t h e s a c r a m e n t t o

J e s u s ' d e a t h : " t h e e u c h a r i s t i s t h e f l e s h o f o u r S a v i o u r

J e s u s C h r i s t who s u f f e r e d f o r o u r s i n s " ( S m y r n . 7 : 1 ) . I t

i s l i k e w i s e t h e f l e s h o f h i m " w h i c h t h e F a t h e r r a i s e d up by

h i s g o o d n e s s " ( l o c . c i t . . ) , and t h e means by w h i c h t h i s a c t

o f g l o r i f i c a t i o n i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e b e l i e v e r : t h e e u c h a ­

r i s t i s "the m e d i c i n e o f immortality £ ^ ^ / a « * / < 0 » > OiQdVOiO,

t h e a n t i d o t e t h a t we s h o u l d n o t d i e , b u t l i v e f o r e v e r i n

J e s u s C h r i s t " ( E p h . 2 0 : 2 ) . T h u s t h o s e ( D o c e t i c s ) who a b ­

s t a i n f r o m t h e e u c h a r i s t w o u l d do b e t t e r t o "have l o v e "

( h e r e p r o b a b l y a s y m b o l f o r t h e e u c h a r i s t o r t h e e u c h a r i s t i c

b l o o d , as i n Smyrn. 8:2 , 1 5 0 T r a i 1. 8 : 1 , 1 5 1 R o m . 7 : 3 1 5 2 ) , s o t h a t 1 53

" t h e y a l s o m i g h t a t t a i n t o t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n " ( S m y r n . 7 : 1 ) .

J u s t as f o r D e u t e r o - J o h n t h e s a c r a m e n t a l b r e a d i s t h e " b r e a d

o f h e a v e n , " f o r I g n a t i u s i t i s " t h e b r e a d o f God" (Rom. 7 : 3 ) ; 1 5 4

t h e e l e m e n t s c o n s t i t u t e an " i n c o r r u p t i b l e " f o o d ( l o c . c i t . ) which

c o n v e y t o t h e b e l i e v e r on e a r t h t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n - s u b s t a n c e w h i c h

C h r i s t p o s s e s s e s i n h e a v e n . As i n J n . 6:56, t h e p a r t a k i n g o f

t h e s e e l e m e n t s l e a d s t o an i n t i m a t e u n i o n (tVOCTi^ , P h i l a d . 4,

Smyrn. 7 : 1 ) 1 5 5 w i t h C h r i s t .

M o r e o v e r , l i k e t h e J o h a n n i n e r e d a c t o r , I g n a t i u s i m p l i e s a

l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i o n between t h e i n c a r n a t i o n and t h e e u c h a r i s t :

145

he m e n t i o n s t h a t c e r t a i n h e r e t i c s , w i t h o u t any d o u b t D o c e t i c s 1 56

who deny t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e i n c a r n a t i o n , a b s t a i n f r o m t h e e u c h a r i s t b e c a u s e t h e y do n o t c o n f e s s t h a t i t i s t h e f l e s h o f

1 57

C h r i s t ( S m y r n . 7 : 1 ) . The i d e a u n d e r l y i n g t h i s s t a t e m e n t

i s t h a t t h e e u c h a r i s t i s a p e r p e t u a t i o n o f t h e i n c a r n a t i o n .

We c a n s e e , t h e n , t h a t t h e e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y o f I g n a t i u s ,

e v e n i f i t i s p r e s e n t e d i n a v e r y d i f f e r e n t way f r o m t h a t o f

J n . 6:51b-58 ( I g n a t i u s d o e s n o t d i s c u s s t h e e u c h a r i s t a t any

l e n g t h , b u t makes b r i e f a l l u s i o n s t o i t when d i s c u s s i n g o t h e r

t h i n g s ) , c o n t a i n s s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e same i d e a s . The c e l e ­

b r a t i o n i s r e n d e r e d a h i s t o r i c a l ; t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t a s

a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r and an a n a m n e s i s o f t h e C r o s s

y i e l d s t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h i c h e m p h a s i s e s t h e communion a s ­

p e c t ; t h e e u c h a r i s t i s e s p e c i a l l y an o f f e r i n g t o t h e b e l i e v e r

o f t h e s a c r i f i c i a l f l e s h o f t h e i n c a r n a t e L o r d a s a g u a r a n t e e

f o r h i s f u t u r e r e s u r r e c t i o n .

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , I g n a t i u s i s l e s s p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e

i n d i v i d u a l b e l i e v e r t h a n D e u t e r o - J o h n . I n d e e d , p e r h a p s more

t h a n any p r e v i o u s w r i t e r , he s t r e s s e s t h e r e l a t i o n b e t ween t h e

s a c r a m e n t and t h e e c c l e s i a l c o m m u n i t y . The e u c h a r i s t i s f o r

him b o t h a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e C h u r c h ' s u n i t y , and t h e means

o f r e a l i s i n g i t . He u r g e s t h e E p h e s i a n s t o g a t h e r more f r e ­

q u e n t l y f o r t h e e u c h a r i s t , so t h a t i n t h e u n i t y o f t h e i r f a i t h

" t h e p o w e r s o f S a t a n " may be d e s t r o y e d ( E p h . 1 3 : 1 ) . 1 5 8 I g n a t i u s

c a n n o t c o n c e i v e o f t h e e u c h a r i s t o u t s i d e o f t h e o f f i c i a l s t r u c -

146

t u r e s o f t h e c h u r c h . He strongly a f f i r m s t h a t t h e r e i s o n l y 1 59

one e u c h a r i s t ( E p h . 2 0 : 2 , P h i l . 4 : 1 ) , and r e p e a t e d l y c o n ­

n e c t s i t u i i t h t h e b i s h o p s , p r e s b y t e r s , and d e a c o n s ( E p h . 2 0 : 2 , 1 60

T r a i l . 7:2, P h i l . 4 : 1 , Smyrn. 8 : 1 ) . The e u c h a r i s t i s o n l y

v a l i d when c e l e b r a t e d by t h e b i s h o p o r by someone whom he

a p p o i n t s ( S m y r n . 8 : 1 ) . Hence t h e e c c l e s i o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n o f

o f t h e e u c h a r i s t , i m p o r t a n t f o r P a u l , i s t a k e n up by I g n a t i u s

and i n t e g r a t e d i n t o h i s t h e o l o g y o f e c c l e s i a s t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s

and a u t h o r i t i e s .

I g n a t i u s i s t h u s an i m p o r t a n t w i t n e s s t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g

s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n o f e u c h a r i s t i c f a i t h and p r a c t i c e . ( I t i s

i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h i s r e s p e c t t o n o t e t h a t he i s t h e f i r s t t o

use t h e d e s i g n a t i o n SV^CtpWtKX as a t e c h n i c a l t e r m t o d e s -r l 161 P h i l . 4 : 1 , Smyrn. 7:1, 8 :1 J , t h o u g h J / 162 i t seems t h a t he a l s o u s e s t h e t e r m AydlTTj s y n o n y m o u s l y ) .

To be s u r e , t h e g e n e r a l u n i f o r m i t y o f t h i s f a i t h and p r a c t i c e

was n o t y e t a t t a i n e d . I g n a t i u s h i m s e l f , w i t h D e u t e r o - J o h n ,

p r e s e n t s a e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y w h i c h i s somewhat d e v i a n t f r o m

t h e main s t r e a m o f t h e c l a s s i c a l t y p e , and t h e v e r y f a c t t h a t

he i s so i n s i s t e n t on t h e r e b e i n g "one e u c h a r i s t " s u g g e s t s

t h a t i n some c i r c l e s a l t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f c u l t i c m e a l s

were b e i n g c e l e b r a t e d . The D i d a c h e , a s e c o n d c e n t u r y document

b u t p r o b a b l y w r i t t e n a f t e r t h e t i m e o f I g n a t i u s , o f f e r s us a

e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g y , w h i c h , e v e n i f i t u s e s b r e a d and w i n e , c l e a r l y b e l o n g s t o a d i f f e r e n t e u c h a r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n t h a n t h e c l a s s i c a l t y p e .

14?

1 63 In t h e e u c h a r i s t i c p r a y e r o f t h e D i d a c h e t h e d i s t i n c ­

t i v e m o t i f s o f t h i s l a t t e r t y p e a r e m i s s i n g ; i n p a r t i c u l a r ,

t h e r e i s no r e f e r e n c e w h a t e v e r t o t h e d e a t h o f C h r i s t n o r t o 1 64

communion i n h i s body and b l o o d . I t i s t r u e t h a t t h e e l e ­

ments a r e r e g a r d e d as " s p i r i t u a l f o o d and d r i n k " ( 1 0 : 3 ) ,

and must be g i v e n o n l y t o t h e b a p t i s e d ; t h e y a r e " h o l y , " n o t 1 fifi

t o be g i v e n t o t h e " d o g s " ( M t . 7:6) ( 9 : 5 ) . Y e t t h i s i s o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e c r e a t e d t h i n g s u i h i c h have been s e t

167 a s i d e f o r t h e c u l t i c meal ( 1 0 : 3 ) , and n o t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e

1 68 i n any way i d e n t i f i e d w i t h C h r i s t ' s body and b l o o d . The e u c h a r i s t i c b r e a d i s r a t h e r a s y m b o l f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f

1 69 t h e m e s s i a n i c k i n g d o m t o t h e ends o f t h e e a r t h ( 9 : 4 ) . The e u c h a r i s t h e r e i s e s s e n t i a l l y CVftdLpiCCXQ i n t h e l i t e r a l s e n s e :

170

t h a n k s g i v i n g f o r c r e a t i o n ( 1 0 : 3 ) , f o r God's r e v e l a t i o n i n

C h r i s t ( 9 : 2 , 3 ; 1 0 : 2 ) , 1 7 1 f o r t h e m i g h t i n e s s o f God ( 1 0 : 4 ) . 1 7 2

I t i s a common p r a y e r t h a t t h e c h u r c h may be g a t h e r e d i n t o t h e 17 3

k i n g d o m ( 9 : 4 ; 1 0 : 5 ) . T h i s l a t t e r m o t i f i s i n d i c a t i v e o f

t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e n o r o f t h e l i t u r g y , an a s p e c t u i h i c h comes

t o t h e f o r e a t t h e end o f c h a p t e r 10: " L e t g r a c e come and l e t

t h i s w o r l d p a s s away . . . M a r a n a t h a " ( 1 0 : 6 ) . 1 7 4 I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e D i d a c h e d e s c r i b e s t h e e u c h a r i s t a s a s a c r i f i c e (&IWUX , 14: . 175

3) , b u t t h i s s a c r i f i c e has n o t h i n g t o do w i t h t h a t o f t h e 176

C r o s s . The e m p h a s i s on a " p u r e s a c r i f i c e " ( l o c . c i t . ) and t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e c o n f e s s i o n o f s i n s makes t h e o f f e r i n g

177

p u r e ( 1 4 : 1 ) i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s a c r i f i c e c o n s i s t s o f t h e

p r a i s e and t h a n k s g i v i n g t h a t f l o w f r o m a h o l y l i f e .

148

I n s h o r t , t h e e u c h a r i s t o f t h e D i d a c h e i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

o f a t y p e w h i c h d i d n o t u n d e r g o t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w h i c h

c r e a t e d t h e " c l a s s i c a l " t y p e e x e m p l i f i e d i n P a u l , t h e S y n o p ­

t i c G o s p e l s , D e u t e r o - J o h n and I g n a t i u s . I t s t h e o l o g y i s more

c o n s e r v a t i v e , and i t must be u n d e r s t o o d a s b e l o n g i n g t o a e u ­

c h a r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n w h i c h d e v e l o p e d o u t o f t h e o r i g i n a l " b r e a k ­

i n g o f t h e b r e a d " r i t e , q u i t e i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e p a r a l l e l

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c l a s s i c a l t y p e . I n d e e d , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t

t h i s l i t u r g y was t h e p r o p e r t y o f a s e c t o f J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s , 178

p r o b a b l y l i v i n g i n E g y p t .

The s u r v i v a l o f t y p e s o t h e r t h a n t h e c l a s s i c a l was, how­

e v e r , b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y r a r e i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y . The

c l a s s i c a l t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t was t h e c e n t r a l a c t e o f w o r s h i p i n

m a i n s t r e a m " o r t h o d o x " C h r i s t i a n i t y , and we may c o n s i d e r t h a t

by t h e t i m e o f J u s t i n t h i s t y p e a c h i e v e d i t s c o m p l e t i o n . That

i s t o s a y , by t h i s t i m e t h e r e e x i s t e d w i t h i n o r t h o d o x C h r i s ­

t i a n i t y a g e n e r a l u n i f o r m i t y o f e u c h a r i s t i c f a i t h and p r a c ­

t i c e : t h e P a u l i n e - S y n o p t i c and D e u t e r o - J o h a n n i n e - I g n a t i a n p e r ­

s p e c t i v e s were s y n t h e s i s e d ; t h e e u c h a r i s t was s e e n a s a s a c r i ­

f i c i a l r i t e i n s t i t u t e d by J e s u s a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r , and a s b o t h

an a n a m n e s i s o f t h e C r o s s and communion i n t h e body and b l o o d

o f C h r i s t o f f e r e d f o r t h e s a l v a t i o n o f t h e b e l i e v e r .

The s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f J u s t i m ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e e u c h a -179

r i s t i s t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f t h e L o g o s . The

e u c h a r i s t i s f o r t h i s a u t h o r an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e i n c a r n a t i o n :

149

F o r we do n o t r e c e i v e t h e s e t h i n g s as common b r e a d o r common d r i n k ; b u t a s J e s u s C h r i s t o u r S a v i o r b e i n g i n c a r n a t e by God's word t o o k f l e s h and b l o o d f o r o u r s a l v a t i o n , so a l s o we have been t a u g h t t h a t t h e f o o d c o n s e c r a t e d {CVftXpx&zriOci&clV) by t h e word o f p r a y e r u i h i c h comes f r o m h i m , f r o m u i h i c h o u r f l e s h and b l o o d a r e n o u r i s h e d by t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , i s t h e f l e s h and b l o o d o f t h a t i n c a r n a t e J e s u s (1 A p o l . 6 6 ) . °

T h i s p a s a g e i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s . I t i s , f i r s t

o f a l l , a w i t n e s s t o t h e e m e r g e n t d o c t r i n e o f t h e c o n s e c r a t i o n

o f t h e e l e m e n t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t makes e x p l i c i t t h e c o n n e c ­

t i o n b e t ween t h e e u c h a r i s t and t h e i n c a r n a t i o n i m p l i e d i n

D e u t e r o - J o h n and I g n a t i u s . L i k e t h e s e l a t t e r t w o , J u s t i n h e r e

s p e a k s o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c &£p}* . B u t i n what f o l l o w s i m m e d i ­

a t e l y , t h e l i n k s a r e r a t h e r w i t h t h e P a u l i n e - S y n o p t i c c o n c e p ­

t i o n o f t h e c l a s s i c a l t y p e : t h e s a c r a m e n t was "commanded" by

J e s u s ( i . e . , i n s t i t u t e d a t h i s L a s t S u p p e r ) a s an a n a m n e s i s ;

t h e words o f i n s t i t u t i o n d e s i g n a t e t h e e l e m e n t s a s C h r i s t ' s

CTCV/X& and CdjUd .

I n a d d i t i o n , J u s t i n e x h i b i t s a more d e v e l o p e d t h e o l o g y o f

e u c h a r i s t i c s a c r i f i c e t h a n any p r e v i o u s w r i t e r . The e u c h a r i s t 1 R1

i s t h e a c t u a l i s a t i o n ( a n a m n e s i s ) o f t h e C r o s s u i h i c h r e p l a c e s

t h e b l o o d y s a c r i f i c e s o f t h e O l d C o v e n a n t . J u s t i n s p e a k s o f

t h e " s a c r i f i c e s [&VCTicXl^ w h i c h ^ C h r i s t i a n s J o f f e r a s an anamne-1 R 2

s i s o f t h e P a s s i o n " ( D i a l . 1 1 7 : 3 ) ; God no l o n g e r a c c e p t s •> \ \.

t h e s a c r i f i c e s o f f e r e d i n J e r u s a l e m : now t h e s e " £V%&\ KOft £VffXplO~C(jCll . . • a r e t h e o n l y s a c r i f i c e s u i h i c h a r e p e r f e c t and

183 a c c e p t a b l e t o God" ( D i a l . 1 1 7 : 2 ) . The e u c h a r i s t i s t h e r e a l i -

150

s a t i o n o f t h e p r o p h e c y o f M a l a c h i ( 1 : 1 0 - 1 2 ) f o r a p u r e o b l a ­

t i o n ( D i a l . 4 1 : 2 - 3 ; 1 8 4 1 1 7 - . 1 - 2 1 8 5 ) .

B e a r i n g i n mind t h a t J u s t i n uias a t t e m p t i n g t o g i v e an

a c c o u n t o f t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h f o r t h e pagan r e a d e r , uie may

s u p p o s e t h a t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e e u c h a r i s t r e f l e c t s t h e

common C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f o f h i s p e r i o d . W i t h J u s t i n , t h e n , t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i s c l a s s i c a l t y p e i s c o m p l e t e , and o u r a t t e m p t

t o c h a r t i t s o r i g i n s and e v o l u t i o n f r o m J e s u s ' t a b l e - f e l l o w s h i p

and t h e L a s t S u p p e r t r a d i t i o n may come t o a c l o s e . W i t h i n

o r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e e u c h a r i s t a t ­

t e s t e d t o by J u s t i n w i l l h e n c e f o r t h be p r e s u p p o s e d , and t h e

e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y o f t h e l a t e r F a t h e r s w i l l be r e f l e c t i o n

and e l a b o r a t i o n on t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

E u c h a r i s t i c L i t u r g y and E u c h a r i s t i c M i n i s t r y

In t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n s o f t h i s c h a p t e r we have d i s ­

t i n g u i s h e d t h r e e t y p e s o f e u c h a r i s t i c m e a l s i n p r i m i t i v e C h r i s ­

t i a n i t y and have shown how one o f t h e s e e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f i n

o r t h o d o x G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n i t y and e v o l v e d i n t o t h a t s a c r a ­

m e n t a l r i t e w h i c h was t o be t h e c u l t i c meal o f t h e p a t r i s t i c

and m e d i a e v a l c h u r c h . Thus f a r o u r o b s e r v a t i o n s have been c o n ­

c e r n e d p r i n c i p a l l y w i t h e u c h a r i s t i c " f a i t h , " i . e . , how e a r l y

C h r i s t i a n s u n d e r s t o o d t h e i r s a c r e d m e a l , and i n p a r t i c u l a r how

t h e y i n t e r p r e t e d t h e L a s t S u p p e r t r a d i t i o n e x a m i n e d i n t h e

f i r s t c h a p t e r . We w i s h now t o d i s c u s s b r i e f l y ( s i n c e t h e

s o u r c e s a t o u r d i s p o s a l p r o v i d e us w i t h m a t e r i a l f o r o n l y

151

b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n ) e u c h a r i s t i c " p r a c t i c e , " i . e . , t h e p r a y e r s

t h a t mere s a i d a t t h e c e l e b r a t i o n , and who o f f i c i a t e d a t i t ,

d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d u d d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

The e a r l i e s t c u l t i c m e a l s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y m ere, as has

been shown, a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f J e s u s ' r e g u l a r t a b l e - f e l l o u i s h i p .

These f i r s t e u c h a r i s t s c o n s i s t e d o f a r e a l m e a l , t h o u g h a t a

v e r y e a r l y p o i n t i n t h e i r h i s t o r y t h e b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d

came t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d as t h e most s a c r e d p a r t o f t h i s 186

m e a l . I t must be remembered t h a t t h e s e m e a l s d i d n o t c o n ­

s t i t u t e f o r t h e f i r s t C h r i s t i a n s f o r m a l p u b l i c u i o r s h i p : f o r

t h i s t h e y c o n t i n u e d t o w o r s h i p a s J e w s . The e u c h a r i s t was

s i m p l y a g a t h e r i n g o f C h r i s t i a n s t o s h a r e a meal i n a b e l i e v e r ' s

home ( A c t s 2:4-6). L i k e a l l J e w i s h m e a l s , t h e s e were accom­

p a n i e d by p r a y e r s o f t h a n k s g i v i n g ( b e r a k ' o t h ) , p a r t i c u l a r l y

when t h e b r e a d was b r o k e n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e m e a l . N e i t h e r

t h e M i s h n a h n o r t h e T o s e f t a h p r e s e r v e s t h e c o m p l e t e t e x t o f

t h e s e J e w i s h t h a n k s g i v i n g p r a y e r s f o r m e a l s , t h o u g h f r o m a l l u ­

s i o n s w h i c h t h e y make we may presume t h a t t h e y were s u b s t a n -1 87

t i a l l y t h e same p r a y e r s s t i l l i n use t o d a y . The t h r e e

m e a l b e r a k o t h u s e d i n f i r s t c e n t u r y P a l e s t i n e g i v e us some i d e a

o f what t h e e a r l i e s t e u c h a r i s t i c p r a y e r s must have been l i k e .

These p r a y e r s were d o u b t l e s s e x t e m p o r a n e o u s , b u t f o l l o w i n g a

s e t p a t t e r n e s t a b l i s h e d by J e w i s h c u s t o m .

In t h e f i r s t meal b e r a k a h , p r a i s e i s g i v e n t o God f o r t h e 1 R R

f o o d w h i c h i s g i v e n t o man and t o a l l c r e a t u r e s . The same

152

theme a p p e a r s i n D i d . 1 0 : 2 . I n t h e s e c o n d , t h a n k s g i v i n g

i s g i v e n f o r t h e P r o m i s e d L a n d , f o r t h e c o v e n a n t , and f o r

t h e T o r a h , i n s h o r t , f o r t h e g r e a t e v e n t s o f t h e h i s t o r y o f 190

s a l v a t i o n . The D i d a c h e p r e s e n t s a c h r i s t i a n i s e d p a r a l l e l o f t h i s m o t i f i n t h e f o r m o f t h a n k s g i v i n g f o r r e v e l a t i o n and

191 r e d e m p t i o n i n C h r i s t ( 9 : 2 - 3 ; 1 0 : 2 ) . The t h i r d p e t i t i o n a s k s f o r t h e L o r d ' s mercy upon I s r a e l and i m p l o r e s God t o

192 e s t a b l i s h h i s m e s s i a n i c k i n g d o m . T h i s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l theme p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e e u c h a r i s t o f t h e D i d a c h e ( 9 : 4 ;

193

1 0 : 5 - 6 ) . These J e w i s h t a b l e p r a y e r s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e

s u r v i v a l o f t h e i r d o m i n a n t i d e a s i n t h e D i d a c h e ( w h i c h b e l o n g s

t o t h e e u c h a r i s t i c t r a d i t i o n e m a n a t i n g f r o m t h e e a r l i e s t

" b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d " ) show us what t h e g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e o f

t h e e a r l i e s t e u c h a r i s t i c p r a y e r s must have b e e n . The e m p h a s i s

was on t h a n k s g i v i n g f o r c r e a t i o n ( a n d f o r f o o d i n p a r t i c u l a r ) ,

f o r r e d e m p t i o n , and on t h e f i n a l c o m i n g o f t h e k i n g d o m . F o r

t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s , o f c o u r s e , t h e s e p r a y e r s o f t h a n k s g i v i n g

w o u l d have been r e w o r k e d i n s u c h a way as t o g i v e a c e n t r a l

p l a c e t o t h e i r f a i t h i n t h e r e d e m p t i v e a c t a c c o m p l i s h e d i n

C h r i s t . The g r e a t t h a n k s g i v i n g t e x t s C o l . 1:3-23 and E p h . 1:

3-2:10 g i v e us some i n d i c a t i o n o f how t h e berak6*th w o u l d have

been c h r i s t i a n i s e d .

Who w o u l d have p r e s i d e d o v e r t h e s e e a r l i e s t e u c h a r i s t i c

m e a l s ? The New T e s t a m e n t i t s e l f c o n t a i n s no e v i d e n c e w h i c h

w o u l d p e r m i t a c l e a r a n s w e r t o t h i s q u e s t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o

153

J e w i s h c u s t o m , one man b r o k e t h e b r e a d and r e c i t e d t h e b e r a -

kah on b e h a l f o f t h o s e p r e s e n t : t h i s uias n o r m a l l y t h e f a t h e r 194

o f t h e h o u s e h o l d . We may c o n j e c t u r e t h a t i f an a p o s t l e were p r e s e n t a t t h e c u l t i c meal he mould be i n v i t e d t o p r e -

195

s i d e ; o t h e r w i s e we may presume t h a t t h e h o s t w o u l d b r e a k

t h e b r e a d and r e c i t e t h e p r a y e r s .

Out o f t h e s e e a r l i e s t C h r i s t i a n m e a l s t h e r e d e v e l o p e d

t h e two l a t e r e u c h a r i s t i c t y p e s w h i c h we have d i s t i n g u i s h e d ,

t h e b r e a d and f i s h t y p e and t h e c l a s s i c a l b r e a d and w i n e t y p e .

In b o t h caseis t h e l i t u r g i c a l p r a y e r s must have c o n t i n u e d t o

be m o d e l l e d on t h e J e w i s h b e r a k o t h . T h i s i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e

e m p h a s i s on t h a n k s g i v i n g ( o r b l e s s i n g ) i n t h e l i t u r g i c a l

s o u r c e s w h i c h u n d e r l i e t h e New T e s t a m e n t a c c o u n t s o f t h e L a s t

S u p p e r , t h e m i r a c l e o f t h e l o a v e s and f i s h e s , and t h e r e s u r ­

r e c t i o n m e a l s , a s w e l l a s by t h e f a c t t h a t l a t e r ( I g n a t i u s )

t h e c u l t i c meal i s c a l l e d CV^dpicrcjO.. However, i n b o t h c a s e s

a s p e c i f i c a e t i o l o g i c a l n a r r a t i v e was i n s e r t e d . I n t h e b r e a d

and f i s h t y p e , t h i s n a r r a t i v e w o u l d have r e s e m b l e d Mk. 6:41-42

o r Mk. 8:6-8; i n t h e b r e a d and w i n e t y p e i t w o u l d have been

some f o r m o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a c c o u n t s p r e s e r v e d by P a u l and

t h e s y n o p t i c e v a n g e l i s t s . These l i t u r g i c a l n a r r a t i v e s - - w h i c h 196

no d o u b t a p p e a r e d w i t h i n t h e f i r s t two d e c a d e s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y

--were c o n s t r u c t e d o u t o f r e c o l l e c t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g two s p e c i a l

m e a l s o f J e s u s ' t a b l e f e l l o w s h i p , r e c o l l e c t i o n s w h i c h had been p r e s e r v e d i n t h e e a r l i e s t s t a g e s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n c o n c e r n i n g

197 J e s u s .

154

By t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f t h e e l e m e n t s u s e d , t h e b r e a d and

t h e f i s h t y p e m a i n t a i n e d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a r e a l m e a l . I n

t h e b r e a d and cup t y p e , h o w e v e r , t h e r e was a g r a d u a l d i s e n ­

gagement o f t h e s a c r e d e l e m e n t s f r o m t h e meal p r o p e r . The

c e l e b r a t i o n i n C o r i n t h - - a n d p r e s u m a b l y i n t h e o t h e r c h u r c h e s

f o u n d e d d u r i n g t h e P a u l i n e m i s s i o n s — a p p a r e n t l y o p e ned w i t h

t h e p r a y e r s a t t h e b r e a k i n g o f t h e b r e a d ( i n c l u d i n g t h e f i r s t

p a r t o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a c c o u n t ) , c o n t i n u e d w i t h an a c t u a l

b u t r a t h e r f o r m a l i s e d m e a l , and was c o n c l u d e d w i t h t h e

b l e s s i n g ( i n c l u d i n g t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a c c o u n t ) 198

and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c u p . Such a l s o was t h e p a t t e r n o f

t h e A n t i o c h e n e l i t u r g y t a k e n o v e r by L u k e . I n M a r k , h o w e v e r ,

f o l l o w e d by M a t t h e w , t h e i n s t i t u t i o n n a r r a t i v e s seem t o be

drawn f r o m a l i t u r g y i n w h i c h t h e b r e a d and cup s a y i n g s were

no l o n g e r s e p a r a t e d by a m e a l . T h i s i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e a b ­

s e n c e o f t h e r u b r i c " a f t e r s u p p e r " (1 Co. 1 1 : 2 5 ; L k . 22:20) 199

and by t h e p a r a l l e l i s m o f t h e b r e a d and cup s a y i n g s . I n

a l l p r o b a b i l i t y , t h e meal p r o p e r had s i m p l y been d r o p p e d , p e r ­

haps b e c a u s e o f a b u s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t . Thus i n t h e l a t t e r

h a l f o f t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y l i t u r g i e s w h i c h r e t a i n e d t h e o r d i ­

n a r y meal e x i s t e d s i d e by s i d e w i t h t h o s e w h i c h had d r o p p e d i t .

The D e u t e r o - J o h a n n i n e r e d a c t o r , w i t h h i s e m p h a s i s on com­

munion i n J e s u s ' f l e s h and b l o o d , p r o b a b l y knows a l i t u r g y

w i t h o u t a r e a l m e a l . I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o s a y w h e t h e r t h e t e r m

agape o r " l o v e f e a s t , " w h i c h i s u s e d by I g n a t i u s s y n o n y m o u s l y

155

w i t h " e u c h a r i s t " t o d e s i g n a t e t h e c u l t i c m e a l , r e f e r r e d t o

a c e l e b r a t i o n u i h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f f o o d o t h e r

t h a n t h e e l e m e n t s . However, I g n a t i u s ' s i l e n c e c o n c e r n i n g a

r e a l meal s u g g e s t s t h a t i t was n o t p r e s e n t . The use o f t h e

t e r m agape by l a t e r w r i t e r s ( C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a , S t r o m . 3:

2; T e r t u l l i a n , A p o l . 39) i n r e f e r e n c e t o a common o r d i n a r y

meal o f C h r i s t i a n s d o e s n o t mean t h a t t h e word had t h i s s e n s e

a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r . S i m i l a r l y , we c a n n o t d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e

" l o v e f e a s t s " ( t h e u s u a l r e n d e r i n g o f C^J,(%IT€\1C ) o f Jude 12

i n c l u d e d s u c h a m e a l . N e i t h e r J u s t i n n o r I r e n a e u s know t h e

a g a p e , b u t i t does a p p e a r l a t e r i n C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a , T e r -201

t u l l i a n , H i p p o l y t u s , and C y p r i a n . We may s u p p o s e h e r e t h i s

common meal i s a s u r v i v a l o f t h e a c t u a l m e al w h i c h was e a r l i e r

c o n j o i n e d t o t h e e u c h a r i s t , and w h i c h had p e r s i s t e d i n c e r t a i n

c i r c l e s ( p e r h a p s i n A l e x a n d r i a , f o r e x a m p l e ) t h r o u g h t h e s e c o n d

c e n t u r y . The D i d a c h e 1 0 : 1 , " B u t a f t e r you a r e s a t i s f i e d w i t h 202

f o o d , t h u s g i v e t h a n k s " ) a p p a r e n t l y p r o v i d e s f o r s u c h a

me a l a f t e r t h e b l e s s i n g o f t h e c u p a a n d b r e a d and b e f o r e t h e

f i n a l p r a y e r s o f t h a n k s g i v i n g . The r e m a r k s o f P l i n y (Ep_. 10:

96) t o T r a j a n , A.D. 1 1 2 , i m p l y t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f a s u b s t a n t i a l

m e a l , b u t t h e r e p r e s s i v e m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t C h r i s t i a n a s s e m b l i e s

t o w h i c h he a t t e s t s may have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e

o f s u c h a meal i n most C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s .

W i t h t h e emergence o f a f o r m a l , s t r u c t u r e d m i n i s t r y i n t h e

l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e f i r s t and t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e c o n d c e n -

156

t u r y , t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n came t o be p l a c e d u n d e r t h e

j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h i s m i n i s t r y . The New T e s t a m e n t nowhere

s p e a k s o f a e u c h a r i s t i c m i n i s t r y ; i n e a r l y G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n i t y ,

as i n e a r l y J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e meal uias p r o b a b l y p r e s i d e d

o v e r by t h e h o s t , o r by an e m i n e n t p e r s o n a l i t y i f p r e s e n t ( e . g .

P a u l , i n A c t s 2 0 : 1 1 ) . When t h e l o c a l C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s d e ­

v e l o p e d c o l l e g e s o f e l d e r s , m o d e l l e d on t h o s e o f t h e s y n a g o g u e ,

t h e s e e l d e r s w o u l d have been n a t u r a l h o s t s f o r t h e e u c h a r i s t i c

m e a l . The e u c h a r i s t was so o n c o n s i d e r e d t h e p r e r o g a t i v e o f t h e

o f f i c i a l m i n i s t r y , w h i c h was, i n C l e m e n t o f Rome a t l e a s t , com­

p a r e d t o t h e p r i e s t l y m i n i s t r y o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t :

He h a s h i m s e l f f i x e d by h i s supreme w i l l . . . t h e p e r s o n s whom he d e s i r e s f o r t h e s e c e l e b r a t i o n s . . . . F o r t o t h e H i g h P r i e s t h i s p r o p e r m i n i s ­t r a t i o n s a r e a l l o t t e d , and t o t h e p r i e s t s t h e p r o p e r p l a c e has been a p p o i n t e d , and on L e v i t e s t h e i r p r o p e r s e r v i c e s have been i m p o s e d . The lay m a n i s bound by t h e o r d i n a n c e s f o r t h e l a i t y (1 C l e m . 4 0 : 3 , 5 ) . Z 0 3

I n t h o s e c o m m u n i t i e s w h i c h by t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y had d e ­

v e l o p e d a m o n a r c h i c a l e p i s c o p a t e ( i n S y r i a , A s i a M i n o r ) > t h e

b i s h o p was e s t a b l i s h e d a s t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a n t p a r e x c e l ­

l e n c e . I n d e e d , D i x may be r i g h t i n s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e d e v e l o p ­

ment o f t h e e p i s c o p a t e was i t s e l f i n f l u e n c e d by t h e e u c h a r i s t i c

w o r s h i p : t h e t r a d i t i o n ( i n h e r i t e d f r o m J u d a i s m ) o f h a v i n g a

s i n g l e l e a d e r p r e s i d e o v e r t h e common meal on b e h a l f o f t h o s e

p r e s e n t may have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e emergence o f t h e e p i s c o p a l

157

o f f i c e , w h i c h f r o m t h e o u t s e t ( c f . I g n a t i u s ) was c o n n e c t e d

t o t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , t h e d i a c o n a t e

may hav/e grown o u t o f t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e a t t e n d a n t s who i n

J e w i s h m e a l s a s s i s t e d t h e l e a d e r . ^ 0 4

The v i s i o n o f t h e h e a v e n l y l i t u r g y i n t h e A p o c a l y p s e

( 4 f f . ) g i v e s us a g l i m p s e o f e u c h a r i s t i c w o r s h i p i n A s i a M i n o r

a t t h e end o f t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y ; i t s e r v e s " t o show us what t h e

r e a l e a r t h l y l i t u r g y i s , o r s h o u l d be made t o be 5*" 2 1-' 6 The

v i s i o n — i n s p i t e o f i t s p r e c i s e l y a p o c a l y p t i c c h a r a c t e r — h a s

a s a model c o n t e m p o r a r y e u c h a r i s t i c w o r s h i p . I n A p o c . 3:20,

t h e w r i t e r has C h r i s t i n v i t i n g t h e b e l i e v e r f o r a m e a l : "Be­

h o l d , I s t a n d a t t h e d o o r and k n o c k ; i f a n y o n e h e a r s my v o i c e

and o pens t h e d o o r , I w i l l come i n t o h i m and e a t w i t h h i m ,

and he w i t h me." The w r i t e r t h e n f i n d s an open d o o r i n

h e a v e n and i s i n v i t e d t o w i t n e s s t h e h e a v e n l y l l i t u r g y ( 4 : 1 ) .

He s e e s t w e n t y - f o u r e l d e r s g r o u p e d a r o u n d t h e t h r o n e o f God

( 4 : 4 ) . T h i s image w i t h o u t any d o u b t c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e e a r t h l y

l i t u r g y o f t h o s e c o m m u n i t i e s w h i c h had d e v e l o p e d a m o n a r c h i c a l

e p i s c o p a t e : t h e p r e b y t e r i u m g r o u p e d a r o u n d t h e b i s h o p who p r e ­

s i d e d o v e r t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n . S e v e r a l t e x t s o f t h e

A p o c a l y p s e seem t o be d i r e c t b o r r o w i n g s o r d e l i b e r a t e i m i t a t i o n s

o f t h i s l i t u r g y :

H o l y , h o l y , h o l y , i s t h e L o r d God A l m i g h t y , who was and i s and i s t o come ( 4 : 8 ) .

158

Worthy a r t t h o u , o u r L o r d and God, t o r e c e i v e g l o r y and h o n o u r and p o w e r , f o r t h o u d i d s t c r e a t e a l l t h i n g s , and by t h y m i l l t h e y e x i s t e d and were c r e a t e d ( 4 : 1 1 ) .

We g i v e t h a n k s t o t h e e , L o r d God A l m i g h t y , who a r t and who w a s t , t h a t t h o u h a s t t a k e n t h y g r e a t power and begun t o r e i g n

( 1 1 : 7 ) .

F e a r God and g i v e him g l o r y , f o r t h e h o u r o f h i s j u d g e m e n t has come; and w o r s h i p h i m who made h e a v e n and e a r t h , t h e s e a and t h e f o u n t a i n s o f w a t e r

( 1 4 : 7 ) .

G r e a t and w o n d e r f u l a r e t h y d e e d s , 0 L o r d God t h e A l m i g h t y , J u s t and t r u e a r e t h y ways, Q K i n g o f t h e Ages ( 1 5 : 3 ) .

Come, L o r d J e s u s l ( 2 2 : 2 0 ) 2 0 6

I g n a t i u s o f A n t i o c h i s a f u r t h e r w i t n e s s t o t h e c e l e b r a ­

t i o n o f t h e e u c h a r i s t by a m o n a r c h i c a l b i s h o p , w i t h t h e p r o ­

b a b l e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e e l d e r s and d e a c o n s . He d e c l a r e s t h a t

a e u c h a r i s t i s v a l i d o n l y when c e l e b r a t e d "by t h e b i s h o p , o r 2 07

by one whom he a p p o i n t s " ( S m y r n . 8 : 1 ) . The "one e u c h a r i s t "

i s c o n n e c t e d t o " t h e one b i s h o p w i t h t h e p r e s b y t e r y and t h e

d e a c o n s " ( P h i l . 4 ) , 2 0 8 a s i s t h e " s a n c t u a r y " ( T r a i l . 7 : 2 ) . 2 0 9

Such was t h e c a s e i n S y r i a and A s i a M i n o r , b u t t h i s p r a c t i c e

was n o t u n i f o r m . F o r C l e m e n t o f Rome t h e r e seems t o be a t w o ­

f o l d m i n i s t r y o f " b i s h o p s and d e a c o n s " (1 C l e m . 4 2 : 5 ) , 2 1 0 and

t h e b i s h o p s seem t o be i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e Trp£crjSvC£^>OX ( 4 4 :

4 f . ) . These p r e s b y t e r - b i s h o p s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e e u -

c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n ( l o c . c i t . : . . . COV$ ®(JU£JUTTCU}£ tfoii 0<JIU)Z

^pO0-tVejKQVm<; zk Scbpa ) , t h o u g h t h e d e a c o n s ( t h e

1 5 9

" L e v i t e s " o f 4 0 : 5 ? ) no d o u b t have a l s o a l i t u r g i c a l r o l e .

T h ere a p p e a r s t o have been a s i m i l a r a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e A l e x ­

a n d r i a n c i r c l e f o r w h i c h t h e D i d a c h e uias i n t e n d e d . A f t e r

s p e a k i n g o f t h e Sunday e u c h a r i s t , t h e D i d a c h e c o n t i n u e s i m ­

m e d i a t e l y : " A p p o i n t t h e r e f o r e f o r y o u r s e l v e s b i s h o p s and d e a -

c o n s " ( D i d . 5 1 : 1 ) . B u t t h e D i d a c h e a t t e s t s a l s o t o an

i t i n e r a n t , c h a r i s m a t i c m i n i s t r y o f " a p o s t l e s and p r o p h e t s " 213

( D i d . 1 1 ) . These have t h e r i g h t t o c e l e b r a t e t h e e u c h a r i s t ,

and a r e n o t as bound t o t h e e s t a b l i s h e d c u s t o m o a s a r e t h e l o c a l ,

o f f i c i a l m i n i s t e r s ("But s u f f e r t h e p r o p h e t s t o h o l d e u c h a r i s t

a s t h e y u i i l l , " D i d . 1 0 : 7 ) . 2 1 4

The f i r s t c o m p l e t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a ­

t i o n u i h i c h has come doum t o us i s t o be f o u n d i n t h e F i r s t Apo­

l o g y o f J u s t i n . I t g i v e s us a p i c t u r e o f w o r s h i p i n Rome c .

A.D. 1 5 0 , y e t i t i s g e n e r a l enough t o be v a l i d f o r o t h e r C h r i s ­

t i a n c e n t r e s ( J u s t i n had t r a v e l l e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n t h e E m p i r e ) .

J u s t i n g i v e s two b r i e f a c c o u n t s o f t h e l i t u r g y , one i n r e f e r e n c e

t o t h e c e l e b r a t i o n w h i c h f o l l o w e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e b a p t i s m

o f a c o n v e r t , and t h e o t h e r i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e r e g u l a r Sunday

c e l e b r a t i o n . The f i r s t b e g i n s t h u s :

We, a f t e r t h u s w a s h i n g t h e one who has been c o n ­v i n c e d and s i g n i f i e d h i s a s s e n t , l e a d him t o t h o s e who a r e c a l l e d b r e t h r e n where t h e y a r e a s s e m b l e d . They t h e n e a r n e s t l y o f f e r common p r a y e r s f o r them­s e l v e s and t h e one who has been i l l u m i n a t e d and a l l o t h e r s e v e r y w h e r e . . . . On f i n i s h i n g t h e p r a y e r s we g r e e t e a c h o t h e r w i t h a k i s s ( I A p o l . 65)

160

Here t h e r e a r e tuio p r e p a r a t o r y a c t s . F i r s t , t h e r e i s t h e

common p r a y e r o f t h e " b r e t h r e n . " T h i s i s t h e " P r a y e r o f t h e

F a i t h f u l " i n u i h i c h o n l y t h e b a p t i s e d a r e p e r m i t t e d t o p a r t i ­

c i p a t e ; i t i s t h u s f o r t h e n e o p h y t e t h e f i r s t t i m e t h a t he i s

a l l o w e d t o s a y t h i s p r a y e r w i t h t h e f a i t h f u l . S e c o n d l y , t h e r e

i s t h e K i s s o f P e a c e ; i t a p p e a r s h e r e a s a s e a l on t h e common 216

p r a y e r w h i c h h a s p r e c e d e d i t .

J u s t i n ' s s e c o n d a c c o u n t , t h a t o f t h e Sunday e u c h a r i s t ,

b e g i n s w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l i t u r g y o f t h e word w h i c h p r e ­

c e d e d t h e P r a y e r o f t h e F a i t h f u l and t h e e u c h a r i s t i c p r a y e r : And on t h e day c a l l e d Sunday t h e r e i s a m e e t i n g i n one p l a c e o f t h o s e who l i v e i n t h e c i t i e s o r t h e c o u n t r y , and t h e memoirs o f t h e a p o s t l e s o r t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e p r o p h e t s a r e r e a d a s l o n g a s t i m e p e r m i t s . When t h e r e a d e r has f i n i s h e d , t h e p r e s i d e n t i n a d i s c o u r s e u r g e s and i n v i t e s us t o t h e i m i t a t i o n o f t h e s e n o b l e t h i n g s . Then we a l l s t a n d up t o g e t h e r and o f f e r p r a y e r s ( I A p o l . 6 7 ) . 2 1 7

The r e g u l a r Sunday s e r v i c e t h u s b e g i n s w i t h l e s s o n s f r o m t h e

O l d T e s t a m e n t ( T f l O'Vy^pcijU/UOlZQl. ZU)\) TrpO<f>T}CU>V)21 8 and t h e

g o s p e l s CCOt SfflOjUVf]/iLOVSlfaolZCi 'ZXOV odTOOTOP^^V ) . The

r e a d i n g c o n t i n u e s "as l o n g as t i m e p e r m i t s , " w h i c h s u g g e s t s

t h e s y s t e m o f l e c t i o c o n t i n u a r a t h e r t h a n one o f i n d e p e n d e n t 219

s e l e c t e d p a s s a g e s . These r e a d i n g s a r e f o l l o w e d by a h o m i l y /

f r o m t h e " p r e s i d e n t . " J u s t i n d o e s n o t i d e n t i f y t h i s TTfO£azt*>S

a s t h e b i s h o p ; we may assume i f t h e r e was a m o n a r c h i c a l b i s h o p

i n Rome a t t h i s t i m e , he w o u l d have p r e s i d e d o v e r t h e e u c h a r i s t .

161

I n c a s e s o f m e e t i n g s by s m a l l groups, the " p r e s i d e n t " mould

p r o b a b l y have been a p r e s b y t e r . 2 2 0

B o t h o f J u s t i n ' s a c c o u n t s t h e n d e s c r i b e t h e e u c h a r i s t i c

p r a y e r :

Then t h e b r e a d and a cup o f w a t e r and m i x e d w i n e a r e b r o u g h t t o t h e p r e s i d e n t o f t h e b r e t h r e n and h e , t a k i n g them, s e n d s up p r a i s e and g l o r y t o t h e F a t h e r o f t h e u n i v e r s e t h r o u g h t h e name o f t h e Son and o f t h e H o l y S p i r i t , and o f f e r s t h a n k s g i v i n g a t some l e n g t h t h a t we have been deemed w o r t h y t o r e ­c e i v e t h e s e t h i n g s f r o m h i m . When he has f i n i s h e d t h e p r a y e r s and t h e t h a n k s g i v i n g , t h e w h o l e c o n g r e -

. g a t i o n p r e s e n t a s s e n t s , s a y i n g , " A m e n W h e n t h e p r e s i d e n t has g i v e n t h a n k s and t h e w h o l e c o n g r e g a ­t i o n has a s s e n t e d , t h o s e whom we c a l l d e a c o n s g i v e t o e a c h o f t h o s e p r e s e n t a p o r t i o n o f t h e c o n s e ­c r a t e d b r e a d and w i n e and w a t e r , and t h e y t a k e i t t o t h e a b s e n t ( I A p o l . 65) . '

And, as s a i d b e f o r e , when we have f i n i s h e d t h e p r a y e r , b r e a d i s b r o u g h t , and wine and w a t e r , and t h e p r e s i d e n t s imilarly s e n d s up p r a y e r s and t h a n k s g i v i n g s t o t h e b e s t o f h i s a b i l i t y , and t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n a s s e n t s , s a y i n g t h e Amen; t h e d i s t r i ­b u t i o n , and r e c e p t i o n o f t h e c o n s e c r a t e d TelementsJ by e a c h o n e , t a k e s p l a c e and t h e y a r e s e n t t o t h e a b s e n t by t h e d e a c o n s . Those who prosper, and who so w i s h , c o n t r i b u t e , e a c h one as much as he c h o o s e s t o . What i s c o l l e c t e d i s d e p o s i t e d w i t h t h e p r e s i ­d e n t , and he t a k e s c a r e o f o r p h a n s and w i d o w s , and t h o s e who a r e i n want on a c c o u n t o f s i c k n e s s o r any o t h e r c a u s e . . . ( I A p o l . 67) . 2 2 2

The e u c h a r i s t p r o p e r t h e r e f o r e b e g i n s w i t h a b r i n g i n g o f t h e

g i f t s t o t h e c e l e b r a n t , p r o b a b l y by t h e d e a c o n s . T h i s i s t h e

b e g i n n i n g o f t h e l a t e r o f f e r t o r y r i t e , b u t J u s t i n p l a c e s no

s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s on i t . The r e f e r e n c e i n t h e f i r s t a c c o u n t

t o a UpoZTjpxOV VcfcXtO? K&l KpCLJUQLTO$ i s somewhat p u z z l i n g :

162

i t seems t o mean t h a t two s e p a r a t e c u p s were u s e d , one c o n ­

t a i n i n g w a t e r and one c o n t a i n i n g w i n e and w a t e r m i x e d . A

c e r t a i n c o n f u s i o n i n t h e m a n u s c r i p t t r a d i t i o n l e d H a r n a c k t o

p o s t u l a t e t h a t f o r J u s t i n t h e e l e m e n t s were s i m p l y b r e a d and O O *7

w a t e r , and a l t h o u g h t h i s i s n o t i m p o s s i b l e ( b r e a d and w a t e r

were u s e d by c e r t a i n s e c o n d c e n t u r y g r o u p s , and p e r h a p s e v e n 224 22 5 i n New T e s t a m e n t t i m e s ) , Jungmann's e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t t h e

cup o f w a t e r was a s p e c i a l cup t o be g i v e n t o t h e n e o p h y t e as

a t o k e n o f h i s i n t e r i o r c l e a n s i n g i s s i m p l e r and more c o n v i n ­

c i n g .

A f t e r t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e g i f t s , t h e c e l e b r a n t p r o ­

c e e d s i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h t h e e u c h a r i s t i c p r a y e r , w h i c h i s e x t e m ­

p o r a n e o u s {ocftj 6vVOkjLL\$ dVZCp » c . 6 7 ) . T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t

i n Rome t h e r e were n o t y e t f i x e d l i t u r g i c a l t e x t s , and t h a t

t h e c e l e b r a n t s i m p l y i m p r o v i s e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a c e r t a i n

e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n . J u s t i n ' s e m p h a s i s on t h e t h a n k s g i v i n g

c h a r a c t e r o f t h e c e l e b r a n t ' s u t t e r a n c e s s u g g e s t s a c o n t i n u a -

t i o n o f t h e themes o f t h e b e r a k o t h . The r e f e r e n c e t o t h e / c/

H&Crp Tun? OACOV ( c . 65) i m p l i e s t h a t t h a n k s g i v i n g was g i v e n

f o r c r e a t i o n . O t h e r themes w h i c h may have a p p e a r e d i n t h e i m ­

p r o v i s e d a n a p h o r a c a n be d i s c e r n e d f r o m a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n

J u s t i n ' s r e m a r k s and t h e a n a p h o r a o f H i p p o l y t u s , a Roman l i t u r -2 27

gy f r o m a h a l f a c e n t u r y l a t e r ( A p o s t . T r a d . 1 : 4 ) . J u s t i n ' s

r e f e r e n c e t o " t h a n k s g i v i n g . . . t h a t we have been deemed w o r t h y t o

r e c e i v e t h e s e t h i n g s f r o m h i m " ( c . 65) i s i n harmony w i t h t h e

163

f i r s t p a r t o f H i p p o l y t u s ' c a n o n , i n u i h i c h t h a n k s g i v i n g i s

g i v e n f o r t h e i n c a r n a t i o n and r e d e m p t i o n . The q u o t a t i o n o f

t h e uiords o f i n s t i t u t i o n i n J u s t i n ' s e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e e u c h a ­

r i s t u i h i c h i s i n s e r t e d betuieen t h e tuio d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e

l i t u r g y ( c . 66) shoui t h a t f o r h i m t h e s e f o r m e d p a r t o f t h e

a n a p h o r a . I n H i p p o l y t u s an a n a m n e s i s o f C h r i s t ' s d e a t h and

r e s u r r e c t i o n f o l l o u i s s i m m e d i a t e l y upon t h e uiords o f i n s t i t u ­

t i o n . T h e r e uias d o u b t l e s s s u c h a p r a y e r i n t h e e x t e m p o r a ­

n e o u s c a n o n d e s c r i b e d by J u s t i n : t h i s p r a y e r i s p r o b a b l y a t

t h e b a s i s o f J u s t i n ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e e u c h a r i s t a s a

m e m o r i a l o f t h e P a s s i o n ( D i a l . 1 1 7 : 3 ) . 2 2 8 F i n a l l y , J u s t i n ' s

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e H o l y S p i r i t ( c . 65) may be an a l l u s i o n t o t h e

i n v o c a t i o n o f t h e H o l y S p i r i t u i h i c h f o l l o w s t h e a n a m n e s i s i n

t h e c a n o n o f H i p p o l y t u s . I n any e v e n t , t h e s e m o t i f s a p p e a r i n

s u b s e q u e n t l i t u r g i e s , b o t h e a s t e r n and w e s t e r n , and we may s u p ­

p o s e t h e y r e f l e c t t h e g e n e r a l c o n t e n t o f e u c h a r i s t i c p r a y e r s i n

t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y .

The l i t u r g y c o n c l u d e s w i t h a s o l e m n "Amen," by u i h i c h t h e

a s s e m b l y e x p r e s s e s i t s a s s e n t t o t h e p r a y e r o f t h e c e l e b r a n t .

Then communion i s d i s t r i b u t e d by t h e d e a c o n s . A f t e r t h i s an

o f f e r i n g i s t a k e n f o r t h o s e who a r e i n need ( c . 6 7 ) . P o r t i o n s

o f t h e c o n s e c r a t e d e l e m e n t s a r e t a k e n t o t h e a b s e n t by t h e

d e a c o n s ; J u s t i n i s t h e f i r s t w i t n e s s t o t h i s p r a c t i c e .

W i t h t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n by J u s t i n o f t h e l i t u r g y i n t h e m i d -

s e c o n d c e n t u r y we may c o n c l u d e o u r o u t l i n e o f t h e e a r l y d e v e l o p -

164

ment o f e u c h a r i s t i c w o r s h i p . As t h e main f e a t u r e s o f " c l a s s i ­

c a l " e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y had a c h i e v e d t h e i r e v o l u t i o n by t h e

t i m e o f J u s t i n , s o had t h e e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g y a t t a i n e d t h e

f u n d a m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e u i h i c h uias t o be c a n o n i s e d i n t h e f o r m a l

l i t u r g i c a l t e x t s o f t h e p a t r i s t i c p e r i o d .

Addendum: The E u c h a r i s t and t h e Temple T e x t s

M e n t i o n s h o u l d be made o f an i m p o r t a n t r e c e n t s t u d y o f 229

p r i m i t i v e e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y by B j ^ r n S a n d v i k i n u i h i c h

t h e a u t h o r d e v e l o p s a t h e s i s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r i m i t i v e e u c h a r i s t

u i h i c h , a l t h o u g h n o t e n t i r e l y i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n w i t h t h e v i e w s

o u t l i n e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g p a g e s o f t h i s c h a p t e r , i s n o t t o us

c o n v i n c i n g .

The m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o c e d u r e o f t h i s work i s i n t e r e s t i n g ,

s i n c e i t t a k e s as i t s p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e n o t t h e L a s t S u p p e r

n a r r a t i v e s n o r any o t h e r e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e s t o c u l t i c m e a l s

i n t h e New T e s t a m e n t , b u t r a t h e r t h e two A r a m a i c f o r m u l a e f o u n d

i n t h e D i d a c h e . The a u t h o r a t t e m p t s t o show t h a t t h e s e f o r m u ­

l a e a r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h a s e t o f i d e a s i n t h e New T e s t a m e n t which

c o n s t i t u t e an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t o f t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n u n d e r ­

s t a n d i n g o f t h e e u c h a r i s t . B u t u n l i k e t h e a n a l y s i s w h i c h we

have p r e s e n t e d , t h a t o f S a n d v i k f a i l s t o d i s t i n g u i s h d i f f e r e n t

e u c h a r i s t i c t y p e s i n t h e p e r i o d u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , and t h e

a u t h o r f i n d s t h e same m o t i f s i n a l a r g e v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s ,

i n c l u d i n g P a u l , H e b r e w s , t h e s y n o p t i c g o s p e l s , J o h n , and t h e

D i d a c h e .

165

The a u t h o r b e g i n s h i s t h e s i s u i i t h t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t

t h e f o r m u l a Hosanna i n D i d . 10:6 must, l i k e M a r a n a t h a , u l t i -230

m a t e l y be d e r i v e d f r o m t h e e a r l i e s t e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g i e s .

S p e c i f i c a l l y , i t i s a f r e e c i t a t i o n o f P s . 1 1 8 : 2 5 , and s e r v e s

a s a " c o l l e c t i v e a c c l a m a t i o n , a c a l l t o a s s e m b l y , " p r e ­

c e d i n g i n t h e l i t u r g y t h e i n v i t a t i o n , a n a t h e m a , and M a r a n a t h a

f o r m u l a e . The e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n t h u s c o n s t i t u t e s t h e

S i t z im Leben u i h i c h f u r n i s h e d t h i s f o r m u l a :t "0 , t h e e v a n g e l i s t s

i n t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t o r y o f J e s u s ' t r i u m p h a l e n t r y

i n t o J e r u s a l e m , and u i h i c h a l s o s t a n d s b e h i n d t h e Greek t r a n s -2 32

l a t i o n o f t h e f o r m u l a i n Apoc. 7:10. These o b s e r v a t i o n s

l e a d S a n d v i k t o p o s t u l a t e t h a t P s . 1 1 8 , a H a l l e l p s a l m , had

been t a k e n o v e r by t h e e a r l y c h u r c h a s a e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r ­

g i c a l hymn, and he i n f a c t i d e n t i f i e s t h e hymn r e f e r r e d t o i n 233

t h e L a s t S u p p e r a c c o u n t s a s t h i s p s a l m . A d v a n c i n g f r o m

t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , t h e a u t h o r d e v e l o p s t h e c e n t r a l t h e s i s o f h i s

b o o k , n a m e l y t h a t t h e Temple theme i n t h i s p s a l m i s c o n s t i t u ­

t i v e o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y o f t h e p r i m i t i v e c h u r c h .

The key t o t h i s theme i s t o be f o u n d i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n

" t h e r e j e c t e d s t o n e " o f P s . 1 1 8 : 2 2 , u i h i c h S a n d v i k b e l i e v e s t h e

e a r l y C h r i s t i a n c ommunity a s s o c i a t e d u i i t h t h e n o t i o n o f t h e

c h u r c h as t h e Neui Temple. T h u s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a u t h o r , t h e

c i t a t i o n o f P s . 118:22 a t t h e end o f t h e p a r a b l e o f t h e T e n a n t s

i n t h e V i n e y a r d (Mk. 12:1-2 and p a r . ) d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e

166

m e a n i n g o f t h i s p a r a b l e i s t h a t C h r i s t i s t h e c o r n e r s t o n e o f 234

t h e Ne ui Temple w h i c h r e p l a c e s t h e b i d . He f i n d s , m o r e o v e r ,

a l i n k b e t w e e n t h i s p a r a b l e and t h e e u c h a r i s t i c p r a y e r s o f

D i d . 1-10, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e v i n e image o f D i d . 9:2, w h i c h he 235

i n t e r p r e t s as a l s o b e i n g a s y m b o l f o r t h e T e m p l e . These

o b s e r v a t i o n s , i t i s c o n c l u d e d , a r e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e e u c h a r i s t

was c o n s i d e r e d by e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s a s r e p l a c i n g t h e c u l t o f

t h e O l d T e m p l e , and a s b e i n g i n i t s e l f t h e c u l t o f , and t h e

p r i m a r y means o f c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e New T emple, i . e . , t h e c h u r c h .

S a n d v i k b e l i e v e s t h a t he c a n f i n d t r a c e s o f a c l o s e a s s o ­

c i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h i s " T e m p l e - c o m p l e x " and t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e ­

l e b r a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e New T e s t a m e n t . Thus i n 1 P e t . 2:4-8

t h e c i t a t i o n o f P s . 118:22 f o l l o w s upon a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e

o f f e r i n g o f " s p i r i t u a l s a c r i f i c e s " by t h o s e who a r e " l i k e

l i v i n g s t o n e £toJ be. . . b u i l t i n t o a s p i r i t u a l h o u s e ; " t h e

a u t h o r i n t e r p r e t s t h e s e " s p i r i t u a l s a c r i f i c e s " a s t h e o f f e r i n g s 236

o f p r a i s e i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n .

S i m i l a r l y , a e u c h a r i s t i c b a c k g r o u n d f o r f o u r P a u l i n e "Temple

t e x t s " i s s u g g e s t e d . The j u d g e m e n t m o t i f i n 1 Co. 3 : 16-17, i t

i s a r g u e d , i s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e same e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g i c a l e l e -

ment as t h a t o f 1 Co. 1 6 : 2 2 , and t h e p o i n t o f t h e t e x t i s t h a t

C h r i s t i a n s must work t o w a r d s t h e b u i l d i n g - u p o f t h e c o mmunity as t h e New Temple i n o r d e r n o t t o i n c u r t h e j u d g e m e n t o f God

2 37

i n t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n . 1 Co. 6:19-20 i s a s s o ­

c i a t e d w i t h t h e e u c h a r i s t , b e c a u s e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a u t h o r ,

167

P a u l ' s c o n c e p t of, t h e c o l l e c t i v e body a s t h e Temple i s d e t e r ­

m i n a t i v e f o r h i s s t a t e m e n t s h e r e c o n c e r n i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l

b o d y , and b e c a u s e " i n t e r v e n t i o n s a g a i n s t u n c h a s t i t y mere o f t e n 2 38

a p a r t o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c p a r a e n e s i s . " The T e m p l e - t e x t o f 2 Co. 16-18 i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e e u c h a r i s t on a c c o u n t o f i t s

c l o s e p a r a l l e l i s m w i t h 1 Co. 1 0 : l 4 f f . , an e x p l i c i t y l e u c h a -239

r i s t i c s t e x t . F i n a l l y , E p h . 2:20-22 i s s a i d t o r e v e a l a e u ­

c h a r i s t i c b a s i s t h r o u g h i t s e m p h a s i s on t h e s o t e r i o l o g i c a l

work o f C h r i s t and t h r o u g h t h e p r e c e d i n g a l l u s i o n s t o h i s

b l o o d ( v . 13) and t o "one body" ( v . 1 6 ) . 2 4 0 The a u t h o r ' s c o n ­

c l u s i o n i s t h a t P a u l u s e s n o t o n l y t h e c o n c e p t o f " body," b u t

a l s o t h a t o f " t e m p l e , " i n o r d e r t o r e l a t e t h e e u c h a r i s t t o t h e

c h u r c h .

S a n d v i k f i n d s a s i m i l a r t h e o l o g i c a l l i n k i n t h e e p i s t l e

t o t h e H e b r e w s . A l t h o u g h t h e s y m b o l o f t h e Temple s e r v e s a

d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n i n t h i s b o o k — t h e community i s n o t i t s e l f

t h e Temple, r a t h e r t h r o u g h i t s w o r s h i p i t e n t e r s i n t o t h e h e a v e n l y Temple — t h e r e i s s t i l l a c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e

Temple and t h e e u c h a r i s t . I n Heb. 1 0 : 1 9 f f . , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e

way i n t o t h e s a n c t u a r y i s o p ened by t h e " f l e s h " ( v . 20) and

" b l o o d " ( v . 19) o f J e s u s ; t h e s e a r e i n t e r p r e t e d a s a l l u s i o n s t o 241

t h e e u c h a r i s t . I n Heb. 12:18-29 t h e Temple-theme i s a l l u d e d

t o i n d i r e c t l y by t h e e x p r e s s i o n s "IYlount Z i o n , " " t h e c i t y o f t h e

l i v i n g God," and " t h e h e a v e n l y J e r u s a l e m " ( v . 2 2 ) . The r e f e ­

r e n c e t o t h e " a s s e m b l y " ( v . 23) i s an i n d i c a t i o n , our a u t h o r

168

b e l i e v e s , t h a t t h e w h o l e p a s s a g e i s "a d e s c r i p t i o n o f p r i m i ­

t i v e C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p . " The j u d g e m e n t m o t i f , w h i c h he a s s o ­

c i a t e s w i t h t h e Temple theme i n t h e " e u c h a r i s t i c p a r a e n e s i s , " 242

i s d o m i n a n t ( v s s . 2 3 , 2 5 f f . ) .

I n t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n , t h e Temple t e x t J n 2:21 i s i n t e r ­

p r e t e d i n t h e l i g h t o f J n . 14:2 and 1 4 : 2 3 , n o t a b l y b e c a u s e o f

t h e s i m i l a r i t y b etween t h e words /uovrj ( a b o d e , r e l a t e d t o t h e

/LlSX/SlV o f 6:56) u s e d i n t h e s e two v e r s e s and t h e word v'dOi

( d w e l l i n g , t e m p l e ) u s e d i n 2 : 2 1 . S a n d v i k a s s e r t s t h a t t h e r e ­

f e r e n c e t o t h e " t e m p l e o f h i s body" i s t h u s an a l l u s i o n t o t h e

n o t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n s l i v i n g i n C h r i s t . M o r e o v e r , t h e same

t h e o l o g y i s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e v i n e - b r a n c h ( J n .

1 5 : 1 f f . ) , t h e v i n e b r a n c h b e i n g a s y m b o l o f t h e Temple ( a s i n

D i d . 9 : 2 ) . The c o n n e c t i o n o f t h i s s e t o f s y m b o l s w i t h t h e

e u c h a r i s t i s e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h t h e c l a i m t h a t i t i s " o b v i o u s "

t h a t r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e c o m i n g o f C h r i s t i n J n . 14 ( v s s . 3,18,

2 3,28) " c o n c e r n above a l l t h e c o m i n g o f J e s u s i n t h e c h u r c h 243

and e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e e u c h a r i s t . " The e u c h a r i s t i c b a s i s

o f t h e v i n e - b r a n c h d i s c o u r s e i s p o s t u l a t e d on a c c o u n t o f t h e

s i m i l a r i t y b e t w een J n . 15:4 and J n . 6:56, and b e c a u s e o f t h e use o f t h e s y m b o l o f t h e v i n e i n t h e e u c h a r i s t i c p r a y e r o f

244

t h e D i d a c h e .

The a u t h o r b r i e f l y t r e a t s a number o f o t h e r t e x t s , n a m e l y

Apoc. 3:12 and 7 : 9 f f . , 2 4 5 1 C l e m . 4 8 : 2 f . , 2 4 6 s e v e r a l p a s s a g e s

169

i n I g n a t i u s (Ep_h. 5:2; T r a i l . 7:2; lYlaqn. 7:2; P i l a d . 4,7; 2 *7 2 4 8

Eph. 15:3), and B a r n . 1 6 : 9 , i n a s i m i l a r manner, a t t e m p t ­i n g t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e same f u n d a m e n t a l mo­t i f . I n a c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r S a n d v i k a s s e r t s t h e use o f t h e Temple as a s y m b o l f o r t h e community i s w i t h o u t p a r a l l e l i n c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a t u r e , and s u g g e s t s t h a t i t o r i g i n a t e s w i t h J e s u s h i m s e l f .

The o r i g i n a l i t y o f t h i s work l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

a u t h o r has a t t e m p t e d t o l a y b a r e an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t o f p r i ­

m i t i v e e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y by t h e a n a l y s i s o f a h o s t o f t e x t s

w h i c h have n o t t r a d i t i o n a l l y been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e u c h a r i s t .

I t s c h i e f w e a k n e s s i s t h e p r e s u p p o s e d u n i t y o f e u c h a r i s t i c f a i t h

and p r a c t i c e o v e r t h e w h o l e o f t h e New T e s t a m e n t and p o s t -

A p o s t o l i c p e r i o d s . W h i l e one must g i v e c r e d i t t o t h e a u t h o r

f o r b u i l d i n g up a r a t h e r n e a t s y s t e m , one has a t t h e same t i m e

t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t i t i s a b i t t o o c o h e r e n t , and t h a t t h e a u ­

t h o r has i m p o s e d h i g h l y s p e c u l a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s on a l a r g e

number o f t e x t s s o t h a t t h e y w i l l s u p p o r t h i s t h e s i s . W h i l e

t h e a u t h o r i s no d o u b t r i g h t i n h i s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t Hosanna

was a p r i m i t i v e l i t u r g i c a l f o r m u l a , and t h a t a s s u c h was u t i ­

l i s e d i n t h e s t o r y o f J e s u s ' e n t r y i n t o J e r u s a l e m and i n Apoc.

7:10, t h i s i s i n i t s e l f by no means p r o o f t h a t t h e w h o l e o f P s .

118 was u s e d as a e u c h a r i s t i c hymn. Once t h i s f o u n d a t i o n f o r

S a n d v i k ' s t h e s i s i s c a l l e d i n t o q u e s t i o n , s o i s h i s e u c h a r i s -

170

t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e New T e s t a m e n t T e m p l e - t e x t s . I t i s

t o s a y t h e l e a s t a d u b i o u s p r o c e d u r e t o d e t e c t e u c h a r i s t i c a l ­

l u s i o n s i n any r e f e r e n c e t o "body" o r " b l o o d . " A t t i m e s t h e

a u t h o r ' s c r i t e r i a f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e u c h a r i s t i c b a s i s o f a

t e x t a r e so g e n e r a l t h a t t h e y c e a s e t o have any v a l i d i t y , a s ,

f o r e x a m p l e , when s p e a k i n g o f E p h . 2:20-22 he d e c l a r e s , "The

c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t ween c h r i s t o l o g y and e c c l e s i o l o g y h e r e ? A Q

b e t r a y s t h e e u c h a r i s t i c b a c k g r o u n d . " ^ M o r e o v e r , h i s e x p l a ­

n a t i o n f o r t h e l a c k o f any s p e c i f i c s t a t e m e n t i n t h e New Tes ­

t a m e n t t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e e u c h a r i s t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e com­

m u n i t y a s t h e Temple, n a m e l y t h a t f o r t h e r e a d e r o f e a r l y

C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e t h e n o t i o n f o r m e d p a r t o f h i s e l e m e n t a r y 2 50

i n s t r u c t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e n e e d e d o n l y t o be a l l u d e d t o , i s

h a r d l y s a t i s f a c t o r y . I n c o n c l u s i o n , we do n o t f e e l t h e a u t h o r

has s u c c e e d e d i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e e c c l e s i o -

l o g i c a l Temple i d e a f o r o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r i m i t i v e

E u c h a r i s t .

/ 7 /

NOTES TO CHAPTER I I

I . Mass and L o r d ' s S u p p e r , c h a p t e r s I - X I 1 1 .

2 . I b i d . , p. 1 9 3 .

3. M a c D o n a l d , C h r i s t i a n W o r s h i p i n t h e P r i m i t i v e C h u r c h , p. 1 3 1 .

4. T e x t s i n L i e t z m a n n , op_. c i t . , p p . 196-202 .

5. A. l/oobus, "The E u c h a r i s t i n t h e A n c i e n t C h u r c h , " i n H.T. Lehmann, e d . , M e a n i n g and P r a c t i c e o f t h e L o r d ' s S u p p e r ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : M u h l e n b u r g P r e s s , 1961) , p. 4 4 .

6. H i g g i n s , The L o r d 1 s S u p p e r i n t h e Neui T e s t a m e n t , p. 56.

7. C f . b e l o u i , pp. 1 6 2 f f .

8. 0. C u l l m a n n , "The M e a n i n g o f t h e L o r d ' s S u p p e r i n P r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y , " i n E s s a y s on t h e L o r d 1 s S u p p e r ( L o n d o n : L u t t e r u i o r t h , 1 9 5 8 ) , p p . 9 f f .

9. C H . Dodd, "The A p p e a r a n c e s o f t h e R i s e n C h r i s t : An E s s a y i n Form C r i t i c i s m o f t h e G o s p e l s , " i n S t u d i e s i n t h e G o s p e l s : E s s a y s i n Memory o f R.H. L i g h t f o o t ( O x f o r d : B l a c k u i e l l , 1 9 5 5 ) , p p . 1 3 - 1 4 .

1 0 . F.W. B e a r e , The E a r l i e s t R e c o r d s o f J e s u s , p. 244 . As G o g u e l (The P r i m i t i v e C h u r c h , p. 340) p o i n t s o u t : " I t must be added t h a t P a u l r e c e i v e d t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e s f r o m J e r u s a l e m , and t h e r e f o r e i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o c o n c e i v e houi, i f he d e p ended upon J e r u s a l e m f o r t h e s t o r i e s o f t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e , he d i d n o t depend i n any way upon t h e same s o u r c e f o r i t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c r i t e as b e i n g c o n n e c t e d w i t h them."

II. The e x i s t e n c e o f c u l t i c m e a l s u s i n g f i s h o r b r e a d and f i s h i n p r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y i s a l s o a c k n o w l e d g e d by C. l/ogel, "Le r e p a s s a c r e au p o i s s o n , " i n E u c h a r i s t i e s d ' O r i e n t e t d'Oc­c i d e n t ( P a r i s : C e r f , 1 9 7 0 ) , I , p p . 8 3 - 1 1 6 . M. V o g e l , whose a r t i c l e i s c h i e f l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h f i s h s y m b o l i s m i n J u d a i s m and t h e l a t e r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r C h r i s t i a n f u n e r a r y m e a l s , d o e s n o t p r e s e n t a d e t a i l e d c a s e f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h m e a l s i n t h e New T e s t a m e n t p e r i o d . W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n n a r r a t i v e s and p o s t - R e s u r r e c t i o n m e al a c c o u n t s , he i s c o n t e n t

172

t o s a y , " T h e s e m e a l s a r e n o t r e p o r t e d ; i n a p u r e l y n a r r a t i v e o r d e s c r i p t i v e f a s h i o n , b u t i n ? a s t e r e o t y p e d and r i t u a l f o r ­m u l a t i o n . These a r e n o t e p i s o d i c a c t i o n s o r a n e c d o t e s , b u t c u l t i c a c t i o n s " ( i b i d ., p. BB) .

1 2 . " L i t u r g i c a l I n f l u e n c e s on t h e F o r m a t i o n o f t h e G o s p e l s , " i n The A p o s t o l i c C h u r c h i n t h e New Testament'' ( W e s t -m i n s t e r , M a r y l a n d : Newman P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 ) , p p . 1 2 3 f f .

1 3 . I b i d . , p p . 1 2 5 f f .

1 4 . I b i d . , p p . 1 2 7 f f .

1 5 . I b i d . , p p . 1 3 4 f f .

1 6 . R. Brown, The G o s p e l a c c o r d i n g t o J o h n , AB 29 ( G a r d e n C i t y : D o u b l e d a y , 1966) , p. 2 4 7 . T h i s c o n v e n t i o n a l i n t e r p r e ­t a t i o n i s c o n t e s t e d by G.H. B o o b y e r , "The E u c h a r i s t i c I n t e r ­p r e t a t i o n o f t h e M i r a c l e s o f t h e L o a v e s i n S t . M a r k ' s G o s p e l , " JTS n . s . 3 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , p p . 1 6 1 - 1 7 1 , on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t s i m i l a r v o c a b u l a r y i s f o u n d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h o t h e r m e a l s i n t h e N.T. w h i c h have no c l e a r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e e u c h a r i s t , and t h a t J e s u s ' manner o f p r o c e e d i n g s i m p l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h a t o f any p i o u s J e w i s h h o u s e h o l d head p r e s i d i n g o v e r m e a l s . H owever, P . J . A c h t e m e i e r , "The O r i g i n and F u n c t i o n o f t h e p r e - M a r c a n M i r a c l e C a t e n a e , " JBL 91:3 ( 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 1 9 8 - 2 2 1 , p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e v o c a b u l a r y o f t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n a c c o u n t s i s i n f a c t more t e c h ­n i c a l l y e u c h a r i s t i c t h a n B o o b y e r ' s a n a l y s i s w o u l d s u g g e s t ( p . 207) .

A c h t e m e i e r ' s a r t i c l e p r e s e n t s c o n c l u s i o n s w h i c h a r e l a r g e l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h o u r own a n a l y s i s . F o l l o w i n g B. van I e r s e l , " D i e w u n d e r b a r e S p e i s u n g und das Abendmahl i n d e r s y n o p t i s c h e T r a d i t i o n , " NovT 7 ( 1 9 6 4 - 6 5 ) , p p . 1 6 7 - 9 4 , he a g r e e s t h a t t h e s e e m i n g l y e u c h a r i s t i c v o c a b u l a r y o f t h e p a s s a g e s i n q u e s t i o n d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t a b o r r o w i n g f r o m t h e L a s t S u p p e r t r a d i t i o n , b u t goes back t o a d i f f e r e n t v l i t u r g i c a l s o u r c e . The m u l t i p l i ­c a t i o n n a r r a t i v e s , he a r g u e s , b e l o n g t o two p r e - M a r c a n m i r a c l e c a t e n a e w h i c h were u s e d i n e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n s by g r o u p s o f C h r i s t i a n s who had a s p e c i a l Moses C h r i s t o l o g y , u n d e r ­s t a n d i n g C h r i s t a s a 0£iaf CiVrjp . The m i r a c l e s o f t h e s e c a t e n a e a r e o f an e p i p h a n i c c h a r a c t e r , and t h e communal meal r e p r e s e n t s an e p i p h a n y o f t h e g l o r i f i e d J e s u s .

However, A c h t e m e i e r i d e n t i f i e s t h e s e m e a l s w i t h t h e " b r e a d -o n l y " e u c h a r i s t s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by L i e t z m a n n . I n f a c t , he s u g ­g e s t s ( p p . 219 - 2 2 0 ) t h a t Mark a d d e d t h e f i s h e l e m e n t i n o r d e r t o d e - e m p h a s i s e t h e e u c h a r i s t i c n a t u r e o f t h e m e a l s . H i s a r g u m e n t h e r e p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t f i s h c o u l d n o t have been a e u c h a r i s t i c e l e m e n t .

1 7 . D.E. N i n e h a m , M a r k , p. 2 0 7 f .

173

1 8 . E.R. Goodenough, J e w i s h S y m b o l s i n t h e Greco-Roman P e r i o d (New Y o r k : P a n t h e o n , 1 9 5 6 ) , I V , p p . 3 5 f f . See a l s o C. V o g e l , a r t . c i t . , p p . 1 0 4 - 1 1 3 .

1 9 . Goodenough, op_. c i t . , p p . 4 7 f f .

2 0 . I b i d . , p. 4 5 . Goodenough b e l i e v e s ( p . 52F.) t h a t t h e e a r l i e s t e u c h a r i s t s c o n s i s t e d o f b r e a d , w i n e , and f i s h , b u t t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t a l l t h r e e e l e m e n t s were e v e r u s e d t o g e t h e r , o r t h a t f i s h was an e s s e n t i a l e u c h a r i s t i c e l e m e n t i n t h e e a r l i e s t s t a g e s .

2 1 . E a r l y C h r i s t i a n W o r s h i p ( L o n d o n : SCM, 1 9 5 3 ) , p p . 6 6 -7 4 , 1 1 0 - 1 1 6 .

2 2 . C K . B a r r e t t , The G o s p e l a c c o r d i n g t o J o h n ( L o n d o n : S . P . C K . , 1958) , p p . 6 9 f f .

2 3 . Das E v a n g e l i u m d e s J o h a n n e s ( G o e t t i n g e n : Vandenhock und R u p r e c h t , 1 0 t h e d . , 1964) , p p . 1 7 4 - 1 7 7 .

2 4 . G. Bornkamm, " D i e e u c h a r i s t i c h e Rede im J o h a n n e s -E v a n g e l i u m , " ZNW 47 ( 1 9 5 6 ) , p p . 1 6 1 - 1 6 9 .

2 5 . E. L o h s e , "Wort und S a k r a m e n t im J o h a n n e s - E v a n g e l i u m , " NTSt 7 ( 1 9 6 0 ) , p p . 1 1 7 f f .

2 6 . R. Brown, op_. c i t . . , p. 2 7 3 .

2 7 . A r t . c i t . , p a s s i m .

2 8 . Raymond Brown, op_. c i t . , p p . 2 8 7 f f . , and "The E u c h a ­r i s t and B a p t i s m i n J o h n , " i n New T e s t a m e n t E s s a y s (New Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y Image, 1 9 6 8 ) , p p . 1 2 0 f f . , a t t e m p t s t o r e s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m p r e s e n t e d by t h i s d a t a t h r o u g h t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t J o h n 6:51-58 r e p r e s e n t s m a t e r i a l d i s p l a c e d f r o m an o r i g i n a l J o h a n n i n e L a s t S u p p e r n a r r a t i v e and r e m o d e l e d on t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e B r e a d o f L i f e d i s c o u r s e . I t i s d i f f i c u l t , h o w e v e r , t o i m a g i n e t h a t a r e d a c t o r w o u l d a t t e m p t t o o b l i t e r a t e o r i g n o r e t h e t r a d i t i o n o f J e s u s ' h a v i n g i n s t i t u t e d t h e e u c h a r i s t a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r i n o r d e r t o b r i n g i t i n t o a p a s s a g e where i t i s n o t i c e a b l y o u t o f p l a c e .

2 9 . Brown, op_. c i t . , p. 2 4 8 .

3 0 . L o c . c i t .

3 1 . The s y n o p t i c a c c o u n t s a r e s h o r t e r , and i n them t h e e l e m e n t o f wonder i s more p r o n o u n c e d ( B r o w n , i b i d . , p. 2 5 3 ) .

3 2 . PL I , 1 3 0 6 ; CCSL I , p. 2 7 7 .

174

3 3 . P a e d . , 3:59:2, PG 8, 6 3 3 ; GC5 Clemens A l e x a n d r i n u s I , p. 2 7 0 .

3 4 . I n l Y l a t t h . Horn. 1 3 : 1 0 , PG 1 3 , 1 1 2 0 .

3 5 . PL 11 , 991 .

3 6 . C. \/o g e l , a r t . c i t . , p . 9 5 f .

3 7 . J . S o l a n o , e d . , T e x t o s e u c a r i s t i c o s p r i m i t i v o s ( M a d r i d : BAC, 1 9 5 4 ) , I , p p . 8 5 , 8 7 ; i l l u s t r a t i o n , p . 8 6 .

3 8 . TEP I , 84; i l l u s t r a t i o n , p . 8 6 .

3 9 . A r t . e x t . , p. 9 7 .

4 0 . I b i d . , p . 9 8 .

41 . I b i d . , p . 9 9 .

4 2 . I l l u s t r a t i o n , TEP I , p . 1 0 8 .

4 3 . S e e , e . g . , J . Baum, " S y m b o l i c R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e E u c h a r i s t , " i n J . C a m p b e l l , e d . , Pagan and C h r i s t i a n M y s t e r i e s (New Y o r k : H a r p e r T o r c h b o o k s , 1963) , p p . 70-82 .

4 4 . A r t , c i t . , p. 1 1 4 f .

4 5 . See a b o v e , p p . 3 2 f f .

4 6 . T h e o l o g y o f t h e New T e s t a m e n t , I , p. 1 4 6 .

4 7 . C f . B u l t m a n n , l o c . c i t .

4 8 . I b i d . , I , p. 1 4 7 .

4 9 . K i l m a r t i n , op_. c i t . , p . 7 9 ; c f . E. Kaesemann, "The P a u l i n e D o c t r i n e o f t h e L o r d ' s S u p p e r , " i n E s s a y s on New T e s t a m e n t Themes ( L o n d o n : SCM, 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 1 0 9 .

5 0 . M. G o g u e l , op_. c i t . , p . 3 3 6 .

5 1 . C f . Kaesemann, a r t . c i t . , p . 1 2 1 .

5 2 . See a b o v e , p. 8 5 .

5 3 . F o r t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , s e e e s p e c i a l l y F. Hahn, C h r i s t o l i g i s c h e H o h e i t s t i t e l ( G o e t t i n g e n : V a n d e n h o e c k und R u p r e c h t , 1963) , p p . 1 0 4 f f .

175

54. C f . Bj0rn S a n d v i k , Das Kommen des H e r r n beim Aben-dmahl im Neuen Testament ( Z u r i c h ; Z w i n g l i V e r l a g , 1970) , pp. 1 3 f f , 35.

55. "Das U l e i t e r l e b e n d e r Sache J e s u im n a c h o e s t e r l i c h e n H e r r e n m a h l , " BZ 16:1 ( 1 9 7 2 ) , pp. 1-23.

56. I b i d . . p . 6; c f . a l s o " J e s u s ' Words i n t h e L i g h t o f h i s A c t i o n s a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r , " C o n c i l i u m 40 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , p. 125.

57. "Das W e i t e r l e b e n . . .," p . 9.

58. The d a t e o f 1 C o r i n t h i a n s a c c o r d i n g t o J . L . P r i c e , I n t e r p r e t i n g t h e Neui Testament (New Y o r k : H o l t , R i n e h a r t , and W i n s t o n , 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 36u~. S i m i l a r l y , C T . C r a i g , "1 C o r i n t h i a n s , " IB X ; ; ( N a s h v i l l e : A b i n g d o n - C o k e s b u r y , 1 9 5 3 ) , p . 13; F e i n e , Behm, Kuemmel, I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e New T e s t a m e n t , p . 205.

59. The M y s t i c i s m o f P a u l t h e A p o s t l e (New Y o r k : S e a b u r y P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 ) , j>p. 2 5 b f f . S c h w e i t z e r b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e t e r m KVPI&KOS? (ScimsosJ came from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e meal was c e l e b r a t e d i n t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f t h e coming o f t h e L o r d , and t h a t the t y p o l o g y e x p r e s s e d i n 1 Co. 10:1-12 d i s c l o s e s an e s ­c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e s a c r a m e n t s g o v e r n e d by t h e Hebrew view o f God's a c t s i n h i s t o r y . T h i s c o n c e p t i o n , he m a i n t a i n s , s h a r p l y c o n t r a s t s P a u l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s a c r a ­ments f r o m a H e l l e n i s t i c o ne.

60. T h e o l o g y o f t h e New T e s t a m e n t , I , p . 148. .,

61. I b i d . ; M a c Gregor, op., c i t . , p . 1 6 2 f .

62. The M y s t e r y o f C h r i s t i a n Worship ( W e s t m i n s t e r : New­man P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 98.

63. Voobus, a r t , c i t . , p . 60; E.0. James, C o m p a r a t i v e R e l i g i o n ( L o n d o n : Methuen, 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 247. We do n o t w i s h t o s u g g e s t t h a t e a r l y H e l l e n i s t i c C h r i s t i a n i t y b o r r o w e d d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e s e r i t e s - - i n d e e d , t h e t e x t u a l e v i d e n c e f o r them i s f r o m somewhat l a t e r t h a n t h e New T e s t a m e n t p e r i o d .

64. C a s e l , op_. c i t . , p . 54.

65. I b i d . , p . 53.

66. C i t e d i b i d . , p . 134.

67. I b i d . , p . 53.

68. Qn t h i s p r o b l e m , s e e H. R a h n e r , "The C h r i s t i a n Mys­t e r y and t h e Pagan M y s t e r i e s , " i n J . C a m p b e l l , e d . , Pagan and C h r i s t i a n M y s t e r i e s (New York: H a r p e r T o r c h b o o k s , 1 9 6 3 ) , pp. 146-210.

176

69. A.D. Nock, E a r l y G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n i t y and i t s H e l l e n ­i s t i c B a c k g r o u n d (New Y o r k : H a r p e r T o r c h b o o k s , 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 132.

70. I b i d . , p. 134.

71. I b i d . , p . 72.

72. 0p_. c i t . , p . 98.

73. C a s e l ( i b i d . , p . 9 9 ) , p o i n t s o u t , f o l l o w i n g N e s t l e , t h a t / u V f f t y f p i o v > i s t h e p r e f e r r e d r e a d i n g i n t h i s p a s s a g e .

74. I b i d . . p . 100.

7 5 • T h e o l o g y o f t h e New T e s t a m e n t , I , pp. 164-183; P r i ­m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y ( C l e v e l a n d : M e r i d i a n B o o k s , 1 9 6 2 ) , pp. 162-T7TI

76. Kaesemann, a r t , c i t . , p . 109.

77. I t s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t G n o s t i c i s m was a s y n -c r e t i s t i c phenomenon, and p r o b a b l y i n c l u d e d J e w i s h e l e m e n t s f r o m t h e o u t s e t ( c f . L i e t z m a n n , A H i s t o r y o f t h e E a r l y C h u r c h , I , p . 2 7 6 ) . "

78. A r t . c i t . , p . 1 6 2 f .

79. I b i d . , p . 163.

80. 0p_. c i t . , p . 1 4 2 f ,

8 1 . B u l t m a n n , T h e o l o g y o f t h e New T e s t a m e n t , I , p . 313.

82. Kaesemann, a r t , c i t . , p 109.

83. Uie use t h i s t e r m , f o r l a c k o f a b e t t e r one, t o d i s ­t i n g u i s h t h e body o f C h r i s t as t h e C h u r c h f r o m t h e h i s t o r i c a l , g l o r i f i e d , o r e u c h a r i s t i c body o f C h r i s t . Uie r e c o g n i s e , o f c o u r s e , t h a t t h e t e r m i s n o t P a u l i n e , and we do n o t w i s h t o i m p l y any o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s t h e t e r m m i g h t have i n t r a d i ­t i o n a l ( e s p e c i a l l y Roman C a t h o l i c ) t h e o l o g y .

84. A. S c h w e i t z e r , op_. c i t . , p i 260; K i l m a r t i n , op_. c i t . , p. 75; .Kaesemann, a r t , c i t . , pp. 1 1 3 f f .

8 5 . Kaesemann, a r t c i t . . p . 114.

86. I b i d . , p . 1 l 6 f .

8 7 . I b i d . , p . 117.

177

88. I b i d . , p. 1 1 7 f . Bultmann, on the o t h e r hand, tends t o m i n i m i z e the s u b s t a n t i a l a s p e c t o f P a u l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f TTVCVM** (Theology o f the New Testament, I , p. 3 3 4 ) . As f a r as P a u l ' s s a c r a m e n t a l t h e o l o g y i s c o n c e r n e d , the d i f f e r e n c e s between the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f Bultmann and Kaesemann are n o t r e a l l y c r u c i a l , though ne do b e l i e v e t h a t Kaesemann's view makes t h i s t h e o l o g y more i n t e l l i g i b l e .

89. A r t . c i t . , p. 1 1 4 f .

90. I b i d . , p. 113.

9 1 . Goguel, The P r i m i t i v e Church, p. 331.

92. I b i d . , p. 337.

93. I b i d . . p. 338.

94. K i l m a r t i n , op_. c i t . , p. 80; Kaesemann, a r t , c i t . , p. 110.

95. K i l m a r t i n , op_. c i t . , p. 81.

96. Kaesemann, a r t , c i t . , p. 113. MacGregor's remarkable a s s e r t i o n t h a t the word "body" i n 10:17 i s a " p a r e n t h e s i s , i f not a c t u a l l y an i n t e r p o l a t i o n " (op_. c i t . , p. 1 6 9 ) , and h i s con­c l u s i o n t h a t the e u c h a r i s t i c body i s n o t r e l a t e d t o the m y s t i ­c a l body, are e n t i r e l y w i t h o u t f o u n d a t i o n .

97. fflacDonald, pp. c i t . , p. 157; Goguel, op_. c i t . , p. 334. The view t h a t the whole e u c h a r i s t i c p a r t o f the meal f o l l o w e d the a g a p i s t i c p a r t i s s h a r e d w i t h K i l m a r t i n ( o p . c i t . . p. 8 5 ) , Schuermann ( a r t , c i t . , p. 1 2 0 ) , and o t h e r s .

98. D e l l i n g , op_. c i t . . p. 141.

99. Bread and water was used by M a r c i o n i t e s ( E p i p h i a n u s , Haeres. 1 3 : 3 ) , E b i o n i t e s ( I r e n a e u s , Adv. h a e r . 5:1-3) E n c r a -t i t e s (Clement o f A l e x a n d r i a , Paedaq. 2:2:32; Strom. 1:19:96), J u d a e o - C h r i s t i a n G n o s t i c s ( E p i p h i a n u s , Haeres. 3 0 : 1 6 ) , and l a t e r ( C y p r i a n , Ep_. 6 3 ) , by the " A q u a r i i . " I g n a t i u s , l i k e P a u l , does not s p e c i f y the c o n t e n t s o f the cup.

100. Goguel, op_. c i t . , p. 334.

101. A c c o r d i n g t o Kaesemann, "t h e acknowledged term i n a n t i q u i t y f o r the o f f i c i a l a s s e m b l i n g o f the demos" ( a r t . c i t . , p. 1 1 9 ) .

102. Weaning here a decree o r o r d i n a n c e ( i b i d . , p. 1 2 0 ) .

178

103. I b i d . , p. 121.

104. I b i d . , p. 122. 1 0 5 « The Theoloov o f S t . P a u l ( O x f o r d : B a s i l B l a c k w e l l ,

1 9 6 4 ) , p. V T a .

106. J . Behm, "oltfOijUMiais t" i n K i t t e l , op. c i t . , I , p. 349. '

107. C f . C u l l m a n n , a r t , c i t . , p. 1 9 f .

108. Kaesemann, a r t , c i t . , p. 128.

109. L o c . c i t .

110. 0p_. c i t . , p. 340.

111. See, e.g., H i g g i n s , op_. c i t . , p. 72.

112. L o c . c i t .

113. I b i d . , p. 73.

114. Kaesemann, a r t , c i t . , p. 127.

115. L o c . c i t .

116. K i l m a r t i n , op_. c i t . . p. 89.

117. On t h i s q u e s t i o n see K.W. I r w i n , "The Supper Text i n the Gospel o f S a i n t Matthew," Dunwoodie Review 11 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , pp. 170-184.

118. A. Voobus, " K r i t i s c h e Beobachtungen ueber d i e l u k a -n i s c h e D a r s t e l l u n g des Herrenmahls," ZNUI 61 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p. 106.

119. H. Conzelmann, The Theoloov o f S t . Luke (London: Faber and F a b e r , 1 9 6 0 ) .

120. C f . B. T r e m e l , "La F r a c t i o n du p a i n dans l e s A c t e s des A p S t r e s , " LumlSre e t V i e 94 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , pp. 8 4 f f .

121. S c h w e i t z e r , The M y s t i c i s m o f P a u l the A p o s t l e . p. 279, comments: " I n i n t e r p r e t i n g B a p t i s m and the 1 L o r o r r s M e a l 1

by the m y s t i c a l b e i n g - i n - C h r i s t , P a u l a t t r i b u t e s t o them i m p l i c i t e the power o f b r i n g i n g about the r e s u r r e c t i o n a t the r e t u r n o f the L o r d . "

179

122. Martin Werner, The Formation of Christian Dogma (Boston: Beacon Press, 1957), p. 185.

123. On this conception and i t s relation to eucharistic theology, see A. Voobus, "the Eucharist in the Ancient Church," p. 55.

124. Cf. Werner, op_. c i t . , p. 193. 125. Schweitzer, op_. c i t . . p. 274f. 126. Ibid., p. 275. 127. Werner, op_. ext., p. 187. 128. See above, p. 94. 129. The Council of Trent (Sess. xxi, Chapt. 1) decreed

that the passage "may be understood according to the various interpretations of the holy fathers and doctors."

130. See R. Brown, John, p. 272. 131. Each of the other four theories becomes untenable

once i t is admitted that the second part of the discourse is an addition: taken independently, Jn. 6:5lb-58 can be inter­preted only eucharistically, and once this passage is disen­gaged, the remainder of the discourse can be given a eucha­r i s t i c meaning only with great d i f f i c u l t y . We say this only by way of c l a r i f i c a t i o n , since, of course, the claim that the second part is an insertion depends to a great extent on the recognition of i t s eucharistic character.

132. Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament. II, p. 59. Cf. Higgins, p. 87, Goguel, p. 353.

133. R. Brown, op_. c i t . , pp. 285ff., recognises that vss. 6:51-68 constitute an insertion, but maintains nevertheless that i t was originally Johannine. He finds in the passage typically Johannine vocabulary: " l e t me firmly assure you" (vs. S3), "eternal l i f e " (vs. 54), "to feed," "to remain" (vs. 56). He suggests therefore "that we have here two d i f ­ferent .forms of a discourse on the bread of l i f e , both Johan­nine, but stemming from different stages of the Johannine preaching" (p. 286). His explanation is that the passage was originally located in the Last Supper scene, but that a later redactor inserted i t in i t s present position. Such an expla­nation does not, however, adequately account for the differences between the passage and the rest of John. See also above, note 28.

180

134. B u l t m a n n , TNT, I I , p . 54.

135. B u l t m a n n , J o h a n n e s - E v a n q e l i u m , p . 525.

136. See b e l o w , Appendix 1, pp. 197-201.

137. C.H. Dodd, The I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e F o u r t h G o s p e l ( C a m b r i d g e : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 3 ) , p . 339.

138. The a n t i - D o c e t i c i m p o r t o f t h e word cr<xp%* h e r e i s e m p h a s i s e d by C u l l m a n n , E a r l y C h r i s t i a n W o r s h i p , p . 9 9 f . , H i g g i n s , op_. c i t . , p . 82, WacGregor, op_. e x t . , p . 234. C f . Brown, op_. c i t . , p . 2 9 1 .

139. B u l t m a n n , J o h a n n e s - E v a n q e l i u m , p . 1 7 5 f . The r e d a c ­t o r has a l s o added r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e f u t u r e r e s u r r e c t i o n a t o t h e r p o i n t s i n t h e b r e a d o f l i f e d i s c o u r s e : 6:39, 40, 44 ( i b i d . . p . 1 6 2 ) .

140. Feine-Behm-Kuemmel, op_. c i t . , p . 282.

141. 0p_. c i t . , 1/1, pp. 3 1 f f .

142. 0p_. c i t . , pp. 1 0 1 f f .

143. K. L a k e , The A p o s t o l i c F a t h e r s (LCL 24) ( L o n d o n : Urn. Heinemann, 1 9 1 2 ) , p . 7 6 f .

144. Op. c i t . , p . 356.

145. I b i d . , P. 1 7 8 f .

146. I b i d . , P. 2 4 2 f .

147. I b i d . , P. 2 1 8 f .

148. I b i d . , P. 2 4 4 f .

149. I b i d . , p . 1 9 4 f .

150. I b i d . , P. 2 6 0 f .

151 . I b i d . , p . 2 1 8 f .

152. I b i d . , p . 2 3 4 f .

153. I b i d . , P. 2 4 4 f .

154. I b i d . , P. 2 3 4 f .

181

155. I b i d . , pp. 2 4 2 f f .

156. See e s p e c i a l l y E p h . 7, i b i d . , p . I 8 0 f .

157. I b i d . , p . 2 4 4 f .

1 5 8 » I b i d . . p . 1 8 6 f .

159. I b i d . , p . 1 9 4 f .

160. I b i d . . pp. 1 9 4 f . , 2 l 8 f . , 2 4 2 f . , 2 6 0 f .

161. I b i d . , pp. 242-245; 258-261.

162. I b i d . . pp. 2 6 0 f . , 2 1 8 f . , 2 3 4 f .

163. I . e . , c h a p t e r s 9 and 10. The t h e s i s o f P. Drews, " U n t e r s u c h u n g e n z u r D i d a c h e , " ZNW 5 ( 1 9 0 4 ) , p . 76, D i x , o p . c i t . , pp. 9 0 f f . , and J . - P . A u d e t , La D i d a c h e ( P a r i s : G a b a l d a , 1 9 5 8 ) , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h c h a p t e r s 9 and 10 a r e p r a y e r s f o r an "agape," and t h a t t h i s d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e " e u c h a ­r i s t " o f c h a p t e r 14, i s s u p p o r t e d by few s c h o l a r s ^ t o d a y . I t i s u n t e n a b l e b e c a u s e the t e c h n i c a l t e r m c^oiptcrzxoi i s u s e d i n b o t h c h a p t e r 9 and c h a p t e r 14, and b e c a u s e t h e r i t e o f c h a p t e r s 9-10 i s c l e a r l y t h e c u l t i c meal t h a t f o l l o w s bap­t i s m , as i n a l l c h u r c h o r d e r s and l i t u r g i c a l p r a c t i c e . C f . L i e t z m a n n , op_. c i t . , p . 189.

164. C f . L i e t z m a n n , op_. c i t . , p . 193.

165. L a k e , 0 £ . c i t . , p . 3 2 4 f .

166. I b i d . , p . 3 2 2 f .

167. I b i d . , p . 3 2 4 f .

168. J . de U i a t t e v i l l e , Le S a c r i f i c e dans l e s t e x t e s e u -c h a r i s t i q u e s des p r e m i e r s s i e c l e s ( N e u c h a t e l : D e l a c h a u x e t N i e s t i e " , 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 30, c l a i m s t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e t o " s p i r i t u a l f o o d and d r i n k " i n D i d . 10:3 i n d i c a t e s t h a t " t h e men who c o u l d r e c i t e s u c h p r a y e r s as t h o s e i n c h a p t e r s 9 and 10 were c o n ­v i n c e d t h a t t h e y were r e c e i v i n g u n d e r t h e f o r m o f b r e a d and wine t h e body and b l o o d o f t h e L o r d . " T h i s c l a i m i s e n t i r e l y w i t h o u t f o u n d a t i o n .

169. L a k e , p . 3 2 2 f .

170. I b i d . , p . 3 2 4 f .

182

171. I b i d . , pp. 3 2 2 f f .

172. I b i d . , pp. 3 2 4 f f . L i e t z m a n n * s a s s e r t i o n (op_. c i t . , p . 1 9 1 f . ) t h a t t h e s e p r a y e r s a r e t o be i n t e r p r e t e d " s a c r a m e n -t a l l y , " i . e . , t h a t t h e y i m p l y t h a t God's p r e s e n c e i s communi­c a t e d i n a s p e c i a l way t h r o u g h t h e e l e m e n t s , i s n o t s u p p o r t e d by t h e t e x t . The " d w e l l i n g i n o u r h e a r t s " o f t h e " H o l y Name" (10:2) i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t has a l r e a d y been a c c o m p l i s h e d " t h r o u g h J e s u s t h y c h i l d , " i . e . , t h r o u g h the o r i g i n a l redemp­t i v e a c t , and i s nowhere c o n n e c t e d t o the a c t u a l e a t i n g o r d r i n k i n g o f t h e e l e m e n t s . L i e t z m a n n ' s b e l i e f t h a t t h e t h a n k s ­g i v i n g f o r " i m m o r t a l i t y " (10:2) i m p l i e s a d o c t r i n e o f t h e " m e d i c i n e o f i m m o r t a l i t y " i s u n j u s t i f i e d f o r t h e same r e a s o n .

173. I b i d . , pp. 3 2 2 f . ; 3 2 4 f .

174. I b i d . , p . 3 2 4 f .

175. I b i d . , p . 3 3 0 f .

176. As c l a i m s de U i a t t e v i l l e , op_. c i t . , p . 34.

177. L a k e , l o c . c i t .

178. The J e w i s h c h a r a c t e r o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c p r a y e r s o f th e D i d a c h e i s shown by Ul. R o r d o f , " L e s p r i e r e s e u c h a r i s t i q u e s de l a D i d a c h e , " i n E u c h a r i s t i e s d ' O r i e n t e t d ' O c c i d e n t ( P a r i s : C e r f , 1970) I , p p . 65-82. C.C. R i c h a r d s o n , E a r l y C h r i s t i a n F a t h e r s (LCC I ) , p . 162, p o i n t s o u t t h a t the t r e a t i s e on t h e "Two Ways" ( D i d . 1-5) was p e r h a p s o r i g i n a l l y a J e w i s h c a t e ­c h i s m . The D i d a c h e ' s c i t a t i o n o f B a r n a b a s , w h i c h comes f r o m A l e x a n d r i a , t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f t h e "Two Ways" i n t o t h e A p o s t o l i c C h u r c h O r d e r , f r o m t h e same l o c a l i t y , and the e s t e e m i n w h i c h t h e D i d a c h e was h e l d i n E g y p t up t o t h e f o u r t h c e n ­t u r y , a l l s u g g e s t A l e x a n d r i a as t h e p l a c e o f o r i g i n f o r t h e D i d a c h e ( i b i d . . p . 163s).

179. G o g u e l , op_. c i t . , p . 361.

180. TEP I , p . 62; E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n , R i c h a r d s o n , o p . c i t . , p . 286•

181. On s a c r i f i c e a s a n a m n e s i s , s e e b e l o w , A p p e n d i x 1, pp. 210-214.

182. TEP I , p . 67.

183

183. Loc. c i t . 184. Ibid.. I, p. 65f. 185. Ibid.. I, p. 66f. 186. See above, p. 84f. 187. L. Bouyer, Eucharist: Theoloqy and Spirituality of

the Eucharistic Prayer (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968), p. 82.

188. Text loc. c i t . 189. Lake, op_. c i t . . p. 324f. 190. Bouyer, loc. c i t . 191. Lake, p. 322f. 192. Bouyer, loc. c i t . 193. Lake, pp. 322ff. 194. Berakoth, Toaefta 5:6; G. Dix, "The ministry in the

Early Church" in K.E. Kirk, ed., The Apostolic ministry (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1946), p. 245.

195. C.F.D. Woule, op_. c i t . . p. 29. 196. Uie have shown above that different forms of the

institution narrative liturgies existed already before Paul, and that by the time of Mark there existed already special Jewish-Christian and Gentile-Christian forms of the multipli­cation-narrative liturgy.

197. Although, according to the position we have main­tained in the preceding pacts of this thesis, the earliest cultic meals did not contain the aetiological liturgies nor the theological conceptions which grew out of them, we may presume that the f i r s t eucharistic meals provided at least partially an occasion for the transmission of these recol­lections. When, for example, the f i r s t Christians celebrated their Passover meal, some mention was doubtlessly made of Jesus' Last Supper with his disciples. Similarly, when fish was consumed at the main meal accompanying the "breaking of the bread," i t would have been natural to recollect Jesus' distribution of the loaves and fishes.

184

198. See above, pp. 120-121. 199. Cf. ffloule, op_. c i t . , p. 34. 200. See above, notes 150, 151, 152. 201. See Cirlot, og.. c i t . . pp. 29ff. 202. Lake, op_. c i t . . p. 322f. 203. Ibid., pp. 76ff. 204. Dix, art, c i t . , p. 245f. 205. A. Feuillet, The Apocalypse (trans. T.E. Crane,

Staten Island: Alba House, 1965), p. 87. 206. The use of l i t u r g i c a l formulae by the author of the

Apocapypse should not however be exaggerated. Feuillet (ibid., p. 85) and Cullmann (Early Christian Worship, p. 21) are pro­bably wrong in interpreting Apoc. 5:9, 12, 13; 12:10-12; 19: 1-2, 6f. as "the oldest of a l l Christian songs" (Cullmann), traditional Christian l i t u r g i c a l hymns incorporated by John into his Apocalypse. As Kuemmel (Feine-Behm-Kuemmel, op_. c i t . , p. 326) points out, i t was heavenly (and apocalyptic) worship which John was describing, and the structure and wording of the work i s determined not so much by the earthly liturgy as by the author's own preoccupations, viz., "the sequence of the expected eschatological events and presumably also the vision­ary experience of the author."

207. Lake, op_. c i t . , p. 260f. 208. Ibid. t P« 242f. 209. Ibid. » P. 218f. 210. Lake, op * c i t . , p• 80f. 211. Ibid. , p. 84f. 212. Ibid. » P. 330f. 213. Ibid. t PP . 324ff. 214. Ibid. » P. 324f. 2 < , 5» TEP I, p. 61; trans. Richardson, Early Christian

Fathers (LCC I), p. 285f.

185

216. J.A. Jungmann, The Early Lituroy (trans. F.A. Brun­ner, Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959), p. 41.

217. TEP I, p. 63; Richardson, p. 287. 218. Cf. Jungmann, op., c i t . , p. 42. 219. Loc. c i t . 220. The meeting of small, relatively independent groups

of Christians in Rome is implied by the response which Justin is reported to have given the prefect Rusticus on being asked where Christians assemble: "I live above one Martinus, at the Timiotinian Bath...I am unaware of any other meeting than his" (Acta S. Justi n l l et soclorum 1:2:45).

221. TEP I, p. 61f.; trans. Richardson, p. 286. 222. See note 217. 223. Brot und U/asser, die eucharistische Elemente bei

Justin, TU 7,2 (Leipzig: J.C. Hinrich, 1891). Harnack's basic arguments are: 1) Justin comments on the blessing of Judah (Gen. 49:9-12) five times (Dial. 52, 54, 63, 76; I Apol. 54) without, any allusion to the eucharist; 2) the expression TTporrjpzoV Vd&ros Kp^M^^vos is peculiar (especi­ally i f only one cup is meant) and is missing in the Codex Ottobianus (a reading which Harnack accepts); 3) Justin draws a parallel between the eucharist and the Mithraic banquet in which bread and water aj e consumed (I Apol. 66). Harnack con­cludes that the word oivo* in I Apol. 65:5, 67:5 is a gloss. A. Juelicher, however, has shown that Irenaeus, Cle­ment of Alexandria, Hippolytus, and Origen also cite the blessing of Judah without connecting i t with the eucharist ("Zur Geschichte der Abendmahlsfeier in der aeltesten Kirche," in Theoloqische Abhandlunqen ^Freiburg: 1892/7, p. 218). He does not believe that the words Koti K/Oa^oizios can be legitimately suppressed, and explains their omission in the Codex Ottobianus as the result of the inadvertence of a copyist^who was misled Jby the similarity of the endings in the words ixfaros and K/xXyLtaroi ( i b i d . , p. 221). Goguel points out (op., c i t . , p. 360) that Justin's parallel between the Christian eucharist and the Mithraic rite is only a gene­ral analogy which does not necessarily apply to ever detai l .

224. See above, p. 121. 225. Qp_. c i t . , p. 41.

186

226. Cf. fflacDonald, op_. ext., p. 165. 227. KS;X. Funk, Didascalia et Constitutiones Aposto-

lorum I (Paderborn: Schoenig, 1905), pp. 98ff. 228. Seesabove, note 182. 229. Das Kommen des Herrn beim Abendmahl im Neuen Testa­

ment, 1970 (see above, note 54). 230. Ibid., p. 37. 231. Ibid., p. 39. 232. Ibid., pp. 40-43. 233. Ibid., pp. 44-49. 234. Ibid., p. 56. 235. Ibid., p. 61f. 236. Ibid., p. 67. 237. Ibid.. pp. 77-81. 238. IJbid., p. 99: "...dass das Einschreiten gegen Un-

zucht oft ein Teil der Abendmahlsparaenese i s t , deutet darauf hin, dass das Herrenmahl auch fuer diesen Tempeltext den Hintergrund bildet."

239. Ibid., pp. 83-85. 240. Ibid.. pp. 85-91. 241. Ibid., pp. 101-107. 242. Ibid., p. 107f. 243. Ibid., p. 122: "Dass es vor allem urn Kommen Jesu in

der Kirche und besonders in der Eucharistie geht, wird aus der Tatsache ersxchtlich."

244. Ibid., pp. 119-125. 245. Ibid., pp. 114-117. 246. Ibid., pp. 127-131.

187

247. Ibid., pp. 131-134. 2«8. Ibid.. pp. 134-136.

... 2 4 9 • i b i d . . P. 99: "Die enge Verbindung Christoloqie-Ekklesiologie verraet hier den eucharistischen Mintergrund."

250. Ibid., p. 151.

/ f8S

APPENDIX I

THE EUCHARIST AND MYTH

I n t r o d u c t i o n

We u i i s h i n t h i s a p p e n d i x t o r a i s e a g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n a b o u t

t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i n t h e e a r l y c h u r c h . T h i s

q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n s o u r a p p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e mode o f t h o u g h t u i h i c h

u n d e r l i e s t h e t e x t s a t o u r d i s p o s a l . I t i s o u r c o n v i c t i o n

t h a t uie c a n c o n s i s t e n t l y d i s c e r n i n t h e s e t e x t s one s p e c i f i c

e x p r e s s i o n o f human t h o u g h t , n a m e l y t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l . We s h a l l

a r g u e t h a t t h e l i t u r g y and t h e o l o g y o f t h e e u c h a r i s t , i n t h e

v a r y i n g f o r m s i n u i h i c h i t m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f d u r i n g t h e Neui T e s ­

t a m e n t and p a t r i s t i c p e r i o d s , e x h i b i t e d t h e e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c ­

t e r i s t i c s o f m y t h o p o e i c a c t i o n ( r i t u a l ) and t h o u g h t , r e s p e c ­

t i v e l y . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e e u c h a r i s t o f t h i s p e r i o d may n o t

be i n t e r p r e t e d , w i t h o u t d i s t o r t i o n , i n c a t e g o r i e s drawn f r o m

r e f l e c t i o n o f a r a t i o n a l i s t i c o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l n a t u r e .

We may s p e a k o f t h e e a r l y e u c h a r i s t as a " r i t e , " n o t i n

t h e s t e r i l e s e n s e o f t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f r i g i d f o r m s , b u t i n t h e

d y n a m i c s e n s e o f t h e s y m b o l i c a c t i n g o u t o f f u n d a m e n t a l v a l u e s ,

t h e c e l e b r a t e d s h a r i n g o f b a s i c c o n v i c t i o n s by a g r o u p o f men

and women bound t o g e t h e r i n a common f e l l o w s h i p . When s u c h a

r i t u a l a c t i o n i s p r o j e c t e d t o t h e p l a n e o f l a n g u a g e , f r e e l y and

s p o n t a n e o u s l y , and w i t h o u t t h e i n t e r j e c t i o n o f c a t e g o r i e s

189

f o r e i g n t o i t s s t r u c t u r e , myth i s c r e a t e d .

There may a p p e a r t o b e , p r i m a f a c i e , some d i f f i c u l t y i n

g i v i n g t o t h e e u c h a r i s t a myth and r i t u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Uie

a r e a c c u s t o m e d , f o r one t h i n g , t o v i e w i n g myths as t h e s y m b o l i c

p a r a d i g m o f some f o r m o f n a t u r a l c hange ( s u c h as t h e r h y t h m o f

t h e s e a s o n s o r t h e d a i l y p a s s a g e o f t h e l u m i n a r i e s ) o r as t h e

o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e r n s and c o n f l i c t s o f d a i l y l i f e

( t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t n a t u r e , s e x u a l and b l o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,

e t c . ) . Y e t t h e e u c h a r i s t i s q u i t e c l e a r l y r o o t e d i n h i s t o r y .

I t a p p e a r s t o be h i s t o r i c a l i n b o t h o r i g i n and m e a n i n g . B o t h

o f t h e s e c o n d two e u c h a r i s t i c t y p e s uie have d i s t i n g u i s h e d were

b e l i e v e d t o have been " i n s t i t u t e d " by J e s u s on a s p e c i f i c h i s ­

t o r i c a l o c c a s i o n , and t h e " c l a s s i c a l " t y p e uias b e l i e v e d t o be

t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l e v e n , v i z . , t h e

C r o s s . T h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d n o t , h o w e v e r , c o n s t i t u t e a

d e c i s i v e o b j e c t i o n t o o u r t h e s i s . W h i l e i t i s common t o p l a c e

myth and h i s t o r y i n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n , i t i s n o n e t h e l e s s p o s ­

s i b l e f o r a h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n o r e v e n t o be g i v e n a r a d i ­

c a l l y m y t h o l o g i s e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h i s o c c u r r e d , f o r e x a m p l e ,

i n p o s t - e x i l i c J u d a i s m , when t h e e s s e n t i a l l y p o l i t i c a l and

h i s t o r i c a l e s c h a t o l o g y o f t h e e a r l i e r p r o p h e t s was m y t h o l o g i s e d

i n t o a p o c a l y p t i c . We m i g h t t a k e n o t e h e r e o f C a s s i r e r ' s com=

ment t h a t " t h e r e i s no n a t u r a l phenomenon and no phenomenon o f

human l i f e t h a t i s n o t c a p a b l e o f a m y t h i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,

and w h i c h d oes n o t c a l l f o r s u c h an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . "

190

A second apparent d i f f i c u l t y i s that myths are t y p i c a l l y

the common property of an independent c u l t u r a l u n i t or s o c i e t y

such as a Melanesian t r i b e , Ancient Egypt, Greece or I n d i a ,

and a c t as an embracing arch of symbols e x p r e s s i n g the funda­

mental concerns of the whole s o c i e t y . Yet e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y

uias n e i t h e r c o n f i n e d to a s i n g l e c u l t u r e , nor uias i t the p a r t i ­

c u l a r r e l i g i o n of any c u l t u r e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e

to speak of myth, i n the sense of a c e r t a i n type of human

reasoning, w i t h i n the context of e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y . New Tes­

tament exegetes have done so f o r a centu r y , and the form c r i ­

t i c s have succeeded i n i s o l a t i n g myth as one l i t e r a r y genre of

the New Testament. I t would be a mistake, then, to c o n f i n e our

understanding of my thv.solely to the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of n a t u r a l

phenomena i n a p r i m i t i v e or a n c i e n t c u l t u r e . Rather we sh o u l d ,

f o l l o w i n g the a n a l y s i s of such s c h o l a r s as Cas s i r e r E a n d Malinow­

s k i , recognise i t as a c e r t a i n form of human exp r e s s i o n d i s t i n ­

guished by a p a r t i c u l a r " p r e - r a t i o n a l " mode of a r t i c u l a t i o n .

C h r i s t i a n theology has always p r i z e d the e u c h a r i s t as the

sacrament of u n i t y , and has taught that t h i s u n i t y i s a conse­

quence of some form of encounter with C h r i s t i n the c e l e b r a t i o n

of the c u l t i c a c t . Yet i t was not u n t i l the C a r o l i n g i a n p e r i o d

that there was any systematic attempt to r a t i o n a l i z e the mode

of C h r i s t ' s e u c h a r i s t i c presence. I t i s ture that there were

t h e o l o g i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s of the e u c h a r i s t , and i t i s even true

that the language of elemental change appears as e a r l y as Jus­

t i n , but there was no sys t e m a t i c attempt to evaluate p h i l o s o -

191

p h i c a l l y t h e l a n g u a g e o f e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y and w o r s h i p .

S i n c e t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y , h o w e v e r , and t h e d i s a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n

R a d b e r t u s and R a t r a m n u s on w h e t h e r o r n o t C h r i s t was p r e s e n t

i n v e r i t a t e a f t e r t h e c o n s e c r a t i o n , i t has been one o f t h e

most v i g o r o u s l y d e b a t e d p r o b l e m s o f C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y . The

t e r m s o f r e f e r e n c e f o r t h i s d i s c u s s i o n have c o n s i s t e n t l y been

a c o n t r a s t b e tween t h e f i g u r a t i v e o r s y m b o l i c and t h e r e a l i s ­

t i c . R i g h t down t o t h e p r e s e n t day t h e r e have been c e r t a i n

s c h o l a r s who have t r i e d t o show t h a t t h e New T e s t a m e n t w r i t e r s

o r t h e F a t h e r s h e l d e i t h e r a " r e a l i s t i c " o r a " f i g u r a t i v e "

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e e u c h a r i s t . C e r t a i n l y i t i s p o s s i b l e t o

c i t e p a t r i s t i c t e x t s , e v e n f r o m t h e same w r i t e r , f a v o u r a b l e t o

b o t h v i e w s . But i f o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l i s c o r ­

r e c t , i t i s i n a d m i s s a b l e t o a p p l y t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r c a t e g o r i e s

t o t h e b i b l i c a l and p a t r i s t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f t h i s s a c r a m e n t .

F o r i f t h e l o g i c o f e a r l y e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y i s m y t h o p o e i c ,

t h e n any d i s t i n c t i o n b e t ween f i g u r e o r image and r e a l i t y i s

e x t r a n e o u s t o i t s i n t e l l e c t u a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s .

To show t h a t t h i s i s i n d e e d t h e c a s e , i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y

f o r us t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e w h i c h e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y

u s e d i n r e f e r e n c e t o i t s s a c r e d meal i s i n some way c o m p a r a b l e

t o t h a t o f p r i m i t i v e and c l a s s i c a l m y t h o l o g i e s . Our method

w i l l n o t be t o make d i r e c t c o m p a r i s o n s , b u t r a t h e r t o t a k e as

o u r p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e t h e r e s u l t s o f s t u d i e s by p h e n o m e n o l o -

g i s t s o f m y t h , and t h e n t o show t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e e a r l y

192

C h r i s t i a n e u c h a r i s t e x h i b i t s those e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

of mythical thought d e l i n e a t e d i n these s t u d i e s .

The L o g i c of Myth

For the purposes of t h i s appendix uie s h a l l use the term

"myth" to designate a p r e - s c i e n t i f i c and p r e - p h i l o s o p h i c a l form

of e x p r e s s i o n through uihich the human mind a r t i c u l a t e s i t s most

fundamental v a l u e s , and uihich i t r e c i t e s through r i t u a l a c t i o n .

Uie do not, of course, accept any of those o l d e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

of myth uihich mould reduce the phenomenon to a s i n g l e n a t u r a l

p r i n c i p l e , whether s o l a r , l u n a r , seasonal or m e t e o r o l o g i c a l .

Nor do uie accept Mircea E l i a d e ' s premise that a l l mythriis essen­

t i a l l y a e t i o l o g i c a l , and that the r e a l i t y that myth expresses 3

i s the f a c t uihich i t e x p l a i n s . Myth i s r a t h e r the f o r m u l a t i o n

of c e r t a i n b a s i c c o n v i c t i o n s about the meaning of human l i f e .

Malinowski w r i t e s :

Myth f u l f i l l s i n p r i m i t i v e c u l t u r e an i n d i s p e n ­sable f u n c t i o n : i t expresses, enhances, and c o d i ­f i e s b e l i e f ; i t safeguards and enforces m o r a l i t y ; i t vouches f o r the e f f i c i e n c y of r i t u a l and con­t a i n s p r a c t i c a l r u l e s f o r the guidance of man. Myth i s thus a v i t a l i n g r e d i e n t of human c i v i l i ­z a t i o n ; i t i s not an i d l e t a l e but a hard-worked a c t i v e f o r c e ; i t i s not an i n t e l l e c t u a l e x p l a n a t i o n or an a r t i s t i c imagery, but a pragmatic c h a r t e r of p r i m i t i v e f a i t h and moral wisdom.'*

Malinowski found the a e t i o l o g i c a l theory of myth qu i t e f o r e i g n

to the experience of h i s Melanesian s u b j e c t s . "They do not

want," he says, "to ' e x p l a i n , ' to make ' i n t e l l i g i b l e ' anything

uihich happens i n t h e i r myths—above a l l not an a b s t r a c t i d e a . " 5

193

M y t h , t h e n , i s p a r t i c u l a r i s e d n o t so much by i t s c o n t e n t

as by i t s l o g i c . I t s method o f r e a s o n i n g i s s u i g e n e r i s , and

i t c a n n o t , t h e r e f o r e , a s S c h e l l i n g o b s e r v e d a l r e a d y i n t h e

l a s t c e n t u r y , be i n t e r p r e t e d a l l e g o r i c a l l y . I t i s , as C a s s i r e r

o b s e r v e s , an autonomous f o r m o f t h e human s p i r i t , w h i c h must

be e v a l u a t e d on i t s own t e r m s . Whether o r n o t we c a n c o n s i d e r 6 7

myth as " t r u e " ( F r a n k f o r t , E l i a d e ) , o r as an u n c o n s c i o u s f i c -8 9 t i o n ( C a s s i r e r ) , o r , as i n t h e v i e w o f E r i c h D a r d e l , as n e i t h e r

t r u e n o r f a l s e , i s n o t a q u e s t i o n w h i c h we s h a l l d e c i d e h e r e .

What i s o f g r e a t e r c o n c e r n t o us a r e t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s o f

m y t h i c a l l a n g u a g e and a c t i o n , t h e d e t e r m i n a t i v e f e a t u r e s o f

m y t h i c a l a r t i c u l a t i o n . I n t h e s e c o n d volume o f h i s P h i l o s o p h y

o f S y m b o l i c F o r m s , C a s s i r e r ' s p r i m a r y a i m i s t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e

s h a r p l y t h e l o g i c o f myth f r o m s c i e n t i f i c , e m p i r i c a l , o r p h i l o ­

s o p h i c a l l o g i c . I n a more c o n c i s e f o r m , H e n r i and H.A. F r a n k ­

f o r t have u n d e r t a k e n a s i m i l a r s t u d y i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o 10

B e f o r e P h i l o s o p h y . The e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m y t h i c a l

and n o n - m y t h i c a l l o g i c c a n be s u m m a r i s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e ­

ment by C a s s i r e r : ...a mere g l a n c e a t t h e f a c t s o f m y t h i c a l c o n s c i o u s ­n e s s shows t h a t i t knows n o t h i n g o f c e r t a i n d i s t i n c ­t i o n s w h i c h seem a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y t o e m p i r i c a l -s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g . Above a l l , i t l a c k s any f i x e d d i v i d i n g l i n e b etween mere " r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " and " r e a l " p e r c e p t i o n , b e t w e e n w i s h and f u l f i l l m e n t , b e t w e e n image and t h i n g . 1 '

194

M y t h i c a l t h i n k i n g , C a s s i r e r a r g u e s , l a c k s t h e c a t e g o r y o f t h e

i d e a l . O r , a s v a n d e r L e e u u i s a y s , i t " c o n s t i t u t e s t h e m o s t

1 2 e x t r e m e a n t i t h e s i s c o n c e i v a b l e t o p u r e t h e o r y . " I n o r d e r t o

a p p r e h e n d a s y m b o l , m y t h i c a l t h i n k i n g m u s t t r a n s p o s e i t i n t o

s o m e t h i n g s u b s t a n t i a l . T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e i n t h e c a s e o f

m y t h i c a l a c t i o n . B u t t h i s d o e s n o t mean t h a t t h e m y t h i c a l m i n d

i s s i m p l y i n c a p a b l e o f m a k i n g t h e m o s t e l e m e n t a r y o b s e r v a t i o n s

a b o u t t h e w o r l d ; i t m e a n s , r a t h e r , t h a t i n m y t h c e r t a i n t h i n g s

a r e c h a r g e d w i t h s i g n i f i c a n c e , a n d t h a t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e i s n o t

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m t h e t h i n g . S u z a n n e L a n g e r , i n c o m m e n t i n g

o n M a o r i l u n a r m y t h o l o g y , p u t s t h e m a t t e r t h i s w a y :

The s a v a g e d o e s n o t , i n h i s i n n o c e n c e , " t h i n k " t h e moon i s a woman b e c a u s e h e c a n n o t t e l l t h e d i f f e r e n c e ; he " t h i n k s " i t i s a r o u n d f i r e , a s h i n i n g d i s k ; b u t he s e e s Woman i n i t , a n d n a m e s i t Woman , a n d a l l i t s a c t s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t i n t e r e s t h i m a r e t h o s e u i h i c h c a r r y o u t t h a t s i g n i f i c a n c e . ' ' 3

The E g y p t o l o g i s t R u d o l f A n t h e s m a k e s a s i m i l a r o b s e r v a t i o n w i t h

r e g a r d t o E g y p t i a n m y t h o l o g y :

A ( J m y t h o l o g i c a l ] s y m b o l i s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a h u m a n a t t e m p t t o make a n e l e m e n t o f t h e d i v i n e w o r l d c o n c e i v a b l e i n h u m a n t e r m s , t h a t i s , i n t e r m s o f l o g i c a n d s e n s u o u s p e r c e p t i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e s e d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o n f o r m w i t h t h e l a w s o f n a t u r e . I 4

T h e f u n d a m e n t a l mode o f t h e m y t h i c a l a p p r e h e n s i o n o f

r e a l i t y , i . e . , n o n - d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d s u b s t a n t i a l i s a t i o n , o p e ­

r a t e s i n a n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t s p h e r e s o f c o n c e p t i o n , i n c l u d i n g

195

s p a c e , t i m e , and c a u s a l i t y . I n e a c h o f t h e s e s p h e r e s , a

c o n c e p t u a l e v a l u a t i o n i s made, n o t by any o b j e c t i v e m e a s u r e -1 5

ment, b u t by an e m o t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f v a l u e s . I n e a c h t h e

f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r a s t i s n o t b e t w e e n l a r g e o r s m a l l , b e t ween

r e a l o r u n r e a l , b u t b e t ween s a c r e d and p r o f a n e . As C a s s i r e r

w r i t e s , The m y t h i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s a r r i v e s a t an a r t i c u ­l a t i o n o f s p a c e and t i m e n o t by s t a b i l i s i n g t h e f l u c t u a t i o n o f s e n s u o u s phenomena b u t by i n t r o ­d u c i n g i t s s p e c i f i c o p p o s i t i o n - - t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f s a c r e d and p r o f a n e - - i n t o s p a t i a l and t e m p o r a l r e a l i t y . 1 °

W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f c a u s a l i t y , a l l i n t e r p r e t e r s

a g r e e t h a t t h e m y t h o p o e i c mind seems t o e x p l a i n s o m e t h i n g , and

t h a t i t d o e s s o w i t h a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f a p p r o a c h e s . W h i l e em­

p i r i c a l t h i n k i n g p o s i t s a r e l a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c c a u s e s t o

s p e c i f i c e f f e c t s , m y t h i c a l t h i n k i n g , where i t r a i s e s t h e q u e s ­

t i o n o f o r i g i n s , has a f r e e s e l e c t i o n o f c a u s e s and e f f e c t s a t

i t s d i s p o s a l . R u d o l f A n t h e s p o i n t s o u t t h a t i n E g y p t , f o r

e x a m p l e , ". . . a s i n g l e e n t i t y o f what we have c a l l e d t h e d i ­

v i n e w o r l d c a n be c o n c e i v e d i n v a r i o u s i n c o m p a t i b l e c o n c e p t s 17

by t h e same t h e o l o g i a n s . " '

T h i s m y t h o p o e i c mode o f a p p r e h e n s i o n i s a p p l i e d n o t o n l y

t o s p a c e , t i m e , and c a u s a l i t y , b u t t o l i f e and d e a t h i t s e l f .

T hat i s t o s a y , t h e s e two n o t i o n s a r e s u b s t a n t i a l i s e d , on t h e

one h a n d , and on t h e o t h e r h a n d , no s h a r p d e m a r c a t i o n i s made

bet w e e n t h e l i v i n g and t h e d e a d . Thus C a s s i r e r w r i t e s i n h i s

196

Essay on Man; "In a c e r t a i n sense the whole of mythic a l thought

may be i n t e r p r e t e d as a constant and o b s t i n a t e negation of the 1 fl

phenomenon of death."

Myth d e s c r i b e s i t s e l f i n a c t i o n . Or, to put i t the other

way around, myth represents a l i n g u i s t i c p r o j e c t i o n of the ba­

s i c values acted out i n r i t u a l . R i t u a l i s p r i o r to myth, both

p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y and h i s t o r i c a l l y . A l i v i n g r i t e i s not the ex­

p r e s s i o n of i n t e l l e c t u a l i s e d r e l i g i o u s c o n c e p t i o n s , but r a t h e r

"an immediate, p r i m o r d i a l c r e a t i o n of r e l i g i o u s l y - m i n d e d men."

In r i t u a l myth i s r e a l i s e d , i n the l i t e r a l sense of being made

r e a l . To c i t e only one example, i n the Babylonian a k i t u or en­

thronement and New Year's f e s t i v a l , i t was b e l i e v e d that with

the r e c i t a t i o n of the Enuma E l i s h c r e a t i o n a c t u a l l y took p l a c e .

Theodore Gaster summarises i n t h i s way the r e l a t i o n between

myth and r i t u a l : The f u n c t i o n of myth i s . . . t o b r i n g out i n a r t i c u ­l a t e f a s h i o n the in h e r e n t d u r a t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e of the r i t u a l program. I t s method i s to construe the punctual order of ceremonies i n terms of an i d e a l s i t u a t i o n i n v o l v i n g "gods" or s i m i l a r t r a n ­scendent and p r e t e r p u n c t u a l beings. I t s e f f e c t i s to turn p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t o r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , to introduce the element of mimesis and to co n f e r upon the p a r t i c i p a n t s the added and p a r a l l e l r o l e of a c t o r s , so that they are at one and the same time both p r o t a g o n i s t s of a d i r e c t experience and impersonators of c h a r a c t e r s other than t h e i r own.

It i s our wish to show that when e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s d e s c r i b e d

or a l l u d e d to t h e i r own fundamental r i t e , the e u c h a r i s t i c meal,

the language which they used betrays t h i s mythopoeic l o g i c ,

197

and t h a t c e r t a i n themes i n e a r l y e u c h a r i s t i c t t h e o l o g y c o r -

r e p o n d p r e c i s e l y t o m y t h i c a l c o n c e p t i o n s o f c a u s a l i t y , l i f e

and d e a t h , s y m b o l and r e a l i t y , t i m e and s p a c e .

The E u c h a r i s t and t h e M y t h i c a l l/iem o f C a u s a l i t y

We have a l r e a d y n o t e d t h a t uihen m y t h o p o e i c l o g i c d e a l s

w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f c a u s a l i t y , i t s e e s no c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n

a p p l y i n g a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n s t o t h e same

phenomenon. We s h a l l i l l u s t r a t e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s a p ­

p r o a c h i n e a r l y e u c h a r i s t i c t h e i o l o g y w i t h two e x a m p l e s .

The f i r s t e x a m p l e i s t h e n o t i o n o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e

s a c r a m e n t . Whereas g e n e r a l l y i n t h e e a r l y c h u r c h t h e s y n o p t i c

v i e w o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e c l a s s i c a l t y p e a t t h e L a s t Sup­

p e r was p r e d o m i n a n t , t h i s was n o t a l w a y s t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f

t h e d e u t e r o - J o h a n n i n e v i e w o f i t s i n s t i t u t i o n by t h e d e a t h o f

J e s u s , e v e n i n t h e same w r i t e r . T hus, i f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n 21

o f Werner i s c o r r e c t , when I r e n a e u s r e l a t e s t h e " f r u i t o f t h e

v i n e " t o t h e s a y i n g a b o u t t h e c o r n o f wheat u i h i c h had t o d i e

i n t h e e a r t h i n o r d e r t o p r o d u c e a b u n d a n t f r u i t ( J n . 1 2 : 2 4 ) ,

he i s a l l u d i n g t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e e u c h a r i s t t h r o u g h t h e 22

d e a t h o f C h r i s t ( A d v . H a e r . 5 : 2 : 3 ) . Y e t i t i s a l s o c l e a r

t h a t I r e n a e u s r e f e r s t h e e u c h a r i s t back t o t h e L a s t S u p p e r when

he s p e a k s o f " t h e o b l a t i o n w h i c h t h e C h u r c h o f f e r s a c c o r d i n g t o 2 3

t h e commandment o f t h e L o r d " ( A d v . Haer • 4 : 1 8 : 1 ) . and when he

c i t e s t h e words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o show t h a t t h e a p o s t l e s and

198

t h e c h u r c h have r e c e i v e d " t h e s a c r i f i c e o f t h e New. C o v e n a n t " 2 4

( A d v . H a e r . 4 : 1 7 : 5 ) . S i m i l a r l y , C y p r i a n , who a l s o q u o t e s 2 c

t h e words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as a "command" (Ep_. 6 3 : 1 0 ) ,

r e v e a l s h i s b e l i e f i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e s a c r a m e n t by

C h r i s t ' s d e a t h when he d e c l a r e s , " j u s t as one c o u l d n o t d r i n k

t h e w ine i f t h e g r a p e s had n o t f i r s t been p r e s s e d and c r u s h e d ,

s o we c o u l d n o t d r i n k t h e b l o o d o f C h r i s t , i f C h r i s t had n o t 2 6

f i r s t been p r e s s e d and c r u s h e d " (Ep_. 6 3 : 7 ) .

The d e u t e r o - J o h a n n i n e n o t i o n t h a t t h e s a c r a m e n t s a r e

f o u n d e d on t h e d e a t h o f C h r i s t e x i s t s s i d e by s i d e w i t h t h e 27

n o t i o n o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a t t h e L a s t S u p p e r i n A u g u s t i n e

t o o . He d e c l a r e s : "When Adam s l e e p s , Eve i s f o r m e d f r o m h i s

s i d e ; when C h r i s t i s d e a d , t h e s p e a r p i e r c e s h i s s i d e s o t h a t

t h e m y s t e r i e s by w h i c h t h e c h u r c h i s f o r m e d may f l o w f o r t h " 2 8

( I n J o h a n n . 9 : 1 0 ) . T h i s same theme i s d e v e l o p e d by Jo h n

C h r y s o s t o m : I n t h i s deed £the spear-thrust3 t h e r e was, more­o v e r , f u l f i l l e d a deep m y s t e r y . F o r w a t e r and b l o o d f l o w e d f r o m t h e wound. These s t r e a m s s p r a n g f o r t h n o t by c h a n c e , n o t w i t h o u t p u r p o s e . From b o t h t h e c h u r c h was t o be c r e a t e d . . . . Through t h e w a t e r we a r e r e b o r n , t h r o u g h t h e b l o o d and f l e s h we a r e n o u r i s h e d . The h o l y m y s t e r i e s had t h e i r o r i g i n on t h e C r o s s . T h e r e f o r e , w e j s e t t h e b l e s s e d c h a l i c e t o o u r l i p s as t h o u g h we d r a n k f r o m t h e 7 p

s i d e o f t h e C r u c i f i e d h i m s e l f . (I_n J o h . horn. 8 5 : 8 ) . E l s e w h e r e C h r y s o s t o m s t a t e s t h a t i t was a t t h e " m y s t e r y " o f t h e

L a s t S u p p e r t h a t J e s u s a b o l i s h e d t h e o l d P a s c h and e s t a b l i s h e d 30

t h e new, i . e . , t h e e u c h a r i s t {In M a t t . horn. 8 2 : 1 ) , and r e f e r s

199

t o t h e o c c a s i o n as " t h e same n i g h t on u i h i c h C h r i s t gave h i s 31

g r e a t m y s t e r i e s " (I_n 1_ C o r . horn. 2 7 : 2 ) . He s a y s i n a d d i ­

t i o n t h a t t h e e u c h a r i s t i s " t h e same b a n q u e t as t h a t i n u i h i c h

C h r i s t s a t a t t a b l e , and t h a t t t h i s b a n q u e t i s i n no uiay d i f -32

f e r e n t t h a n t h a t " (]_n M a t t , horn. 5 0 : 3 ) .

A s e c o n d e x a m p l e o f uihere t h e q u e s t i o n o f c a u s a l i t y uias

r a i s e d c o n c e r n s t h e a t t e m p t o f c e r t a i n p a t r i s t i c a u t h o r s , p a r ­

t i c u l a r l y f r o m t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y o n , t o e x p l a i n haui t h e e u c h a ­

r i s t i c e l e m e n t s mere c o n v e r t e d i n t o t h e body and b l o o d o f

C h r i s t . I t has n o t been uncommon f o r modern i n t e r p r e t e r s t o

m a i n t a i n t h a t one o r a n o t h e r o f t h e F a t h e r s h e l d t o a t h e o r y

o f c o n s e c r a t i o n e i t h e r by t h e words o f i n s t i t u t i o n o r by t h e

e p i c l e s i s p r a y e r , and t o i m p l y t h a t t h e one t h e o r y e x c l u d e d t h e

o t h e r . I t i s o u r b e l i e f , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e F a t h e r s d i d n o t

have any r i g i d c a u s a l e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e

e l e m e n t s , and t h a t h e r e t o o t h e y r e a s o n e d r a t h e r i n a mytho­

p o e i c manner.

Thus C y r i l o f J e r u s a l e m , who s t a t e s t h a t t h e c h u r c h c a l l s

t h e H o l y S p i r i t upon t h e g i f t s so t h a t t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c h a n g e 33

m i g h t t a k e p l a c e ( C a t . m y s t . 5 : 7 ) , and who a f f i r m s t h a t t h e

e l e m e n t s " b e f o r e t h e i n v o c a t i o n o f t h e h o l y and a d o r a b l e T r i ­

n i t y were s i m p l y b r e a d and w i n e , w h i l e a f t e r t h e e p i c l e s i s

t h e b r e a d becomes t h e body o f C h r i s t , and t h e w i n e t h e b l o o d o f

C h r i s t " ( C a t . tiny s t . 1 : 7 ) , ^ 4 n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n n e c t s t h e c o n v e r s i o n

200

u i i t h t h e uiords o f i n s t i t u t i o n uihen he a s k s : " S i n c e t h e n he

h i m s e l f has a f f i r m e d and s a i d o f t h e b r e a d , ' T h i s i s my body,'

uiho s h a l l hav/e t o d o u b t any l o n g e r ? And s i n c e he has a f f i r m e d

and s a i d , ' T h i s i s my b l o o d , ' uiho s h a l l e v e r h e s i t a t e , s a y i n g 35

t h a t t h i s i s n o t h i s b l o o d ? " ( C a t . m y s t . 4 : 1 ) .

The same a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n may be f o u n d i n G r e g o r y o f

N y s s a . W h i l e G r e g o r y on t h e one hand c a n s a y t h a t t h e b r e a d

" i s a t once c h a n g e d i n t o t h e body by means o f t h e Word, as t h e

Word i t s e l f s a i d , ' T h i s i s my body,'" ( O r a t . c a t . 3 7 : 1 0 ) , 3 6

on t h e o t h e r hand he does n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e s t h e a c t i o n o f t h e

Word f r o m t h a t o f t h e S p i r i t uihen he c o m p a r e s t h e b l e s s i n g o f

t h e e u c h a r i s t i c b r e a d and uiine u i i t h t h e b l e s s i n g o f t h e c h r i s -

m a t i c o i l : The b r e a d a g a i n i s a t f i r s t common b r e a d , b u t uihen t h e s a c r a m e n t a l a c t i o n jmVcrcripiOV c o n s e c r a t e s i t , i t i s c a l l e d and becomes t h e body o f C h r i s t . So u i i t h t h e s a c r a m e n t a l o i l , so w i t h t h e w i n e : t h o u g h b e f o r e t h e b l e s s i n g t h e y a r e o f l i t t l e v a l u e , a f t e r

J o h n C h r y s o s t o m i s a w i t n e s s t o t h e same a m b i g u i t y . On

o c c a s i o n , he a t t a c h e s t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n g u i t e c l e a r l y t o t h e

words o f i n s t i t u t i o n . Thus he w r i t e s :

F o r i t i s n o t man who b r i n g s i t a b o u t t h a t t h e g i f t s w h i c h a r e s e t f o r t h become t h e body and b l o o d o f C h r i s t , b u t C h r i s t h i m s e l f who was c r u ­c i f i e d f o r u s . The p r i e s t s t a n d s f u l f i l l i n g a r o l e and s a y i n g t h e s e w o r d s , b u t t h e power and

201

g r a c e a r e o f God. " T h i s i s my body," he s a y s ; t h i s word c h a n g e s t h e t h i n g s t h a t l i e b e f o r e us.(Horn. de p r o d . J u d . 1 : 6 ) . 3 8

T h i s d e c l a r a t i o n d o e s n o t , h o w e v e r , p r e v e n t C h r y s o s t o m f r o m

s p e a k i n g o f t h e p r i e s t ' s c a l l i n g upon t h e H o l y S p i r i t t o d e ­

s c e n d upon and t o u c h t h e e u c h a r i s t i c e l e m e n t s (Horn, i n coem.

39

a p p . 3 ) , a c l e a r a l l u s i o n t o t h e e p i c l e s i s .

T e x t s s u c h as t h e s e s h o u l d l e a d u s , i n o u r o p i n i o n , t o

be h e s i t a n t i n a t t r i b u t i n g t o o t h e r a u t h o r s who seem t o be

l e s s a m b i g u o u s p r e c i s e t h e o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n s e c r a t i o n .

Thus we s h o u l d n o t t h i n k t h a t f o r T h e o d o r e o f l Y I o p s u e s t i a - -40

who a p p e a r s as t h e c h a m p i o n o f t h e e p i c l e s i s - t h e o r y - - t h a t t h e

words o f i n s t i t u t i o n were n o t o f i m p o r t a n c e i n m a k i n g C h r i s t

p r e s e n t i n t h e l i t u r g y . C o n v e r s e l y , we s h o u l d n o t s u p p o s e

t h a t f o r Ambrose (who s t a t e s i n a p p a r e n t l y c l e a r t e r m s t h a t

b e f o r e t h e words " t h i s i s my body," " a n o t h e r r e a l i t y i s d e s i g ­

n a t e d , , b u t a f t e r t h e c o n s e c r a t i o n , i t i s t h e body w h i c h i s

41

s i g n i f i e d " ) and f o r t h e W e s t e r n C h u r c h i n g e n e r a l t h a t t h e

i n v o c a t i o n o f t h e S p i r i t was n o t / j a l s o i n s t r u m e n t a l i n t h e c o n ­

v e r s i o n o f t h e e l e m e n t s . 4 ^

I n c o n c l u s i o n , we f i n d i n t h e s e two e x a m p l e s e v i d e n c e

t h a t when e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f c a u s a l i t y i n

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i r c u l t i c m e a l , as i s t h e c a s e i n g e n e r a l f o r

t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l m i n d , t h e y saw no f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n

i n a t t r i b u t i n g more t h a n one c a u s e t o a s p e c i f i c e f f e c t .

202

The E u c h a r i s t and t h e M y t h i c a l View o f D e a t h

I n t h e s e c o n d c h a p t e r o f t h i s t h e s i s we have f o u n d t h a t

t h e r e e x i s t e d i n t h e New T e s t a m e n t p e r i o d a c o n c e p t i o n o f

e a t i n g w i t h t h e r e s u r r e c t e d C h r i s t , a c o n c e p t i o n w h i c h we

have a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t , n a m e l y

t h e bgead and f i s h t y p e . I n o u r o p i n i o n t h i s c o n c e p t i o n e x ­

e m p l i f i e s C a s s i r e r ' s n o t i o n o f myth as t h e " o b s t i n a t e n e g a t i o n

o f t h e phenomenon o f d e a t h . " I t i s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e

t y p i c a l l y m y t h i c a l n o n - d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e r e a l and

t h e i d e a l . The n o t i o n a f f i r m s i n e f f e c t t h a t t h e L o r d who

p r e s i d e d o v e r t h e t a b l e f e l l o w s h i p d u r i n g h i s p u b l i c m i n i s t r y

c o n t i n u e s t o do so a f t e r h i s d e a t h ; t h a t he i s i n f a c t n o t

" r e a l l y " d e a d . We w o u l d go s o f a r as t o v e n t u r e t h a t i t i s

n o t a l t o g e t h e r i m p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n e x p e r i e n c e was

i t s e l f r o o t e d i n t h e m y t h o l o g i s a t i o n o f t h e t a b l e f e l l o w s h i p .

The t r a d i t i o n g i v e s a h i n t o f t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i n L k . 2 4 : 3 5 ,

where i t i s s a i d t h a t t h e r e s u r r e c t e d C h r i s t "was known t o

them i n t h e b r e a k i n g o f b r e a d . " The d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n l i f e

and d e a t h , b e t w e e n p a s t , p r e s e n t , and f u t u r e , a r e e f f e c t i v e l y

e f f a c e d i n t h e c u l t i c c e l e b r a t i o n . I n C u l l m a n n ' s w o r d s , "The

L o r d a p p e a r e d t o h i s d i s c i p l e s a f t e r h i s d e a t h ; He a p p e a r s

now i n t h e c u l t i c meal o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ; He w i l l a p p e a r s o o n

f o r t h e m e s s i a n i c b a n q u e t " 4 3 ( c f . b e l o w , S e c t i o n 6 ) . We m i g h t

add t h a t t h i s i s t h e same L o r d who " a p p e a r e d " d u r i n g h i s m i n i s ­

t r y , i . e . , t h a t t h e e a r l y community d i d n o t d i s c r i m i n a t e a t

203

a l l b e t w e e n t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s on t h e one hand and t h e 44

r e s u r r e c t e d and g l o r i f i e d C h r i s t on t h e o t h e r .

I n t h e c l a s s i c a l t y p e o f e u c h a r i s t , t h e d e a t h o f C h r i s t

i s an i m p o r t a n t t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f . Here t h e d e a t h o f C h r i s t

i s b o t h s u b s t a n t i a l i s e d ( t h o u g h n o t o f c o u r s e p e r s o n i f i e d )

and n e g a t e d . I t i s s u b s t a n t i a l i s e d i n s o f a r as i t i s made

p r e s e n t i n e a t i n g and d r i n k i n g (1 Co. 1 1 : 2 6 ) . I f t h e r e i s a

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e body and b l o o d o f C h r i s t (1 Co. 1 0 : 1 6 ) ,

i t i s n o t a q u e s t i o n o f h i s body and b l o o d p e r s e , b u t h i s body

and b l o o d i n so f a r as t h e s e c o n c e p t s a r e a s u b s t a n t i a l i s a t i o n

o f J e s u s * s a c r i f i c i a l d e a t h . T hat s u c h uias t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g

d u r i n g t h e p a t r i s t i c p e r i o d i s c l e a r f r o m T h e o d o r e o f M o p s u e s -

t i a ' s commentary on t h e l i t u r g y . He a s s e r t s t h a t t h e tuio

e l e m e n t s " b o t h c o n s t i t u t e t h e a n a m n e s i s o f t h a t P a s s i o n and

d e a t h u i h i c h t h e body o f C h r i s t u n d e r w e n t . " 4 a E x p l a i n i n g t h e

f o r m u l a e " T h i s i s my body , e t c . " and " T h i s i s my b l o o d , e t c . , "

he s a y s : "The f i r s t s a y i n g r e f e r s t o h i s P a s s i o n , t h e s e c o n d

t o t h e h o r r i b l e c r u e l t y o f t h i s P a s s i o n i n w h i c h much b l o o d was

s p i l l e d . " 4 6

Y e t a t t h e same t i m e C h r i s t ' s d e a t h i s n e g a t e d i n t h e

c l a s s i c a l e u c h a r i s t , f o r i t i s a l s o t h e l i v i n g C h r i s t who i s

o f f e r e d t o t h e b e l i e v e r . We have s e e n above t h a t f o r P a u l

C h r i s t o f f e r s i n t h e s a c r a m e n t h i s body and b l o o d as TfVCljClCl t

47 a t e r m w h i c h r e f e r s t o t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a l s p h e r e o f e x i s t e n c e .

204

A r e l a t e d n o t i o n i s f o u n d i n J n . 6 : 5 3 f f . and i n t h e I g n a t i a n

c o n c e p t o f " t h e m e d i c i n e o f i m m o r t a l i t y " ; h e r e i t i s t h e e u ­

c h a r i s t i c f l e s h and b l o o d u i h i c h makes p o s s i b l e an a b i d i n g i n

t h e r e s u r r e c t e d C h r i s t and t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e b e l i e v e r

h i m s e l f . S i m i l a r l y , C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a c a n d e c l a r e , "To

d r i n k t h e b l o o d o f J e s u s i s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n h i s i n c o r r u p -4 B

t i o n " ( P a e d . 2:2). T h i s i d e a i s d e v e l o p e d more f u l l y i n

C y r i l o f J e r u s a l e m 4 9 and G r e g o r y o f N y s s a , 5 0 uiho b o t h p r e s e n t

t h e t h e o r y t h a t uie become p a r t a k e r s o f t h e d i v i n e n a t u r e uihen

t h e g l o r i f i e d and i n c o r r u p t i b l e body o f C h r i s t i s d i s s e m i n a t e d

t h r o u g h o u r members a f t e r communion.

The n o t i o n o f d e a t h i n t h e e a r l y e u c h a r i s t i s t h u s l i k e

t h a t u i h i c h s c h o l a r s have f o u n d i n m y t h . D e a t h i s n o t s i m p l y

an a b s e n c e o f l i f e , b u t a c o n c r e t e r e a l i t y u i h i c h p r e s e n t s i t ­

s e l f e v e n p h y s i c a l l y . I t i s t h u s l i k e l i f e , and i n f a c t

f i n a l l y p r e s e n t s i t s e l f as an a f f i r m a t i o n o f l i f e .

The E u c h a r i s t and t h e M y t h i c a l View o f Symbol

We have s e e n t h a t f r o m t h e o u t s e t t h e c l a s s i c a l t y p e o f

e u c h a r i s t c o n t a i n e d t h e i d e a t h a t t h e s a c r a m e n t a l b r e a d and

uiine a r e o f f e r e d t o t h e p a r t a k e r s as t h e body and b l o o d o f

C h r i s t . T h i s a f f i r m a t i o n has p r o v i d e d C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i a n s

u i i t h a m u c h - d i s p u t e d h e r m e n e u t i c a l q u e s t i o n : mas t h e i n d e n t i -

f i c a t i o n o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c e l e m e n t s u i i t h t h e body and b l o o d o f

C h r i s t u n d e r s t o o d by t h e Neui T e s t a m e n t and p a t r i s t i c w r i t e r s i n P

a* l i t e r a l s e n s e o r i n a f i g u r a t i v e s e n s e ?

205

Many s c h o l a r s have a t t r i b u t e d one o r a n o t h e r o f t h e s e

v i e w s e i t h e r t o t h e p e r i o d as a w h o l e o r t o d i f f e r e n t i n d i ­

v i d u a l w r i t e r s w i t h i n i t . O t h e r s have s o u g h t t o a v o i d t h e

p r o b l e m ( a t l e a s t f o r t h e New T e s t a m e n t ) by a f f i r m i n g t h a t

f o r t h e New T e s t a m e n t w r i t e r s t h e e u c h a r i s t i c p r e s e n c e o f

C h r i s t i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e p r e s e n c e o f C h r i s t i n t h e p r o ­

c l a m a t i o n o f t h e w o r d . E d u a r d S c h w e i z e r , f o r e x a m p l e , s a y s :

T h e r e i s a p a r t a k i n g o f t h e body and b l o o d o f C h r i s t , t h a t i s , o f C h r i s t c r u c i f i e d f o r o u r s a k e , o n l y i n t h e s e n s e o f a p a r t a k i n g o f C h r i s t i n t h e w o r d : a man whom t h e p r o c l a i m e d C h r i s t has e n c o u n t e r e d has become t h e r e b y a d i f f e r e n t man, w h e t h e r he r e s p o n d s i n f a i t h o r i n r e j e c ­t i o n . . . t h e r e a l p r e s e n c e o f C h r i s t i n t h e L o r d ' s S u p p e r i s e x a c t l y t h e same as h i s p r e s e n c e i n t h e w o r d - - n o t h i n g more, n o t h i n g l e s s . 5 1

I n a s i m i l a r v e i n , B u l t m a n n s a y s t h a t f o r P a u l t h e L o r d ' s S u p ­

p e r i s " c o o r d i n a t e w i t h t h e w o r d - p r o c l a m a t i o n and u l t i m a t e l y S2

o n l y a s p e c i a l mode o f i t . " S u ch an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n does

n o t , h o w e v e r , f o r us r e s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m ; i t seems more c o n ­

g e n i a l t o t h e P r o t e s t a n t d o c t r i n e o f t h e p r e a c h e d word t h a n t o

t h e c u l t u r a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s o f p r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y .

I t i s o u r b e l i e f t h a t t h e s o l u t i o n i s t o be f o u n d r a t h e r

i n t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t i o n o f s y m b o l o r i m a g e . A s t e p i n

t h i s d i r e c t i o n was a l r e a d y t a k e n by H a r n a c k , who r e c o g n i s e d

t h a t i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y t h e s y m b o l i c " i s n o t t o be c o n ­

s i d e r e d as t h e o p p o s i t e o f t h e o b j e c t i v e l y r e a l , b u t as t h e

m y s t e r i o u s , t h e God p r o d u c e d , as c o n t r a s t e d t o t h e n a t u r a l ,

t h e p r o f a n e l y c l e a r . " 5 3 I n t h e l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f m y t h , t h e r e

206

i s no d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e t w een an i m a g e , p i c t u r e o r f i g u r e

and t h e r e a l i t y u i h i c h i t s y m b o l i s e s . A man's i m a g e , o r ev e n

h i s shadow, i s h i s a l t e r e g o ; i t m i g h t even be s u b j e c t t o

i n j u r y as a r e a l p a r t o f h i m . "The 'image,'" w r i t e s C a s -

s i r e r , " does n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e ' t h i n g ' ; i t i s . t h e t h i n g ; i t

does n o t m e r e l y s t a n d f o r t h e o b j e c t , b u t has t h e same a c t u ­

a l i t y , so t h a t i t r e p l a c e s t h e t h i n g ' s i m m e d i a t e p r e s e n c e . " 5 5

S i n c e i t l a c k s t h e c a t e g o r y o f t h e i d e a l , m y t h i c a l t h i n k i n g

must t r a n s p o s e a s y m b o l i n t o s o m e t h i n g s u b s t a n t i a l i n o r d e r

t o a p p r e h e n d i t . I t i s p r e c i s e l y i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t we must

u n d e r s t a n d t h e words o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e New T e s t a m e n t

and t h e l a t e r p a t r i s t i c d o c t r i n e o f e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e . T h i s

l a t t e r d o c t r i n e s h o u l d n o t be u n d e r s t o o d a s an a t t e m p t e d p h i l o ­

s o p h i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e r e a l p r e s e n c e ; i t i s an a r t i c u ­

l a t i o n o f t h e c u l t i c t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e p r o f a n e t o t h e s a c r e d ,

e m p l o y i n g t h e m y t h i c a l d e v i c e o f s u b s t a n t i a l i s a t i o n .

M y t h i c a l t h i n k i n g i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y unaware o f t h e e x i s ­

t e n c e o f s y m b o l s (no l e s s t h a n i t i s o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a man's

s h a d o w ) , b u t i t d o e s i d e n t i f y t h e s y m b o l w i t h t h e s y m b o l i s e d .

Thus i n t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e e a r l y c h u r c h we f i n d t h e e u c h a r i s ­

t i c e l e m e n t s d e s c r i b e d by s u c h t e r m s as f i g u r a , s i m i l i t u d o ,

ZVTrOy- , eiKU>V ,W)J.f*>0%OV , O/UOlLOjUXX , y e t i t i s e q u a l l y

c l e a r t h a t f o r t h e w r i t e r s c o n c e r n e d t h e y a r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h

t h e r e a l body and b l o o d o f C h r i s t .

207

We f i n d t h i s a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n f i r s t o f a l l i n t h e

e a r l y l i t u r g i e s . The A p o s t o l i c T r a d i t i o n , i n i t s r u b r i c s c o n ­

c e r n i n g t h e f i r s t communion o f t h e n e w l y b a p t i s e d , s a y s t h a t

t h e b i s h o p c o n s e c r a t e s t h e b r e a d ( " q r a t i a s a q a t panem") i n t o

t h e "exemplum . . . c o r p o r i s C h r i s t i , " and t h e n d e s c r i b e s t h e

w i n e as t h e a n t i t y p u s o r s i m i l i t u d o o f t h e b l o o d o f C h r i s t 56

( T r a d . a p o s t . 2 1 ) . B u t H i p p o l y t u s a l s o warns t h a t g r e a t c a r e

must be t a k e n t o r e s p e c t t h e c o n s e c r a t e d e l e m e n t s , t h a t no f r a g ­

ments o f t h e b r e a d f a l l t o r a t s o r o t h e r a n i m a l s , o r g e t l o s t ,

" b e c a u s e i t i s t h e body o f C h r i s t t o be e a t e n by t h e f a i t h f u l , N 57

and must n o t be d e p r e c a t e d " ( T r a c k a p o s t . 3 7 ) . The A p o s t o l i c C o n s t i t u t i o n s s i m i l a r l y d e s c r i b e s t h e e u c h a r i s t i c e l e m e n t s as " a n t i t y p e s fhlVTlZVfTOtJ o f h i s p r e c i o u s body and b l o o d " ( 5 : 1 4 :

58

7 ) , and s p e a k s o f c o m m e m o r a t i n g C h r i s t ' s d e a t h Spy v i r t u e o f

t h e s y m b o l s ^TV/i^OACOvJ D f h i s body and b l o o d " ( 6 : 2 3 : 5 ) . 5 9

Y e t i n t h e e p i c l e s i s (8:12:38)°° and t h e communion (8:13:15)°''

p r a y e r s t h e e l e m e n t s a r e d e s i g n a t e d s i m p l y as " t h e body o f

C h r i s t " and " t h e b l o o d o f C h r i s t . " I n t h e E u c h o l o q y o f S e r a ­

p i o n , t h e c e l e b r a n t p r a y s , "To t h e e we have o f f e r e d t h i s b r e a d ,

t h e l i k e n e s s o f t h e body o f t h e o n l y - b e g o t t e n . . .

We have o f f e r e d a l s o t h e c u p , t h e l i k e n e s s o f h i s b l o o d " ( 1 3 : 1 2 ) .

I n t h e e p i c l e s i s o f t h e same l i t u r g y , i t i s a m a t t e r o f s i m p l e

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e b r e a d and w i n e w i t h C h r i s t ' s body and

b l o o d : "0 God o f t r u t h , l e t t h e y h o l y Word come upon t h i s b r e a d

t h a t i t may become t h e 'batty: o f t h e Word, and upon t h i s cup

208

t h a t i t may become t h e b l o o d o f t r u t h " ( 1 3 : 1 5 ) . An a n c i e n t

f o r m o f t h e Roman Canon, p o r t i o n s o f u i h i c h a r e p r e s e r v e d i n

Ambrose, e x h i b i t s t h e same u s e o f " s y m b o l i c a l " and " r e a l i s t i c "

l a n g u a g e . The p r a y e r i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e t h e c o n s e c r a t i o n r e a d s :

" G r a n t us t h a t t h i s o b l a t i o n be s u i t a b l e , s p i r i t u a l , and a c c e p t ­

a b l e , b e c a u s e i t i s t h e f i g u r e ^ f i g u r a j o f t h e body and b l o o d

o f o u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t " (De s a c . 4 : 2 1 ) . B u t a t communion,

t h e p r i e s t s a y s s i m p l y "The body o f C h r i s t , " t o u i h i c h t h e com-65

m u n i c a n t r e s p o n d s , "Amen" (De. s a c . 4 : 2 5 ) . These e x a m p l e s

draum f r o m e a r l y C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p r e v e a l a common i d e a : t h a t

t h r o u g h t h e l i u r g i c a l p r a y e r and a c t i o n , t h e s i g n s become what

t h e y s i g n i f y .

The same i d e a i s no l e s s p r e s e n t i n t h e c o m m e n t a r i e s and

r e f e r e n c e s made by t h e F a t h e r s t o t h e c e n t r a l c u l t i c a c t o f

t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y . T e r t u l l i a n , f o r e x a m p l e , has a

q u i t e c l e a r d o c t r i n e o f t h e r e a l p r e s e n c e , and more t h a n once

r e f e r s t o t h e e u c h a r i s t i c b r e a d as s i m p l y " t h e body o f t h e

L o r d . " 6 6 He s a y s t h a t as i n b a p t i s m t h e body i s washed i n

w a t e r , so i n t h e e u c h a r i s t 'ithe f l e s h f e e d s on t h e body and b l o o d o f C h r i s t , s o t h a t t h e s o u l may be f i l l e d w i t h God" (De

67

r e s . m o r t . 8 ) . J.N.D. K e l l y r e m a r k s , " C l e a r l y h i s assump­

t i o n i s t h a t t h e S a v i o u r ' s body and b l o o d a r e as r e a l as t h e 68

b a p t i s m a l w a t e r . " Y e t T e r t u l l i a n d o e s n o t h e s i t a t e t o a f ­

f i r m t h a t C h r i s t c a l l e d " t h e b r e a d h i s body i n o r d e r t h a t you

m i g h t u n d e r s t a n d t h a t he gave t o t h e b r e a d t h e f i g u r e o f h i s

209

body £ut e t h i n e jam eum i n t e l l e q a s c o r p o r i s s u i f i q u r a m

p a n i d e d i s s e j , u i h i c h t h e p r o p h e t had p r e v i o u s l y r e p r e s e n t e d

i g u r a v i t j by t h e b r e a d " ( A d v . M a r c . 3 : 1 9 ) . 5 9 I n a n o t h e r

t e x t T e r t u l l i a n j u x t a p o s e s l i t e r a l and f i g u r a t i v e l a n g u a g e :

" H a v i n g t a k e n t h e b r e a d , and h a v i n g d i s t r i b u t e d i t t o h i s

d i s c i p l e s , he made i t h i s body ^ c o r p u s suum i l i u m f e c i t j j s a y ­

i n g , ' T h i s i s my body,' i . e . , t h e f i g u r e ^ f i q u r a j o f my body" 7 0

( A d v . M a r c . 4 : 4 0 ) . E l s e w h e r e , when r e p r o a c h i n g C h r i s t i a n

c r a f t s m e n who d a r e t o make i d o l s i n t h e i r w o r k s h o p s , he a s k s ,

"These hands w h i c h have g i v e n b o d i e s t o d e m o n s — w i l l t h e y 71

t o u c h t h e body o f t h e L o r d ? " (De i d o l . 7 : 1 ) . T h i s t e x t i s

a p e r f e c t i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l v i e w o f s y m b o l :

t h e i d o l — t h e i m a g e — b e c o m e s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s m e t a l i t y , t h e

r e a l body o f what i t r e p r e s e n t s ( f o r t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n ) : a

demon. I n a l i k e manner t h e s a c r a m e n t a l b r e a d becomes what

i t r e p r e s e n t s , t h e body o f C h r i s t .

E x a m p l e s o f t h i s t w o f o l d l a n g u a g e c a n be m u l t i p l i e d .

O r i g e n r e f e r s t o t h e " t y p i c a l and s y m b o l i c body" {CVfllKO^ K&l

&VjUf$O\lK0<; (TCOjUCl) o f C h r i s t i n t h e e u c h a r i s t ( I n M a t t . 1 1 : 1 4 ) ,

and y e t s p e a k s o f t h e s i m p l e "body o f t h e L o r d " w i t h w h i c h t h e

f a i t h f u l must t a k e g r e a t c a r e l e s t p a r t i c l e s f a l l t o t h e g r o u n d 73

( I n E x . horn. 1 3 : 1 3 ) . E u s e b i u s o f C a e s a r e a , who a s s e r t s t h a t

"we c o n t i n u a l l y f e e d on t h e S a v i o u r ' s body and c o n t i n u a l l y p a r ­

t i c i p a t e i n t h e Lamb's b l o o d " (De s o l e m n . p a s c h . 7 : 7 ) , 7 4 a l s o

s a y s t h a t we c e l e b r a t e " t h e memory o f t h i s s a c r i f i c e by means

210

of symbols of h i s body and blodd" (Dem.ev. 75 ' / 1:10:39) and r e f e r s to the bread as an image (tXKCOV") of

7 6 C h r i s t ' s body (Dem. ey_. 8:1 :380). For Ambrose the communi­cant r e c e i v e s C h r i s t ' s body and blood i n similitudem^(De sac.

77

6:1:3), and " a f t e r the c o n s e c r a t i o n the body i s s i g n i f i e d

^ s i g n i f i c a t u r j " (De myst. 9 : 5 4 ) . 7 8 On the other hand, " i n

that sacrament i s C h r i s t , because i t i s the body of C h r i s t " 79

(De myst. 9:58). The uiord of C h r i s t , uihich can c r e a t e ex

n i h i l o , can no l e s s "change the t h i n g s that are i n t o that uihich

uias not": there i s an a c t u a l change i n the elements which i s 8 0

analogous to the m i r a c l e s of the B i b l e (De myst. 9 : 5 1 f f . ) . Augustine too speaks of the f i g u r a or the signum of C h r i s t ' s

81

body and blood, and at the same time r e g u l a r l y speaks with­

out g u a l i f i c a t i o n of the presence of t h i s body and blood i n 82

the e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n .

A l l of these examples are proof that when e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s

i d e n t i f i e d the e u c h a r i s t i c s y m b o l s — t h e bread and w i n e — w i t h

the body and blood of t h e i r Lord, they were convinced that the

symbol was the t h i n g i t s e l f . The image was s u b s t a n t i a l i s e d .

The c o n t r a s t between f i g u r e and r e a l i t y d i d not e x i s t f o r them. 8 3

In s h o r t , t h e i r conception of symbol was a m y t h o l o g i c a l one. The E u c h a r i s t and the M y t h i c a l View of Time

I t has long been recognised that the "memorial" dimension

of the e a r l y e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n was not understood as a

211

mere r e c o l l e c t i o n of past events, but as a making present of

events uihich i n t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e transcended the c o n f i n e s of

h i s t o r i c a l time. We f i n d , i n f a c t , t h at e a r l y C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s

c o n s i d e r e d the e u c h a r i s t i c s a c r i f i c e as i d e n t i c a l with the s a c ­

r i f i c e of C h r i s t . This apparent e f f a c i n g of time, or r a t h e r

absence of a l i n e a r view of time i n favour of a s a c r e d , tran * t

scendent view of time, i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of my t h i c a l thought.

There a r e , a c c o r d i n g to Mircea E l i a d e , two marks of mythi­

c a l time:

. . . ( 1 ) i t s r e p e a t a b i l i t y ( i n thehsense that every s i g n i f i c a n t a c t i o n reproduces i t ) ; and (2) the f a c t t h a t , though i t i s looked upon as t r a n s h i s t o r i c , beyond a l l s u c c e s s i o n , and i n a sense i n e t e r n i t y , t h i s sacred time has, i n h i s t o r y , a "beginning."84

When the e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n i s seen to c o i n c i d e with the

one s a c r i f i c e of C h r i s t , the e m p i r i c a l conception of the flow

of time i s d i s c a r d e d . Myth, as van der Leeuw says, " a r r e s t s

time." "Thus the even becomes ' e t e r n a l ' : i t happens now and

always, and operates as a t y p e . " 8 5 C a s s i r e r puts the matter

t h i s way:

The stages of t i m e — p a s t , present, f u t u r e — d o not remain d i s t i n c t ; over and over again the mythical consciousness succumbs to the tendency and temptation to l e v e l the d i f f e r e n c e s and u l ­t i m a t e l y transform them i n t o pure i d e n t i t y . 8 6

For e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s , the great s a l u t a r y events of the Cross

and the R e s u r r e c t i o n were not simply past events remembered:

they were a r c h e t y p a l events of cosmic p r o p o r t i o n s made r e a l

212

again i n the c e l e b r a t i o n of the l i t u r g y . In myth,

Every r i t u a l has the c h a r a c t e r of happening now. The time of the event that the r i t u a l commemorates or re-enacts i s made pr e s e n t , "re-presented" so to speak, houiever f a r back i t may have been i n o r d i n a r y reckoning.87

In our d i s c u s s i o n of S t . Paul's e u c h a r i s t i c theology,

uie have seen that i t uias e x a c t l y i n t h i s sense that the Neui

Testament uses the uiord asfoi^iVrjcru;, This i s no l e s s true

of the Fa t h e r s , and indeed i t i s t h i s n o t i o n uihich i s at the

base of t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n of the e u c h a r i s t as a s a c r i f i c e .

When T e r t u l l i a n speaks of the e u c h a r i s t as a " s a c r i f i c e , " he 8 8

means, i f the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of K e l l y i s c o r r e c t , the same th i n g as uihen he says that the s a c r i f i c e d body of C h r i s t i s

89

rendered present ( r e p r a e s e n t a t , Contr. Marc. 1:14) i n the

c e l e b r a t i o n . In Cyprian the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the e u c h a r i s t i c

s a c r i f i c e uiith the Passion of C h r i s t i s q u i t e e x p l i c i t : "And

because uie remember ^mentionem facimus j h i s Passion i n our

s a c r i f i c e s - - t h e Passion of the Lord being the same s a c r i f i c e

that uie o f f e r — u i e must do nothing other than he h i m s e l f d i d " 9 0

(Ep. 63:17). And Ambrose s t a t e s , "Each time that the s a c r i ­

f i c e i s o f f e r e d , the death of the Lord, the r e s u r r e c t i o n of the

Lord, the ascension of the Lord, as w e l l as the remis s i o n of 91

s i n s , i s s i g n i f i e d " (De s a c . 5:4:25). Commenting on t h i s

t e x t , Danielou w r i t e s , "To s i g n i f y does not here mean only to

r e c a l l . The word a l s o intends to s t a t e ^ t h a t the s a c r i f i c e o f ­

fered i s not a new s a c r i f i c e , but the one s a c r i f i c e of C h r i s t

rendered p r e s e n t . " 9 2

213

T h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e c o a l e s c e n c e o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c

s a c r i f i c e u i i t h t h e one s a c r i f i c e o f t h e C r o s s i s e q u a l l y

p r e s e n t i n t h e Greek F a t h e r s . I n t h i s s e n s e T h e o d o r e o f Mop-

s u e s t i a d e c l a r e s ,

A l l t h e p r i e s t s o f t h e neui c o v e n a t n c o n t i n u a l l y o f f e r t h e same s a c r i f i c e i n e v e r y p l a c e and t i m e , b e c a u s e t h a t s a c r i f i c e i s u n i q u e w h i c h was o f f e r e d f o r us by C h r i s t o u r L o r d , who a c c e p t e d d e a t h f o r u s , and who p u r c h a s e d p e r f e c t i o n f o r us t h r o u g h t h e o f f e r i n g o f t h a t s a c r i f i c e (Horn. c a t . 1 5 : 1 9 ) . 9 3

J o h n C h r y s o s t o m e r a s e s t h e t e m p o r a l d i s t i n c t i o n n o t o n l y b e -c

tween t h e e u c h a r i s t and t h e L a s t S u p p e r ( s e e a b o v e , p p . 1 9 7 - 2 0 1 ) , '

b u t a l s o between t h e e u c h a r i s t and t h e C r o s s :

T here i s one C h r i s t e v e r y w h e r e , who i s b o t h i n t h i s w o r l d and i n t h e o t h e r , one b o d y . As t h e n C h r i s t , who o f f e r s h i m s e l f i n many p l a c e s i s o n l y one b o d y , s o t h e r e i s o n l y one s a c r i f i c e . . . . W e do n o t t h e n o f f e r a d i f f e r e n t s a c r i f i c e f r o m t h e one f o r m e r l y o f f e r e d by t h e H i g h P r i e s t , b u t a l w a y s t h e same, i . e . , we c e l e b r a t e an a n a m n e s i s o f t h i s s a c r i f i c e ( l n _ Heb. horn. 7 : 3 ) . 5 5

We c a n s e e f r o m t h i s t e x t t h a t t h e common a s s e r t i o n o f t h e

l a t e r F a t h e r s — e . g . C y r i l o f J e r u s a l e m ( C a t . mys t . 5:10), 9° 97

o r A u g u s t i n e ( C i v . d e i 1 0 : 2 0 ) - - t h a t C h r i s t h i m s e l f i s t h e s a c ­

r i f i c i a l v i c t i m o f f e r e d i n t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e b r a t i o n must be

u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a p a r t i c u l a r v i e w o f s a c r e d t i m e .

Commenting on t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e F a t h e r s , Odo C a s e l s u m m a r i s e s

s u c c i n c t l y t h i s v i e w o f t i m e :

214

C h r i s t i a n worship i s no longer bound to time but to e t e r n i t y ; i t does not have to keep days and hours; i t i s always in the new age, the aion • When we worship we step out of time.

The E u c h a r i s t and the M y t h i c a l View of Space

M y t h i c a l space, l i k e m y t h i c a l time, i s demarcated by the

o p p o s i t i o n between the sacred and the profane, and not by ab­

s t r a c t measurement. In myth,

P o s i t i o n i s not something that can be detached from content or c o n t r a s t e d with i t as an element of independent s i g n i f i c a n c e ; i t " i s " only i n s o ­f a r as i t i s f i l l e d with a d e f i n i t e , i n d i v i d u a l sensuous or i n t u i t i v e content.59

In other words, myth o b l i t e r a t e s the p h y s i c a l gap between the

sphere of human a c t i v i t y and the sphere of d i v i n e a c t i v i t y .

The place of the sacred r i t u a l c o i n c i d e s with the h a b i t a t of

the gods. Where there are sacred b u i l d i n g s , s a n c t u a r i e s , or

a l t a r s , these are intended to be r e a l c o p i e s of archetypes

e x i s t i n g i n the realm of the divine.'"*' 0

In e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y t h i s m y t h o l o g i c a l view of space i s

found i n the conception of the e u c h a r i s t as p r e c i s e l y a heaven­

l y meal. This conception i s i m p l i c i t i n the New Testament i n ­

s o f a r as the C h r i s t with whom the b e l i e v e r communicates i s the

g l o r i f i e d C h r i s t at the r i g h t hand of the F a t h e r . I t becomes

e x p l i c i t i n the commentaries of the l a t e r p a t r i s t i c w r i t e r s on

the sacred l i t u r g y . For these w r i t e r s the l i t u r g y of the eucha­r i s t and the l i t u r g y of heaven are one and the same. The eucha-

215

r i s t i c s a c r i f i c e removes t h e " s p a c e " betuieen h e a v e n and e a r t h ,

o r , more p r e c i s e l y , i t t r a n s f e r s t h e b e l i e v e r i n t o h e a v e n .

The w h o l e o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g y i s i n t e r p r e t e d by

t h e l a t e r F a t h e r s as a p a s s a g e f r o m e a r t h t o h e a v e n . Ambrose

s a y s t h a t t h e n e u i l y b a p t i s e d , on e n t e r i n g t h e c h u r c h f o r t h e i r

f i r s t e u c h a r i s t , " h a s t e n t o go t o t h e h e a v e n l y b a n q u e t " (De 101 / m y s t . 43). "What uie s h o u l d n o t i c e , " r e m a r k s D a n i e l o u , " i s

t h a t t h e E u c h a r i s t i s shown f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g t o be t h e

h e a v e n l y b a n q u e t . I t i s t h e e n t r a n c e i n t o t h e h e a v e n l y s a n c t u ­

a r y w h i c h i s p r e f i g u r e d by t h e e n t r a n c e i n t o t h e e a r t h l y

1 02 c h u r c h . " S i m i l a r l y , f o r G r e g o r y o f N a z i a n z e n , a l l o f t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e e n t r a n c e r i t e - - t h e p s a l m s , t h e p r o c e s s i o n , t h e

1 09

c a n d l e s — a r e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e l i t u r g y i n h e a v e n .

In a l i k e manner, t h e s e F a t h e r s i n t e r p r e t t h e s e c o n d p a r t

o f t h e l i t u r g y , t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e o f f e r i n g s on t h e a l t a r

by t h e d e a c o n s , as a c e l e s t i a l e v e n t . F o r T h e o d o r e o f M o psues-

t i a , t h e d e a c o n s a r e f i g u r e s o f t h e a n g e l s a t t h e o f f e r t o r y :

"By means o f t h e d e a c o n s who do t h e s e r v i n g f o r t h a t w h i c h i s

p e r f o r m e d , we c a n f o l l o w i n o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i n v i s i b l e

p o w e r s i n t h e i r s e r v i c e o f o f f i c i a t i n g a t t h i s i n e f f a b l e

l i t u r g y " (Horn, c a t . 1 5 : 2 4 ) . 1 0 4 J o h n C h r y s o s t o m comments: "The

a n g e l s s u r r o u n d t h e p r i e s t . The w h o l e s a n c t u a r y and t h e s p a c e

a r o u n d t h e a l t a r a r e f i l l e d w i t h t h e h e a v e n l y p o w e r s t o h o n o u r

him who i s p r e s e n t on t h e a l t a r " (De . s a c e r d . 6:4).

The theme o f t h e h e a v e n l y l i t u r g y i s c o n t i n u e d i n t h e com­

m e n t a r i e s on t h e Sursum C o r d a and t h e T r i s a g i o n , w h i c h t o g e t h e r

216

c o n s t i t u t e an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e C anon. C y r i l o f J e r u s a l e m

d e c l a r e s t h a t a t t h e c a l l o f t h e p r i e s t , " L i f t up y o u r h e a r t s , "

uie a r e " f i l l e d u i i t h h o l y f e a r " b e c a u s e uie r a i s e o u r h e a r t s t o

God i n h e a v e n and a r e no l o n g e r t u r n e d t o w a r d s e a r t h l y t h i n g s 106

( C a t . m y s t . 5 : 4 ) . The T r i s a g i o n i s i n f a c t t h e hymn o f t h e

S e r a p h i m i n h e a v e n . . S p e a k i n g o f t h i s moment i n t h e l i t u r g y ,

C h r y s o s t o m w r i t e s , "Man i s as i t were t r a n s p o r t e d i n t o h e a v e n

i t s e l f . He s t a n d s n e a r t h e t h r o n e o f g l o r y . He f l i e s w i t h 107

t h e S e r a p h i m " (De i n c o m p . d e i 4 : 5 ) . C y r i l o f J e r u s a l e m

e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e a s s e m b l y r e c i t e s t h i s hymn " s o t h a t we may

t a k e p a r t i n t h e hymn o f p r a i s e w i t h t h e h o s t s a b o v e t h e c o s -/ v 108 mos" ( C a t . m y s t . 5 : 6 ) . T h e o d o r e o f M o p s u e s t i a r e l a t e s t h e

T r i s a g i o n t o t h e s p i r i t o f f e a r and awe u i h i c h p r e c e e d s a c t i n g o u t t h e a r c h e t y p a l e v e n t s u i h i c h t a k e p l a c e i n h e a v e n :

Uie use t h e a w e - i n s p i r i n g words o f t h e i n v i s i b l e p o w e r s t o show t h e g r e a t n e s s o f t h e mercy u i h i c h i s f r e e l y l a v i s h e d on u s . F e a r f i l l s o u r c o n ­s c i e n c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e w h o l e c o u r s e o f t h e l i ­t u r g y , b o t h b e f o r e we c r y o u t " H o l y t " and a f t e r ­w a r d s : we l o o k down a t t h e g r o u n d , b e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t n e s s o f what i s b e i n g d o n e , m a n i f e s t i n g t h i s same f e a r (Horn, c a t . 1 6 : 9 ) .

The a n a p h o r a , t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e l i t u r g y w h i c h s e t s

b e f o r e t h e b e l i e v e r s God's r e d e m p t i v e h i s t o r y and i n p a r t i c u l a r

t h e m y s t e r y o f t h e C r o s s , l i k e w i s e b r i d g e s t h e gap b e t w e e n

h e a v e n and e a r t h . The H o l y S p i r i t " d e s c e n d s " on t o t h e e l e m e n t s

and on t o t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n i t s e l f . The g l o r i f i e d body o f C h r i s t

becomes p r e s e n t on t h e a l t a r . B u t i f t h e r e i s a " d e s c e n t " o f

217

h e a v e n l y r e a l i t i e s i n t o t h e a s s e m b l y , t h e r e i s no l e s s an

" a s c e n t " o f t h e b e l i e v e r i n t o h e a v e n . C h r y s o s t o m w r i t e s :

F o r when you s e e t h e L o r d s a n c t i f i e d , and l a i d upon t h e a l t a r , and t h e p r i e s t s t a n d i n g and p r a y i n g o v e r t h e v i c t i m , and a l l t h e w o r s h i p p e r s e m p u r p l e d w i t h t h a t p r e c i o u s b l o o d , c a n you t h i n k t h e n t h a t you a r e s t i l l among men, and s t a n d i n g on e a r t h ? Do you n o t p a s s o v e r i m m e d i a t e l y i n t o h e a v e n ? (De s a c e r d . 3 : 4 ) 1 1 0

The communion, f i n a l l y , i s , i n an e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h a p p e a r s

c o n s t a n t l y i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e F a t h e r s and i n t h e e a r l y

l i t u r g i e s , a r e c e i v i n g o f t h e " b r e a d o f h e a v e n " ( e . g . T e r t u l -111 112 l i a n , De p u d . 9; A p o s t . T r a d . 2 1 ; C y p r i a n , De_ dom. o r a t .

113 114 18; H i l a r y , T r a c t . i n p s a l m . 9; C y r i l o f J e r u s a l e m , C a t .

m y s t . 4:5; Ambrose, Horn. 1 8 : 2 7 ; J o h n C h r y s o s t o m , In_ M a t t 117 118 horn. 4 9 : 3 ; A u g u s t i n e , T r a c t . 26:11 ) . As Jerome p u t s i t ,

119

"we e a t t h e b r e a d o f t h e a n g e l s " (Ep_. 1 2 0 : 2 ) . I n t h e c u l ­

m i n a t i o n o f t h e r i t u a l a c t , t h e b e l i e v e r p a r t a k e s h i m s e l f o f a

h e a v e n l y s u b s t a n c e . T h e r e b y he i s no l o n g e r t i e d t o e a r t h ; a s

T h e o d o r e o f M o p s u e s t i a s a y s ,

By i t , we who a r e m o r t a l by n a t u r e e x p e c t t o r e c e i v e i m m o r t a l i t y ; c o r r u p t i b l e , we become i n c o r r u p t i b l e ; f r o m t h e e a r t h and e a r t h l y e v i l s , we p a s s t o a l l t h e b l e s s i n g s and d e l i g h t s o f h e a v e n . By means o f t h e s e k i n d s o f f i g u r e s , we have f a i t h t h a t we p o s s e s s t h e r e a l i t i e s them­s e l v e s (Horn. c a t . 1 5 : 1 2 ) . 1 2 0

We may c o n c l u d e t h a t f o r t h e F a t h e r s o f t h e e a r l y c h u r c h ,

t h e a c t o f e u c h a r i s t i c w o r s h i p was n o t v i e w e d as an a c t o f men

on e a r t h p r a y i n g t o God i n h e a v e n , as a means o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n

218

b e t w e e n one p l a c e and a n o t h e r . I t was r a t h e r s e e n as a p a s ­

s a g e f r o m e a r t h t o h e a v e n i t s e l f ; i t uias an a c t i n g o u t by

means o f " f i g u r e s " o f t h e a r c h e t y p a l l i t u r g y i n h e a v e n , t h e

f i g u r e s , i n t h i s m y t h o l o g i c a l way o f t h i n k i n g , c o r r e s p o n d i n g

t o t h e r e a l i t y i t s e l f .

C o n c l u s i o n

Our e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p e r t i n e n t t e x t s has shown t h a t t h e

c u l t and t h e o l o g y o f t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n e u c h a r i s t c a n be u n d e r ­

s t o o d i n t e r m s o f a myth and r i t u a l p a t t e r n . The myth o f t h e

c l a s s i c a l t y p e e u c h a r i s t may be s u m m a r i s e d as f o l l o w s : t h e r e ­

d e m p t i v e a c t o f C h r i s t , w h i c h t o o k p l a c e on t h e C r o s s and w h i c h

C h r i s t e x p l a i n e d a t h i s L a s t S u p p e r , i s a s u p r a - h i s t o r i c a l and

s u p r a - t e m p o r a l e v e n w h i c h i s r e v e a l e d a t e a c h e u c h a r i s t i c c e l e ­

b r a t i o n , and by i t t h e b e l i e v e r i n some s e n s e l e a v e s " e a r t h l y "

t i m e and s p a c e t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n and b e a r t h e f r u i t s o f t h i s

s a c r e d e v e n t .

Our i n t e n t i o n i n t h i s a p p e n d i x has s i m p l y been t o p o i n t

o u t t h e k i n d o f l o g i c w h i c h e a r l y C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s u s e d when

s p e a k i n g o f t h e i r s a c r e d m e a l . F u r t h e r e n q u i r y m i g h t l e a d t o

an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e m y t h , i . e . , a d e m y t h o l o g i s a t i o n o r t r a n s ­

p o s i t i o n o f myth i n t o e m p i r i c a l l a n g u a g e . S u c h e n q u i r y c o u l d

w e l l p r o c e e d by u t i l i s i n g t h e s t r u c t u r a l method p r o p o s e d by / 121

C l a u d e L e v i - S t r a u s s ; t h i s w o u l d r e q u i r e a d e t a i l e d c o m p a r i ­

son o f t h e v a r i o u s l i t u r g i e s and l i t u r g i c a l c o m m e n t a r i e s , and

a c a r e f u l b r e a k i n g down o f t h e s e i n t o s p e c i f i c i d e a - c o m p o n e n t s .

219

W h i l e s u c h an u n d e r t a k i n g i s b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s

s t u d y , uie u i h o u l d l i k e , by uiay o f c o n c l u s i o n , t o r a i s e tuio

o t h e r q u e s t i o n s u i h i c h o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n may have p o s e d f o r

t h e r e a d e r . The f i r s t i s : uihy d o e s r a t i o n a l and p h i l o s o p h i ­

c a l r e a s o n i n g p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n p a t r i s t i c d i s c u s s i o n

o f o t h e r c e n t r a l d o c t r i n e s , s u c h a s t h e I n c a r n a t i o n o r T r i n i t y ,

i f e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y r e m a i n s e s s e n t i a l l y m y t h o l o g i c a l ? And

t h e s e c o n d i s : why i s i t t h a t t h e r e was a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a

m y t h o p o e i c t o a r a t i o n a l i s t i c r e f l e c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e e u c h a ­

r i s t i n t h e p e r i o d o f t h e C a r o l i n g i a n R e n a i s s a n c e ?

The a n s w e r t o t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n l i e s i n what we have

a l r e a d y s a i d a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f m y t h . Myth i s above a l l t h e

v e r b a l i s a t i o n o f r i t u a l . E u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y , u n l i k e C h r i s -

t o l o g y o r t r i n i t a r i a n t h e o l o g y , c o n s t i t u t e d an a t t e m p t t o

a r t i c u l a t e t h e m e a n ing o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l C h r i s t i a n r i t u a l .

R i t u a l , as i t w e r e , e x p l a i n s i t s e l f , and t h i s s e l f - e x p l a n a t i o n

i s m y t h . When p r a y i n g o r d e s c r i b i n g t h e i r l i t u r g y , e a r l y

C h r i s t i a n s were n o t d e a l i n g w i t h a b s t r a c t d o c t r i n e , b u t w i t h

t h e i r e v e r y d a y c u l t i c a c t i o n .

The s e c o n d q u e s t i o n r e q u i r e s a somewhat more e l a b o r a t e

a n s w e r . We must o b s e r v e , t o b e g i n w i t h , t h a t a l l o f t h e m y t h i ­

c a l f e a t u r e s o f e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y were n o t e x p u n g e d i n t h e

r a t i o n a l i s i n g p r o c e s s . We f i n d e l e m e n t s o f t h e m y t h i c a l a p ­

p r e h e n s i o n e v e n i n c o n t e m p o r a r y e u c h a r i s t i c t h e o l o g y , and t h i s

a p p r e h e n s i o n has r e m a i n e d p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g i n E a s t e r n

C h r i s t e n d o m .

220

T h e r e mere u n d o u b t e d l y s e v e r a l f a c t o r s u i h i c h c o n t r i b u t e d

t o t h e r a t i o n a l i s i n g o f e u c h a r i s t i c d o c t r i n e i n t h e n i n t h 122

c e n t u r y West. One s u c h f a c t o r uias t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e

I r i s h p e n i t e n t i a l s y s t e m i n t o c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e . T h i s l e d

t o l e s s f r e q u e n t l a y communion, u i h i c h i n t u r n r e s u l t e d i n an

i n c r e a s i n g p r e o c c u p a t i o n u i i t h t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e e l e m e n t s

t h e m s e l v e s . Y e t t h e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r uias t h e v e r y n a t u r e

o f t h e C a r o l i n g i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l r e v i v a l . T h a t i s t o s a y , t h e r e

uias a c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t o n . t h e p a r t o f C h a r l e m a g n e and h i s c o u r t

t o p r o m o t e s y s t e m a t i c and r a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g , and i n p a r t i c u l a r

t h e r e uias an a t t e m p t t o s y s t e m a t i s e and s t a n d a r d i s e t h e l i t u r g y .

Myth i s d e s t r o y e d uihen i t c e a s e s t o be t h e s p o n t a n e o u s a r ­

t i c u l a t i o n o f r i t u a l and uihen f o r e i g n c a t e g o r i e s a r e i n t r o ­

d u c e d i n t o i t . C a s s i r e r h a s o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e p r o p h e t s o f I s ­

r a e l c o u l d combat i d o l a t r y ( m y t h ) o n l y by i n j e c t i n g " i n t o t h e

m y t h i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s an a l i e n t e n s i o n , an o p p o s i t i o n i t does

n o t knoui a s s u c h , " v i z . , t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e image o f 123

t h e d i v i n e and t h e d i v i n e i t s e l f . S i m i l a r l y , t h e a p p l i c a ­

t i o n o f a s y s t e m a t i c , r a t i o n a l , and n o n - m y t h i c a l t y p e o f t h o u g h t

t o t h e t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e o f t h e e u c h a r i s t i c l i t u r g y seems t o

have been a d e l i b e r a t e e n t e r p r i s e on t h e p a r t o f t h e C a r o l i n ­

g i a n s c h o l a r s . These s c h o l a r s were e n c o u r a g e d t o s t u d y t h e p r o ­

f a n e s c i e n c e s and t o a p p l y t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e i r r e s e a r c h t o r e ­

v e a l e d t r u t h . Thus A l c u i n i s h e a r d d e c l a r i n g t o h i s m o n a r c h , "A new A t h e n s w i l l be c r e a t e d i n F r a n c e , n a y , an A t h e n s f i n e r t h a n t h e o l d , f o r o u r s , e n n o b l e d by t h e t e a c h i n g s o f C h r i s t ,

221

m i l l surpass a l l the uiisdom of the Academy." A l l of the

great C a r o l i n g i a n t h e o l o g i a n s — A l c u i n , Raban Maur, Radbertus,

Ratramnus, P r u d e n t i u s , Lupus of F e r r i e r e s — w r o t e t r e a t i s e s on 125

p h i l o l o g y and other s c i e n t i f i c s u b j e c t s . Whereas i n myth

me f i n d a movement from a c t i o n to knowledge, Charlemagne decreed

t h a t knowledge must be p r i o r to a c t i o n :

Even as the monastic r u l e d i r e c t s p u r i t y of conduct, so p r a c t i c e i n t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g d i r e c t s and orders the composition of words, to the end that those who s t r i v e to please God by r i g h t l i v i n g may not omit to please him a l s o by r i g h t speaking... and though i t i s b e t t e r to do what i s r i g h t than to know i t , yet knowledge must precede a c t i o n . ' 2 o

In t h i s s p i r i t , Charlemagne undertook the s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n of

the l i t u r g y throughout h i s empire. L i t u r g y was now something

p r e s c r i b e d , r a t h e r than the spontaneous c r e a t i o n of the com­

munity. At the same time, t h e o l o g i a n s began to p u b l i s h the

f i r s t s y s t e m a t i c t r e a t i s e s devoted to the e u c h a r i s t . The eucha-

r i s t - - l i k e the v i r g i n b i r t h — w a s no longer to remain a mystery:

the presence of C h r i s t i n the sacrament was to be e x p l a i n e d .

This was the beginning of a whole process of r a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g

concerning the e u c h a r i s t which continued down through the Middle

Ages, which provided a t o p i c f o r sharp co n t r o v e r s y during the

Reformation, and which continues today to c o l o u r our i n t e r ­

p r e t a t i o n of the e u c h a r i s t i n the p e r i o d of the e a r l y church.

N0TE5 TO APPENDIX I

1. The priority of ritual to myth is generally admitted by scholars today. On this question, see Lord Raglan, "Myth and Ritual," in T.A. Sebeok, ed., Myth: A Symposium (Bloom-ington: Indiana University Press, 1956),""pp. 122-135.

2. Ernst Cassirer, An Essay on flan (New Haven; Yale University Press, 1944), p. 78.

3* Wyth and Reality (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1963), p. 6.

4. B. Malinowski, Magic, Science, and Religion (New York: Anchor Books, 1954), p. 101.

5. Ibid., p. 109. 6. H. and H.A. Frankfort, "Myth and Reality," in Before

Philosophy (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1963), p. 16. 7. 0p_. c i t . , p. 6. 8. Qp_. c i t . , p. 74. 9. "The Mythic," Diogenes 7 (1954), p. 36. 10. See above, note 6.

11. E. Cassirer, The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955), II, p. 364 ,

12. G. van der Leeuw, Reliqion in i t s Essence and Mani-festation (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1963), II, p. 414.

13. Philosophy in a New Key (New York: New American L i ­brary, 1942), p. 166.

14. R. Anthes, "Mythology in Ancient Egypt," in S.N. Kramer, ed., Mythologies of the Ancient World (New York: Anchor Books, 1961), p. 23.

15. Frankfort, art, c i t . , p. 30. 16. Philosophy of Symbolic Forms. II, p. 81. 17. Art. c i t . , p. 24.

223

18. An Essay on Wan, p. 84.

1963) 1, 9p. L6e! S B ° U y e r ' ^ ^ (London: Burns and Oates,

1966)! 0p. T77? a S t e ^ , T h e 3 p i s ( N e w Y o r k ! Harper Torchbooks, 21. Ofi. c i t . . p. 202.

22. PG 7, 1127; TU N.F. 5, Heft 2 (1899), p. 69. 23. SC 100, p. 596. 24. Ibid.. pp. 590, 592. 2 5 « CSEL 3/2, p. 708f. 26. Ibid.. p. 705f.

27. E.g., Serm. 112:4:4, PL 38, 645; E£. 54:7, PL 33| 204. 28. PL 35, 1463. 29. PG 59, 463. 30. PG 58, 737. 31. PG 61, 227. 32. PG 58, 507. 33. SC 126, p. 154. 3 4 • Ibid., p. 94. 3 5 » Ibid»« p. 134.

( P a r i s h 908) f p f ? ^ 1 * * ^ ~ H m £ i eiscours cataWtigu. 37. PG 46, 581. Emphasis mine. 38. PG 49, 380. 39. PG 49, 397f.

.40. Horn. cat. 16:12, in A. Hamman, ed., L'Initiation chretienne: textes des Peres de I«F„HL , r ? / n * ? Grasset, l963TTpT TO ~ • Z * l i s e > k£ 7 (Paris: Bernard

224

41. De myst. 9:54, SC 2 5 , p . 188; c f . De S a c . 4:4:14, i b i d . , p . 108.

42. C f . De myst. 9:58, i b i d . , p. 190: " C o r p u s C h r i s t i c o r p u s e s t d i v i n i S p i r i t u s . "

4 3 . 0p_. c i t . , p . 13. Emphasis t h e a u t h o r ' s .

44. M. P e r r i n , op_. c i t . , p . 15.

45. Horn, c a t . 16:15, i n Hamman, op_. c i t . , p . 175.

46. Horn, c a t . 16:16, i b i d . , p. 176.

47. See a b o v e , C h a p t e r I I , n o t e 88.

48. GCS 12 (Clemens A l e x a n d r i n u s I ) , p . 168.

49. C a t , myst. 4:3, SC 126, p . 136.

50. O r a t . c a t . 37:12, M e r i d i e r , op_. c i t . , p . 182.

51. E . S c h w e i z e r , The L o r d ' s S u p p e r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e New T e s t a m e n t , p . 37.

52. T h e o l o g y o f the New T e s t a m e n t , I , p . 313.

53. A. von H a r n a c k , H i s t o r y o f Dogma (New Y o r k : D o v e r , 1961; r e p r i n t o f e d i t i o n o f 1900) , I I , p . I 4 4 f .

54. C a s s i r e r , P h i l o s o p h y o f S y m b o l i c Forms, I I , p . 42.

55. I b i d . , I I , p . 38. C f . A W i l d e r , The Language o f the G o s p e l (New Y o r k : H a r p e r and Row, 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 9 2 f . : ( c o n ­c e r n i n g p a r a b l e s ) "A t r u e metaphor o r symbol i s more t h a n a s i g n ; i t i s a b e a r e r o f t h e r e a l i t y t o which i t r e f e r s . "

56. F.X. Funk, e d . , D i d a s c a l i a e t C o n s t i t u t i o n e s Apos-t o l o r u m ( P a d e r b o r n : F e r d i n a n d S c h o e n i g h , 1 9 0 5 ) , I , p . 111.

57. I b i d . , I , p . 115.

58. I b i d . , I , p . 273.

59. I b i d . . I , p . 361.

60. I b i d . . I , p . 510.

61. I b i d . , I , p . 518.

62. I b i d . , I I , p . 174.

63. I b i d . , I I , p . 175.

225

64. SC 25, p. 114.

° 5* Ibid•* P* B6. 66. E.g., De orat. 19, CCSL 1, p. 267; De p_ud. 9, CCSL

2, p. 129B. 67. CCSL 1, p. 931 . 68. J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, p. 211. 69. CCSL 1, p. 931. 70. Ibid., p. 656. 71. Ibid.. 2, p. 1106. 72. GCS 40 (Qrioenes Werke 10), p. 58. 73. GCS 29 (Qrioenes Werke 6), p. 174. Since our aim in

this appendix is not to give a general exposition of patristic eucharistic theologies, but rather to show those aspects which are il l u s t r a t i v e of mythological thinking, we do not wish to discuss here the idea of Irenaeus that the eucharistic ele­ments are composed of an earthly and of a heavenly element, nor the concept of Clement of Alexandria and Origen of a two­fold ( l i t e r a l and spiritual) meaning of the real presence. While these ideas stand side by side with mythological con­ceptions in the authors concerned, and indeed contain them­selves mythological elements, they represent already a par­t i a l step in the direction of rationalisation. We should note, however, that i t is nowhere a question of a contrast between a figurative and a r e a l i s t i c presence.

74. PG 24, 701. 75. GCS 23 (Eusebius Werke 76. Ibid., p. 366. 77. SC 25, p. 138. 78. Ibid., p. 188. 79. Ibid., p. 190. 80. Ibid., pp. I84ff.

6), p. 47.

81. E.g., Contra Adim. 12:13, CSEL 25, p. 40.

226

82. E.g., Serm. 227, PL 38, 1099. 83. Theodore of Mopsuestia might appear to present an

exception to our interpretation, since he says, "[Christ} did not say, 'this is the <JOM/3oiAoV of my body, and this of my blood,' but 'this is my body and blood,' teaching us not to consider the nature of the things presented, but that through the action of thanksgiving they have been changed into the flesh and blood" (In Watt. 26:26, PG 60, 713). How­ever, in this passage Theodore is simply wishing to avoid any discussion which might take away from the mystery of Christ's presence in the eucharist. Elsewhere, he clearly identifies the earthly "symbols" and the heavenly " r e a l i t i e s " : "Indeed the priest brings about the heavenly realities by means of the signs and figures, and the sacrificetthat he celebrates is a manifestation of these r e a l i t i e s . His acts are thus an image of the heavenly liturgy. Moreover, we can celebrate only this heavenly liturgy" (Horn, cat. 15:15, Hamman, op. c i t . , p. 151).

84^ Patterns of Comparative Religion, p. 395. Emphasis the author's.

85. Op., c i t . , II, p. 414. 86. Philosophy of Symbolic Forms, II, p. 111. 87. Patterns of Comparative Religion, p. 392. Emphasis

the author's• 88. 0p_. c i t . , p. 214. 89. CCSL 1, p. 455. 90. CSEL 3/2, p. 714. 91. SC 25, pp. 9*32-134. 92. Jean Danielou, The Bible and the Liturgy (Notre Dame:

University of Notre Dame Press, 1956), p. 137. 93. TEP II, p. 92. 94. PG 58, 507. 95. PG 63, 131. 96. SC 126, p. 158. 9 7 • CCSL 47, p. 294. 98. Op., c i t . , p. 144.

227

Philosophy of Symbolic Forms* U » P» 100. Eliade, Patterns of Comparative Religion, p. 371f. 101. SC 25, p. 180. 102. 0p_. c i t . , p. 129. Emphasis the author's. 103. PG 36, 425. See Danielou, loc. c i t . 104. TEP II, p. 94, trans. Danielou, op_. c i t . , p. 131. 105. PG 48, 6815 trans. Danielou, loc. c i t . 106. SC 126, pp. 150, 152. 107. PG 48, 734; trans. Danielou, pj>. c i t . , p. 135. 108. SC 126, p. 154. 109. In A. Hamman, op_. c i t . , p. 172. 110. PG 48, 642. 111. CCSL 2, p. 1298. 112. Funk, op_. c i t . , p. 112. 113. CSEL 3/1, p. 280. 114. CSEL 22, p. 283. 115. SC 126, p. 136. 116. CSEL 62, p. 411. 117. PG 58, 500. 118. CCSL 36, p. 265. 119. PL 22, 986. 120. TEP II, p. 89; trans. Danielou, op_. c i t . , p. 139. 121. See Claude Levi-Strauss, "The Structural Study of ," in Sebeok, op_. c i t . , pp. 81-106.

228

122. On t h e e u c h a r i s t i c c o n t r o v e r s y o f t h i s p e r i o d , s e e 8. N e u n h e u s e r , L ' E u c h a r i s t i e au ffloyen Aqe e t a" l ' E p o q u e moderne, HP 25 ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s du C e r f , 1966J, pp. 37-55.

123. P h i l o s o p h y o f S y m b o l i c Forms, I I , p . 241. Uie m i g h t t a k e n o t e h e r e o f t h e remark uihich C a s e l makes c o n c e r n i n g t h e F a t h e r ' s c r i t i c i s m o f pagan myths: "...myths t u r n l i f e l e s s when t h e y a r e no l o n g e r b e l i e v e d . So t h e n f o r the Gr e e k s who no l o n g e r b e l i e v e , t h e myths f a l l t o t h e s t a t e o f mere l i t e r a r y m a t e r i a l s ; t h e y a r e r e d u c e d t o p u r e l y human l e v e l , i n d e e d d e ­p r i v e d o f a l l v a l u e . T h i s i s t h e key t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f what t h e C h u r c h F a t h e r s t h o u g h t a b o u t t h e myths; i t i s t h e c o r ­r u p t f o r m i n w h i c h t h e y f i n d t h e myths w h i c h t h e y r e j e c t ; t h i s i s what t h e y have t o b a t t l e a g a i n s t " (qjp_. c i t . , p . 129).

124. C i t e d i n P. W o l f f , The Awakening o f E u r o p e (Harmonds­w o r t h : P e n g u i n Books, 1968), p . 77.

125. J . B o u s s a r d , The C i v i l i z a t i o n o f Charlemagne (New Yor k : KlcGraw H i l l , 1968j7~p. 153.

126. C h a r l e m a g n e , E p i s t o l a de l i t t e r i s c o l e n d i s , c i t . W o l f f , pjp_. c i t . . p . 39.

I

APPENDIX I I :

A. Mk. 6 : 4 l f . , 4 1 K a i AapJcov TOUS

TTEVTE fipTous K a l TOUS Suo t x S u a s

dvapAsyas E'IS TOV oOpavov EUAO-

y r i a E V K a i K O T E K A a a E V TOUS fipTous

K a i E5I6OU TOTS na3r|Tais Tva Trapa-. TiScoaiv a u T O i s , K a i TOUS SUO

ix3uas E p s p i a E v T r a a i v . 4 2 K a l l o a -

y o v TrdvTEs K a i ExopTdcrSr]CTav •

And t a k i n g t h e f i v e l o a v e s and t h e two f i s h , he l o o k e d up t o h e a v e n , and b l e s s e d and b r o k e t h e l o a v e s , and gave them t o t h e d i s c i p l e s t o s e t b e f o r e t h e p e o p l e ; and he d i v i d e d t h e tuio f i s h among them a l l . And t h e y a l l a t e and mere s a t i s f i e d .

C. L k . 9 : 1 6 f . <~ 1 6 Aapcov SE TOUS

TTEVTE a p T O U s Kai TOUS Suo ixSuas,

avapAEifas £is TOV oupavov EUAO- I y n a a v a u T o u s K a i KarEKAaoev, K a i ISiSou TOTS paSr|TaTs Trapa-SElvat TCO 6XAcp. 1 7 K a i

you K a i ExopTdoSiTaav TTOVTE;, I

B. lYlt. 1 4 : 1 9 f . ~ Aapcov TOUS

TTEVTE fipTous K a i TOUS Suo ixSuas

dva(3AEyas EIS TOV oupavov EOAO-yrjcEV Kal KAaaas ESCO-

KEV TOTS pa3n,TaIs TOUS apTous, ol SE paSiyral TOIS OXAOIS.

- ° K a i E90;-

yov TrdvTEs K a i Jx°PTAA^T1CTCtvi

And t a k i n g t h e f i v e l o a v e s and t h e two f i s h , he l o o k e d up t o h e a v e n , and b l e s s e d and b r o k e and gave t h e l o a v e s t o t h e d i s c i p l e s , and t h e d i s c i p l e s gave them t o t h e c r o w d s . And t h e y a l l a t e and were s a t i s f i e d .

D. lYlk. 8 : 6 f f . Kai Aa|3wv TOUS ETrrct

fipTous Euxap>CTTf|o-as e-

KAOCTEV Kal £8 (Sou TOIS |ia3r|TaIs auToO Tva TrapomSooorv, Kal irapESriKocv TO oxAcp. 7 Kal elxov txSuSta 6A(ya' Kai EuAoyT|aas a u r a

EITTEV Kai T a u r a irapaTiSEvai. 8 K a l Eipayov

Kal EyopTdaSricav,

And t a k i n g t h e f i v e l o a v e s and t h e two f i s h , he l o o k e d up t o h e a v e n , and b l e s s e d and b r o k e them, and gave them t o h i s d i s c i p l e s t o s e t b e f o r e t h e c r o w d . And a l l a t e and were s a t i s f i e d .

And he t o o k t h e s e v e n l o a v e s , and h a v i n g g i v e n t h a n k s he b r o k e them, and gave them t o h i s d i s c i p l e s t o s e t b e f o r e t h e p e o p l e ; and t h e y s e t them b e f o r e t h e c r o w d . And t h e y had a few s m a l l f i s h ; and h a v i n g b l e s s e d them, he com­manded t h a t t h e s e s h o u l d a l s o be s e t b e f o r e them, and t h e y a t e , e t c .

230

E • Mt. 1 5 : 3 6 f . 3 6 ?AccpEV TOUJ E T T T d

fipTOUs K a i TOUS ixSuas K a i £uxapicrT/r|aas I-

K X a a e v K a i ISiSou TOTS n a S r i T a i j . ol SE n a S r p - a l •rois oxAoi?.

' k a i e i p a y o v

F. J n . 6 : 1 1 f .

ZXafiev ovv TOVS dprovs 6 'Irjaovs Kai ev^apiarrj-oas Sie'SaJKCV TOLS dvaKeifievois, o/itoicus K a i eK

TWV dipaplwv oaov rjOeXov. tu? Be eveTrX-qoBTq-aav, Xeyei rots j u a ^ T a t ? avrov, Evvaydyere ra Ttcoioaevaavra KXdap.ara, Iva p.r\ T I dTroXrjrat.

jrdvTes K a i EX°P T a C T3 Il ( : r a vi

He t o o k t h e s e v e n l o a v e s and the f i s h , and h a v i n g g i v e n t h a n k s he b r o k e them and gave them t o the d i s c i p l e s , and t h e d i s c i p l e s gave them t o t h e c r o w d s . And t h e y a l l a t e and mere s a t i s f i e d .

G. Mk. I 4 : 2 2 f . & mt. 2 6 : 2 6 f

A a p c o v

&p-rov . s u A o y r j a a s

iKAaaEV K a i ISCOKEV a u T o t ; K a i '

EITTEV• XdpETE" TOOTO « r n v

TO a c o p d nou.

2 3 K a i A a p c b v Tro-rripiov EU-

X a p i a T r i a a s ISCOKEV a u T o i s , K a i

ETTIOV E§ aUTOU TTaVTES. 2 1 K a i

EITTEV a u T o i s " TOUTO ECTTIV TO a l n d

pou Trjs BiaSriKTis TO £KXUVVO-

HEVOV UTTEO TTOAACOV.*

Aapcov

6 'lr)(Jou5 a p T o v K a i EuAoyr|aas

EKAaaev K a i S o u ; TOT; naSriTaTs

EITTEV AdpeTE 9ayET£' TOOTO Icrnv

TO CTcoud uou.

2 7 Kai A a p c o v T r o T r i p i o v K a i EU-

X a p i O T r i a a s ISCOKEV a u T o i s A e y c o V

TT(ETE t£. auToO TrdvTES' 2 3 TOOTO

y d p l a r i v TO a l n d u o u TT]S S t a -

Sr|KT|S TO UEpi TTOAACOV IKXUVVO-

fievov ets d i p s q i v d i i a p T i c o v . * .

J e s u s t h e n t o o k t h e l o a v e s , and uihen he had g i v e n t h a n k s , he d i s t r i b u t e d them t o t h o s e uiho were s e a t e d ; so a l s o t h e f i s h , as much as t h e y w a n t e d . And when t h e y had e a t e n t h e i r f i l l , he t o l d t h e d i s c i p l e s , " G a t h e r up t h e f r a g m e n t s l e f t o v e r t h a t n o t h i n g may be l o s t . "

H. 1 C o r . 11 : 2 3 f f . & L k . 2 2 : 1 9 f . ( L o n g e r t e x t )

/eXa^ev aprov \ Kai evxapiorijaas eKXaaev Kai einev, TOVTO \XOV eariv TO ccoua ro vrrep vp.ajv

TOVTO noieiTe eis rrjv ejj.Tjv dvafivrjcnv. waavrws

Kai TO noTqpiov fxerd ro oeLrrvrjaai, Xeycuv, TOVTO

TO rtorqpiov ij Kaivrj hiaftr\KT\ early iv T U eyiSt aT|iaTV

rovro -noielre, o a a / a ? idv •nivi)re, ei'j TTJV efxrjv dvdfivrjoiv.

1 9 K a i Aapcbv

SpTOv E C f x a p i a T n a a s

EKXaaev Kai ISCOKEV OUTOIS

A e y c o v TOUTO EOTIV

T6 CTCO(Jld POU [TO UTTEp upcov 6166-

H E V O V TOUTO TTOTE1TE El? TT1V E\XT\V d v d u v i i a i v .

2 0 K a i TO TroTi'ipiov tbaauTCos

n E T d TO S E n r v f j a a i , A E y c o v

TOUTO TO TTOTT|piOV T) K a i v f |

Bia3r|KT| EV TCO a i p a r i nou, TO

UTTEp UHCOV KXUVVOHEVOV.l*

231

He ( M t . : J e s u s ) t o o k b r e a d and b l e s s e d and b r o k e i t , and gave i t t o them ( M t . : t h e d i s c i p l e s ) , and s a i d , " T a k e , ( e a t ) , t h i s i s my body." And he t o o k a c u p , and uihen he had g i v e n t h a n k s he -gave i t t o them Mk.: and t h e y a l l d r a n k o f i t .

And he s a i d t o them, " T h i s i s my b l o o d o f t h e c o v e n a n t , u i h i c h i s p o u r e d o u t f o r many.

Mt.: s a y i n g , " D r i n k o f i t a l l o f yo u ; f o r t h i s i s my b l o o d o f t h e c o v e n a n t , u i h i c h i s p o u r e d o u t f o r many f o r t h e f o r g i v e n e s s o f s i n s . "

I . J n . 6:51-58.

iyco elpi 6 dpros o Z,uyv 6 eK TOV ovpavov KaTafias" idv TIS (pay?) eV TOVTOV TOU aprov, l^fjaet. els TOV alwva' Kal 6 dpTos Se ov iyoj Saioaj rj odp£ pov io~riv vrrep TTJS TOV Koapiov ^ C D T J ? . 'Epd)(OVTO ouv Trpqs dXXrjXovs ol 'Iov-Saioi Xeyovres, TIws BvvaTai OVTOS rjp.iv Sovvai TTJV udpi<a <f>ayeiv ; einev ovv at/rof? 6 'Ir/aovs,, Aprjv aprpz XeycJ vplv, idv prj <j>dyrjTe TTJV vdpKO. TOV YLOV TOV dvOpdnrov Kai m' re avrov TO aipa, OVK ex : T E C C U V iawols. 6 rpdiywv pov TTJV adpKa Kal nlvcov pov TO a'pa t ei £ai7jv alwviov, Kayo) dvaor-rjoco avTOV rf\ ioxdrrj r)pepa. r) yap odp£ pov dXrjBrjs eoTiv fipwois, Kal TO atpd pov dXrjd^s £OTIV TTOOLS. 6 TpcLyoiV pov TTJV odpKa

Kal -nivoxv pov TO atpa iv ipol pevei Kayw iv avr/o. Ka9a>s d/neoTeiXiv pe 6 £a>v IJarrjp Kayuj tfi Sid TOV TlaTepa, Kal 6 Tpwycov pe KaKeivos t,f]oei Si ipe. O5TOS icrnv 6 dpTos 6 e'£ ovpavov KarajSaj, ov Ka8d>s ecpayov ol "arcpej K a i awe-Bavov 6 Tpcjyoiv TOVTOV TOV dpTov tfioei eis TOV alwva.

(And) he t o o k b r e a d , and uihen he had g i v e n t h a n k s , he b r o k e i t , s a y i n g ( L k . : and gave i t t o them, s a y i n g ) , " T h i s i s my body u i h i c h i s ( L k . : i s g i v e n ) f o r y o u . Do t h i s i n remem­b r a n c e o f me." I n t h e same uiay a l s o t h e c u p , a f t e r s u p ­p e r , s a y i n g , " T h i s cup ( u i h i c h i s p o u r e d o u t f o r you) i s t h e neui c o v e n a n t i n my b l o o d . P I . o n l y : Do t h i s , as o f t e n a s

you d r i n k i t , i n r e ­membrance o f me."

" I am t h e l i v i n g b r e a d u i h i c h came doum f r o m h e a v e n ; i f any one e a t s o f t h i s b r e a d , he u i i l l l i v e f o r e v e r ; and t h e b r e a d u i h i c h I s h a l l g i v e f o r t h e l i f e o f t h e u i o r l d i s my f l e s h . "

The Jeuis t h e n d i s p u t e d among t h e m s e l v e s , s a y i n g , "Houi c a n t h i s man g i v e us h i s f l e s h t o e a t ? " So J e s u s s a i d t o them, " T r u l y , t r u l y , I s a y t o y o u , u n l e s s you e a t t h e f l e s h o f t h e Son o f man and d r i n k h i s b l o o d , you have no l i f e i n y o u ; he who e a t s my f l e s h and d r i n k s my b l o o d has e t e r n a l l i f e , and I u i i l l r a i s e h i m up a t t h e l a s t d a y . F o r my f l e s h i s f o o d i n ­d e e d , and my b l o o d i s d r i n k i n d e e d . He who e a t s my f l e s h and d r i n k s my b l o o d a b i d e s i n me,and I i n h i m . As t h e l i v i n g F a t h e r s e n t me, and I l i v e b e ­c a u s e o f t h e F a t h e r , s o he uiho e a t s me w i l l l i v e b e c a u s e o f me. T h i s i s t h e b r e a d w h i c h came down f r o m h e a v e n , n o t s u c h as t h e f a t h e r s a t e and d i e d ; he who e a t s t h i s b r e a d w i l l l i v e f o r e v e r . "

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sources

K i t t e l , R., ed. B i b l i a H e b r a i c a ( 1 3 t h e d . ) . S t u t t g a r t : Uluerttembergische B i b e l a n s t a l t , 1962.

N e s t l e , E., and K. A l a n d , e d s . Novum Testamentum Graece ( 2 5 t h e d . ) . S t u t t g a r t : Uluerttembergische B i b e l a n s t a l t , 1963.

Way, H.G., and B.ffl. M e t z g e r , e d s . The Oxford Annotated B i b l e w i t h the Apocrypha ( R e v i s e d S t a n d a r d V e r s i o n ) . New York: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1965.

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