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Josselyn Torres

November 13, 2013

Sociology 2827W

Professor Sherman

The Mexican Revolution

Mexico is a country that has been invaded by foreign

countries since the early 1500s. Spain conquered the Aztec

capital and soon the people there were mixed because of

interracial marriage. By 1819 there were three classes which

were the whites of Spanish heritage, who had the power; the

mestizos, who were given some privileges and the Indians who were

treated as nothing. Between 1810 and 1820, Mexico fought a war

of independence and was liberated from Spanish ruling. The

country was behind in industrialization because of so many

struggles against foreign countries wanting to take land or

conquer Mexico. The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) was started

because of politic reasons and the oppression of its people.

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Porfirio Diaz was president from 1876 to 1880 and again in

1884 to 1911. His time in office was known as the “Porfiriato”.

Under his rule, there was a lot of violence, corruption, and

deception. Diaz’s government “was an oppressive dictatorship

that divided that country racially and economically” (Frost and

Keegan 11). He kept his challengers from running in elections

through fear. Diaz’s political power grew and soon his chosen

men were state governors. Diaz started to build the

industrialization in Mexico, “more than 9,000 miles of railroad

tracks were laid down” (Stein 15). With trains running Mexico’s

agriculture crops were produced at a larger scale. Also the

first railway line between Mexico and the United States was

established in 1884 thus Mexico was able to participate in world

trade. Diaz had successfully brought Mexico up in the

industrialized world.

In the early 1900’s President Diaz was influenced by a group

of business men called the “cientificos” (scientist), who were

positivists. The cientificos believed that the national economy

and the governmental problems “could be solved by the proper

application of scientific principles” (Stein 22). They were very

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big in foreign investment, they believed that that if the country

was to continue onto industrialism then the government needed to

look at foreign investment. The cientificos were all white and

believed that all Indian and mestizo’s were only good for labor

work. They believed that Mexicans with European origin were

superior. These racist ideas were advance “to justify programs

that protected their own comfortable positions in society” (Frost

and Keegan 21). The Mexican people were looked down upon because

of these racist ideas and were oppressed. The cientificos were

politically weak, unpopular and lacked support. Nevertheless,

most of the men that surrounded Diaz were the cientificos. Diaz

sought to expand foreign investment because of the influence

these men had on him.

There was an increase of foreign trade and investments

between the United States, Europe and Mexico. Mexico’s economy

was sliding into an economic depression therefore the “living and

working conditions for the lower and middle class grew

unbearable” (Frost and Keegan 16). Diaz’s government was short

on funds to modernize Mexico so foreign investment seemed

reasonable. Diaz gave drilling right to foreigners for oil. A

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British company discovered some valuable oil near Tampico on the

Gulf coast of Mexico and Diaz sold them the land, “practically

giving away some of the richest oil fields in the world” (Frost

and Keegan 17). Another source of foreign investment were mines.

Mines were productive and also created jobs for workers but they

were the ones working very hard with no hope in receiving raises.

On the other hand, Diaz was happy because foreign companies

expanded in Mexico and gave the government a percentage of their

profits. Since there was a link to the United States, Mexico

suffered as well when the United State had their economic

recession. The U.S. economic recession “led to the repatriation

of thousands of Mexican workers who had been fired from the

factories and mines across the border” (Camin and Meyer 3).

Farmland in Mexico was divided into ejidos, which is a piece

of land farmed communally under a system supported by the state,

owned by Indians and the haciendas (ranches) owned by Europeans.

Diaz believed that the haciendas were more valuable than the

ejidos and thus the stripping of the lands from the Indians by

wealthy land owners began. There were also foreigners buying the

land that the government took from Indians. Protests were rising

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because of the expropriation of Indian land but Diaz had the army

crush any attempt at rebellion. There were landless farmers and

the plantation owners would have them sign a contract for a year.

Signing these contracts was them signing themselves into a form

of slavery. With every wrong going in rural Mexico, Diaz was

quite aware of all the exploitations. These peasants were

exploited and couldn’t fight back until a new threat came into

place.

That threat was no other than Francisco Indalécio Madero,

who was from a wealthy ranch-owning family. Under Diaz’s

government Madero’s family prospered and he was sent to the U.S.

to the best schools. When he returned he watched how workers in

his families plantation were treated. He then started to treat

the workers better and his kindness gave him the respect of a lot

of people. He was soon recognized as a generous and fair

businessman. Madero was really interested in politics and also

the state of the peasants was a concern to him. Madero decided

to run for president and Diaz did not take his opposition

seriously. Madero was gradually getting more popular and Diaz

finally realized it. Madero’s supporters were a range of people

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from different classes. Since Madero was gaining popularity Diaz

threw him in jail with false accusations.

The elections of 1910 were like other elections, Diaz

declared himself president. Madero was always against violence

but after living his experience with Diaz he realized that “only

armed rebellion could topple Diaz from power” (Stein 32). He was

let out of prison by Diaz but restricted to the town he was in.

He escaped from San Luis Potosi to Texas. During his stay in

Texas he came up with a proposal in favor of a revolution which

was named the Plan of San Luis Potosi. He plead the people to

fight against the government and announced a date that the

revolution should take place. Unfortunately, Madero’s plan

failed but not entirely, even though Diaz’s government were able

to stop a mass uprising from happening there were small uprisings

all over the country. The people that have suffered under Diaz’s

dictatorship were finally fighting against their oppressor.

There were many revolutionary figures but the ones that

stood out the most were Pascual Orozcos, Pancho Villa, and

Emiliano Zapata. Pascual Orozcos was a shopkeeper and was in the

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middle class. Pancho Villa was a bandit and he began several

raids on wealthy cattle ranches. He turned himself from a bandit

to a guerrillero and led about three hundred men on raids. In the

state of Morelos Emiliano Zapata, a farm-worker, was leading

raids against the haciendas. He led the peasants who had their

lands seized by the hacienda owners. The government saw all

these small uprisings as nothing and was believed to die off,

however this was not the case. They soon all had their own

armies, Villa’s followers were known as Villistas and Zapata’s

were known as Zapatistas. These revolutionary armies soon were

taking over cities that the federal armies were in charge of.

They demanded Diaz to resign but he refused to. Diaz was old and

bedridden so he finally agreed to step-down and later on died in

exile in Paris.

Madero was elected president on November 16, 1911. His main

focus was to convert the dictatorial government into a democracy.

The wants and demands of the revolutionaries were not discussed

and Madero was not aware of them. All over Mexico people and the

revolutionaries were demanding different things but all Madero

was focusing was turning the government into a democracy. He was

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well aware of the current situations the Mexican people were in

especially the peasants. Stein notes that “Madero inherited a

nation he was unable to govern” (44). Madero was all talk and no

action. He kept promising land reforms and other reforms but

there was no such thing. Madero’s government was unable to meet

the demands and “basic needs of workers: reduction of the number

of working hours, general increase of wages…” (Camin and Meyer

30). He was also being ridiculed by the Mexico City press and

this is how many Mexicans got influenced in disliking him because

they were informed of his actions and responses. Before he was

elected his popularity was very high but in the matter of a

couple months his popularity slowly diminished. Emiliano Zapata

was really pushing for a land reform and thus created the Plan de

Ayala. The Plan de Ayala was formally demanding that the lands

that were taken under Diaz’s government be returned and declaring

that Madero was an enemy of the Revolution.

Emiliano Zapata was from a poor but respected family. He

was witness to the hacienda owners taking land from the peasants.

This is what drove him to be involved in the revolution and to

take part in the insurgencies. His small uprisings were never

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really put down by Diaz’s government. He was really passionate

about giving back the land that was taken away from the Indians

and peasants. Zapata actually met with Madero before he was

elected president and discussed land reforms. Zapata believed

that Madero was making up excuses to not carry out such reforms.

After Madero was elected president, Zapata declared him as an

enemy of the revolution. Zapata’s rebellion served as the

longest one that stood against the government, Frost and Keegan

describes it as “an emotional movement based on historical and

cultural values” (37). The insurgencies by Zapata were attacking

the haciendas and federal installations. These insurgencies

continued into Madero’s presidency and the government would not

compromise thus violence was the last resort.

Besides the revolutionaries that were against Madero

there was soon a conspiracy by former president’s nephew Felix

Diaz, a popular cientifico Gen. Manuel Mondragon, and later on

Gen. Victoriano Huerta. Diaz and Mondragon planned to denounce

Madero and then declare Gen. Bernardo Reyes as provisional

president. They tried to take this plan into action but it

failed and Madero chose Huerta to defend the palace. Little did

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he know that Huerta would betray him. Huerta began negotiating

with Diaz and Mondragon to plan another coup against Madero.

Huerta ordered Madero’s troops to open fire on the Cuidadela and

this was known as the ten tragic days because they shot at anyone

that ventured outside thus citizens were the ones that suffered

greatly. During this time Mexico’s capital suffered a loss of

food and other sources, also a great number of bodies were on the

streets.

Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson of the United States played a

role in the resignation of Madero. At first Wilson supported

Madero but “as Madero’s liberal sympathies resulted in modest

reforms and demands for concessions from American companies”

(Frost and Keegan 44) he changed his mind. Ambassador Wilson

gathered the ambassadors from Spain, Germany and Great Britain to

essentially criticize Madero and receive support in drafting a

letter to Madero to step down. This letter was brought to Madero

and he responded with anger and refused to step down. Madero

felt that the U.S. had no right in interfering with Mexico’s

political affairs. Thus Ambassador Wilson conspired with Huerta

and Diaz coming up with a document called the Pact of the

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Embassy. In this pact it acknowledged Huerta as provisional

president. “It also included a promise by Huerta and Diaz to do

anything necessary to prevent the Madero regime from regaining

power” (Frost and Keegan 46). They did just that, they forced

Madero and the vice president, Jose Maria Pino Suarez, to resign.

Huerta becomes president and with that he ordered Madero and

Suarez to be executed discreetly. Wilson accepted the, known,

false report that Madero and Suarez were killed in crossfire

against rebels.

Huerta’s regime was far worse than the Diaz’s regime. Once

Huerta stepped into office he had 110 members of congress jailed,

dismissed judges replacing them with his acquaintances, and

murdered many of Madero’s supporters. Once Huerta gained his

position all the cases and demands on social reform was thrown

out, and he had no concern about the issues the people displayed.

Huerta was ruthless in the way he ruled during his regime. He

was already in old age and he loved to spend his time in barrooms

instead of handling his business as president. He was an

alcoholic who often was seen drunk. In the north a wealthy

landowner, Venustiano Carranza, refused to acknowledge Huerta as

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president and “claimed that Huerta had violated the constitution

in assuming the presidency” (Frost and Keegan 47). President

Woodrow Wilson of the United States also did not recognize

Huerta’s presidency until the lawful rights of the Mexican

citizens were upheld. President Wilson stated that he would

recognize Huerta if he held free elections. These elections were

then held but were manipulated and Wilson sent a new

representative to urge Huerta to resign but Huerta went into

hiding.

Wilson was not happy and decided to send weapons to Villa,

Carranza and Zapata. This failed to break Huerta and this gave

an excuse for Wilson to invade the country. A boat full of

American sailors was arrested in Tampico because they “wandered”

into a restricted area. The sailors were released and an apology

was made to the United States but President Wilson grabbed this

chance to send a fleet to the Gulf of Mexico. Wilson then heard

that there was Germans carrying a ship loaded of machine guns for

Huerta’s army in Veracruz. Wilson then ordered the fleet to

occupy the port of Veracruz. This initiated a bloodbath between

the Americans and Mexicans but most of the deaths were Mexican

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citizens. Huerta was furious and fought back; this gave Huerta

some popularity because many of the Mexican leaders felt that the

U.S. had no right in interfering with Mexico’s affairs.

Nevertheless, the revolutionary leaders kept on fighting against

Huerta and were advancing little by little into the capital. On

July 15, 1914, Huerta no longer dared to stay and fled into

exile.

Mexico City was unoccupied and the country was left with no

president. This gave way to Carranza’s and Obregon’s armies to

occupy the city. Carranza as “the First Chief” called upon a

meeting and all the revolutionary leaders were welcomed. Here

Emiliano Zapata and his followers demanded the Plan de Ayala to

be put into action especially the land reform. Carranza and

Obregon sensed a new battle rising, so they left the capital.

Villa and Zapata now occupied the capital. Villa soon convinced

about fifteen hundred soldiers from the federal army to join his

army. He and Zapata were taking over different cities and

gaining popularity, but Carranza was also gaining popularity by

“publishing a list of reforms he promised to implement” (Frost

and Keegan 58).

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Under a new constitution, Carranza was elected president in

1917 but as president he did not care about social reform but

“believed the free market system would take care of most of

Mexico’s problems” (Frost and Keegan 64). Under the new

constitution land reform was created by General Mugica, it

provided a new meaning of property rights. It stated that the

absolute right of private property was overturned and replaced by

a new view that “private property would be subordinate to public

welfare” (Frost and Keegan 66). It also declared that the nation

was the original owner of all lands. It also gave back all the

lands that were stolen, during Diaz’s rule, to the original

owners. There was another article in the constitution called the

“magna-carta of Mexican labor”. It was aimed to protect wage

earners which were people working in factories or other fields.

It established a minimum wage and limited the workday to eight

hours. This reform gave a lot of opportunities and essentially

changed the Mexican labor system. There was pay for pregnancy

leave, age limitation, rights to unions, medical attention, etc.

Unfortunately, Carranza thought the constitution was on the

radical side. Therefore he ignored most of what the constitution

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promised. An example is education; his budget was just a bit

higher than Diaz and also ignored the clause on child labor.

Zapata refused to recognize Carranza as president and his armies

kept irritating the federal army for true agrarian reform. By

1919 Carranza was fed up with Zapata and ordered the

assassination of Emiliano Zapata. Zapata was lured into a trap

by Colonel Guajardo and killed on April 10, 1919. This was the

final blow in Carranza’s popularity; he had killed a true hero in

the eyes of the people. By 1920, reelections were due and

Carranza knew he couldn’t just step down and supported Ignacio

Bonillas but everyone knew what he was trying to do which was

having Bonillas become president and “act as his puppet while he

remained the real power behind the government” (Stein 118). All

his efforts went to waste when Obregon decided to run for

president. Obregon had a lot of support and in due time became

president.

On the other hand women during the Mexican Revolution were

greatly need and had a great amount of impact. Women during

Diaz’s government were overlooked and “treated as second-class

citizens under the law” (Fernández 54). Under the Constitution

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of 1857, there were no defined citizenship for women and “by law

women without citizenship could not vote” (Fernández 54).

Without citizenship, women did not have rights and also were

dependent on their husbands. Gender roles were also limiting

women’s lives. A woman was expected to stay in her role all

throughout her life. They were expected to faithfully serve

their families and especially their husbands. They were also

expected to bear children and be their primary caregiver. This

is a very conservative ideology and very old-fashion. On the

other hand Indian women were in worst situations. They were

mostly sold off to landowners with no say in the matter. Once

they were married they did not have any rights at all. These

women when sold would be raped by the soldiers and then by the

plantation owners, “these women were virtually enslaved” (Frost

and Keegan 20). The Mexican Revolution gave women the

opportunity to “rise above some of the limitations in their

lives” (Fernández 55).

Soldaderas was what they called women soldiers during the

Mexican Revolution. Participating in the Revolution meant that

they would have to leave their traditional roles behind. They

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created a new image that would be presented in media in the

future. This image was of the soldadera strapped with bandoliers

and wielded guns just like men. The known amount of women in the

revolution is unknown but nonetheless fought on both the opposing

side and its counterpart. The most influential and popular

opposing armies were led by Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata, and

Venustiano Carranza. All these armies had a fair amount of women

fighting alongside. Some of the reason why women decided to

fight in the revolution was in support of the revolutionary

ideals and supporting their men that were fighting.

Unfortunately, some women did not participate voluntarily. They

were forced into fighting after they were kidnapped by men in the

Federal Army. “Many of the soldaderas joined the Revolution

after seeing this happen to family members and friends”

(Fernández 55). Older women often participated in seeking

revenge for the death of their loved ones. As anyone can see,

women of all ages participated. Class and race also were factors

of these women fighting in the Revolution. Most of the lower

class women would fight in the opposing side armies but the women

that benefited under the government power would be fighting in

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the Federal Army. The lower class women were mostly of Indian

race or mestiza (mixed) race and their counterparts were of white

or European race.

Some women in the armies had responsibilities and these jobs

were necessary because they “enabled the army to function on a

day to day basis” (Fernández 56). Much like they did at home

they had to take care of the men and also cook, nurse the

soldiers and carry their equipment and supplies from battle to

battle. They also had the responsibility of setting up camp

between battles. Even though the responsibilities they had in

the armies similar to the ones they had at home, their effort and

help had a great impact on these armies. “Without the women’s

help, the men would have been slowed down with daily tasks”

(Fernández 56). Other women would take up arms and fight

alongside the men. Women were in the midst of the lower rankings

of soldiers; however some that were skilled and assertive became

colonels and generals. Participating in the revolution gave

women a freedom they never felt before and also equality. They

went against their social norms and created a new image for

women.

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Unfortunately, the image of women in the Mexican Revolution

turned into an image of a much sexualized woman. According to

Fernández, ”soldaderas were portrayed in a romanticized manner

that was at odds with who they were in real life” (58). Men

started to draw up images of the soldaderas overly-sexualized

because they felt that their masculinity was being threatened.

This image of an overly-sexualized soldaderas can be seen even in

the media world as in movies, Mexican women are often portrayed

sexual but with assertiveness. Even with the help and effort

that the soldaderas put into the revolution “their memory has

been replaced by the idealized one that men have conjured up in

their imagination” (Fernández 58).

In conclusion, as this paper goes through all the years of

the Mexican Revolution, it is very clear that Mexico was led by

dictatorship and then presidents that couldn’t control the

Mexican people. Mexico was always invaded by foreigners until

they finally broke from Spain’s authority. Mexico is a land in

which corruption, politics, and oppression of its people had

taken place for far too long. All the revolutionary figures had

a great impact in the Mexican Revolution and brought about

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changes in their own ways. Women were also important because

they helped the soldiers in different opposing armies with

everyday tasks. This brought upon a feel of freedom and

equality. The insurgencies took place all over Mexico and gave a

voice to the peasants and revolutionaries. The Mexican

Revolution ended in 1920, but the country continued to have

sporadic insurgencies.

Works Cited

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Camin, Héctor Aguilar, and Lorenzo Meyer. In the Shadow of the Mexican

Revolution: Contemporary Mexican History, 1910-1989. Austin: University of

Texas, 1993. Print.

Fernández, Delia (2009) "From Soldadera to Adelita: The Depiction of

Women in the Mexican Revolution,"McNair Scholars Journal: Vol. 13:

Iss. 1, Article 6.Available at:

http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/mcnair/vol13/iss1/6

Frost, Mary Pierce, and Susan Keegan. The Mexican Revolution. San Diego,

CA: Lucent, 1997. Print.

Knight, Alan. The Mexican Revolution. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire: Cambridge

UP, 1986. Print.

Stein, R. Conrad. The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920. New York: New

Discovery, 1994. Print.

Womack, John, Jr. Zapata and the Mexican Revolution. New York: Alfred A.

Knopf, 1968. Print.