ANCIENT TEXTILES SERIES VOL. 12

TEXTILE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

ARCHAEOLOGY, EPIGRAPHY, ICONOGRAPHY

edited by M.-L. Nosch, H. Koefoed and E, Andersson Strand

Oxbow Books Oxford and Oakville

publi.Md by Olcbow Boob. O~ford. UK

O Olcbow Books and lhe individual.uthon 2013

n. .. 1>ook is "VIlilo:bIt dum {roIfI

Olcbow Books. odord VK

,,' The tnv;d Brown Book ("ml"'ny

PO 8m< 511. oakvil~. CT 06n9. USA (Phone: 860-94~·!13l9; Fax.: 860-945·9461)

'" via 011' wtb1lu www.oxbowbookl.com

A CIP ,"«ord fQnhtl book is .""il.ble from the lin!!'" Libr.1")'

Lib,ary of C"ngr .... Cllaloging";n· Publk.1'iun V.,. T",,~Je ptOduction a"" romumptioo in II ... _I N<>.1, Eo!.! . mh.-.,/('8Y. evi&rophy. i""""S"phr I ediled

"r MA . Nosch. H. Kwfoed """ [, ~ SUM>d . - 101 led it ion].

PIS" em .. (A""'"' ' o>'il .. seri .. : ,,<>t , 12) lnclu<ln bibliogrophic.1 "'fo!"Onee!. !S8N <J7l}.1-8.i217-.489-{1 1. Th,UIo lndu;try-Middlo Eaot- Hi.tory. 2. Tex~~ f.brics, AncirnI_MiddJe U>t.:1 Copper .ge-Middle

Eoo". 4. e~ ogc-Middlo UoI. S. I"", .ge-ld;ddk: E.»t. l. Nosch. M.n..Loui..,. MilOO- of rompilotioo. II. Koef""'<l. 11. editor oi compil~lion. !II, 51,."" . [va S. And.,...,.,. O<IilOO- of rompil. t;"",

TS14 13.U4&2013 J3/1.'76770956-d<1l

20120:19276

fl'Olll UMr: liM dill"';"!! 0{ (5 7IJ( by A9t11'ft Wisfi UustIL Th~ dlllwing highlighl5 clothi"" and IMilts.

Ancient ftx /a.s Suits edit",;,,! (ommIWt: E~a Andersson Strand. Ulla Mannering. Margarita Gleba and Marie·louise Nos<:h. editor

Printed in Greal Britain by Short Run Press. [xcler

2. The Emergence of the Ghassulian Textile Industry in the Southern Levant Chalcoli thic Pe riod (c . 4500- 3900 BeE)

by Janel Levy and Isaac Gilead

Introduction

The dominant Chalcolithlc entity of the southern Levant is the Gh~~ulian culture. named after the type·si te Teleilat Ghusui. It is dated by carbon 14 to c. 4SOO-l%O cal SCE. and is found mainly in the northem Negev. the Dead Sea basin, the southern and u ntral coastal plain. the $hepheUa, and theJoman VlIlIey (rig. 2.1). rtsrollural assemblages are characterized by V-shaped bowb, churm. and cornets, ves$<'l$ with lug handles and/or red JXlinted b;onds. narrow backed sickle blades and microlith5. Also worth noting are basalt bowls, copper artefacts, broad rOOm architecture, and pri mary burials in habitation 5iles and secondary burials with clay ossuaries in off seltlernent community umeteries.'

The study of Ghassullan crafts and craft specialization is one of l he major keys for a better understanding of its social and ,",onomlc organization. The copper indmtry is the best known expression of ChakoJilhlc craft speclaitsts.' Aspects of craft specia lization have been recent ly considered also in studying assemblages of potlery and flint .' The linen fab r ics uncovered in the Cave of 1M Treasure and the Cave of the Warrior an:' impressive products of an addit iona l Ghassulian craft: the tut ile indust ry.' Beyond descriptions of products. there is yet no overvIew of this important industry, and the recent syntheses of the Chalcolithk p"riod hardly ment ions it .' It is our Intention 10 diSCUSS below the tools and products of the Ghanulian texti le industry and its ~latlon to social and l.'Conomic asptcts.

MattriaL.. Textiles of the Chalcoli lhi, period we~ uncovered in the southern Levant only within the western perimder of the ~ad Sea basin. Likewise. site, with . w dden and dramatic profusion of spindle

' GoJe.>d lOO9.lH • • IIa ... Adon'~ LS-ill. , Roux 200l,Gil .. d tI"'. :roc-.. , 6",- ~do<1 1980. 151- 135; Schick 199!l. J - ll. , Rowan.nd GoId<n 1009

2. The fme'!jencr of thr Gh=ulian kxt;l~ Industry in the South,," Lrwnt

whorls. Bir eS-Safadi, Teleilat Ghassul and Gilat. are an evidence of an intensification of spinning and occur only in th~ semi-arid 7One. Herein lays the dichotomy. Flax which appears to be the sole material use<! for the manufactu~ of textiles during the Chakolithic period' cannot grow under these condit ions even if precipitation " ·as lOO-150mm greater than today, as propose<! by a number of scholars.' Nor yet do the said regions have surplus water requi site in flax processing.

rlax cultivated in the Mediterranean ZOne and the tropics requires average annual precipitation ranging from 450- 750mm or ca~fully controlled irrigation with perennial sources.' The flax. uprooted after c. three months, is dried and su bsequently laid to ret in pools of slow running water. or in closed pools in which the water is changed frequent ly. Retting, a stinking and polluting bio logical process. of c. 15 day"s duration caUSeS the decomposition of the outer cortex and some of the pectin. This is the critical stage of flax processing: over-retting will cause the de<:omposition of too much pectin, result ing in weak fibres, and under-relting wil l cause the retention of extraneous material that will be difficult to remove mechanically: After re-drying, the straw is subject to a sequence of labour intensive processe' to di sengage the fibres" resulting in a 5" fibre yield: c. 3% line, JO- 9OCm in length, textile quality, and the remaining 2%, shorter. cOarse tow suitable for co!"'."

In the first half of the first millennium AD. textual evidence attests to the Jo rdan and Beit Shean valleys as the primary loci of flax cultivation in the Southern Levant." It is qu ite possible that during the Chalcol ithic period flax was also cultivated in the same region." considering the low yield of flax f'bre to straw. the harsh conditions of theJudean desert and accompanying difficulties in t ransport, it would appear unlikely that 95% of extraneous straw was transported to the Beer Sheva val ley sites (Fig. 2.1), an area with limited water resourCeS but which are requisite in the processing of flax . It appears more reasonable that it underwent primary proc~ ssing in the area of cultivation.

The Cave of the Treasure in Nahal Mishmar in the Jud~an Desert (Fig. 2.1 ) i, one of the two most important sites for the study of the earliest Levan tine texti les. The cave yielded a hoard of over 400 Gnassulian copper artefacts which is regarded as the earli est. largest and most sophisticated collect ion of mctal object." Bar-Adon. who excavated the site. lists the following layers (Fig. 2.2): the Roman !",riod layer I (1st-2nd centuries AD) wh ich is underlain by layer II. an intermediate layer that contains a mixture of artcfaCl\ from layer I and layer III below which is the Chalcol it h ic period." daled to the fifth millennium." of thc 112 texti les li,ted in the publication. mostly linen textiles, eight woollen fabri CS were reported from layer II I. " We suggest that they are intnJsive and that they originate in the Roman layer. Woollen textiles from all three strata are characterized

• &hic); 1001. 21~. ' l.<vy 100<>.12 with ,d<", ,,,,<>. • N. nf .. w 19l1. 1U .

• We i"dli"g 19" . 1J '-~'l. M Bai~ 1989. 15-11. 167_IS1 .. woi""lI ng 1947. 2>1. " Aio" lOW. ' ''''. " &hk); 2002 . 238 . .. MOO'~y 19~.1 7J - 174.

" Bar-Adon 1981J. 2_j . ~ A.,J,m, ,001. .. Bar·Adon 1981J. ,,].

H

t • .. -

HL AVIV

t!A1 ~A •

--.--.. ,--,<::: •••

'.,,> .. • '- --..

---... ' ----.-., "

./ ' ........ , ........ . "'"

• • . . ,

9.·/<;: ,J \1 . ,

".. .. I.Ir 1 \ , , .'} .J , i ~

" . \ ..... , ...... '\ i " ... -.. ,

\1/ " .'

... .' . ....•. ~,. .

, ( r'" -, 11'0-...,." ~=:._.:::. ___ .• 1 c....., ~'T ____ ......... , . "-,

't--. · ... ·· .. JUI,l$AlE.. i :, .. '-•......... _-... '" ./.

"" "--'-'" .,\,-- ;-' " .:.~ \ "" .j"--•• • -••• •••• -.. -',.' 1'-.. _

.;'-'---. .......... 1\ 1, \ t"'·. , \. a:.. __ .... :--- / c... ... T~ i \ ' V , ... " ,I j \ou.r • • EEfUHEVA /\ . "., ~ '-~~"" .-. ..

.............. - \ / 7 """ - i \ .' I ";---..•. ;... A -'tt j

\ .-_ ..... ,...... ............ \. V "'_""'/(.' " 1.> • ..; __ -, ._, " .\ ......... ,. -'-"'" '\ . \.: f j\

' ~'-'/ ... .. ' ", I:, ", " I ~ .j' /: \ ;"')/1'\ -,- ,.' ...... : \ ._....... ; , .. .... \ . .. - /. \

: ',7." ... . ~,., . "---'-).-.' '\. ---'3, : <:::--... -." ~ J' - ( " ...... ,.-__ '_ ., ....... ." ... , 1 ;,_

/ /

. , : ;"'::'-. "'",(' , " I ',: ________ ~ ... :; __ ' ... , ..... ,. \ . .. ~, .... \... I , ___ , < .,--,. '.' .... ~"" . ,"

('-t .. _ \... ;"_;:: .... -, ,.,............. _, .. , '-\'" "'" '/ I _. ' .. ";:. '". " .' ':. ":~''-:~',,>~ , ,

z. Th~ Emt'9"""~ of rhr Ghassulian Tarllt Indust ry In rht Sourhtnl Ltv.lnr "

KALLA

.; ~'~ ' .

" . ~,

A-A

jl-~----.!!"

_ .... __ ... O(~,

., ... So",., , _ . " .KOUO ... lI_' ............ ' •• 11 1 _ ~t"".

" by single ply, 3 fea~ alien to Ch'kolithic 5pinning but characteristic of lale spinning.N One woolltn text ile attributl!d to the Ch:.o.lcolithic stratum is Z spun." The fealu~ Is allen 10 the chalcolilhk period but norm~tive for woollen text iles of the Roman period of Gr«k or lIalian o rigin.- f urt hermore. it is to be observed that t he "Cha1colith lc" wooll .. " textile 61-22/a-h," ha!l an Identical counterpart 61 -~ S/6-b in the Intermed iate level, "

lIar-Adon cites Crowfoot stating that the B,d", ;an text il es 'are mostly linen and the rest woollen:" However, crowfoot clea rly states that the s.aid le"ti les are most ly linen and the remainde r of an unidentified plant fib ....... Wool is not mentioned. Rar-Adon statt'S that all the textiles r«OV<'red from ~alal HoyOk are woollen." Ryder on the: batis of fibre diameter. miCTOlCOpic exa mination and identification of tM fib..,s and a srTies of chemiClll te:;~ identifies the fibres as flax." Subseq .... nt SEM examination reJ«l5 t M possibility of wool and confirms t hat the text ll.s were made of bast fibres proNbly flax."

To reiterat e. t he Cave of the T..,asu.., is the on ly Chalcolithic site to which woollen textil". u~ uur ibuted. Sample. of these text iles we'" examined by Ryder who defined them as late." Supporting evidence that wool bearing sheep we", not presenl in lhe southern I.evant In t he Chaleolith ic per iod i. t he r8m figurine from Gilat ," wh ich sport s a pri mitive t hroat fringe. characteristi c of hairy sheep.·

l"fre Tools of f'roducticn of the spindle. t he composite tool of developed spinning, only the spindle whorls survive the millennia. as they mostly are made of stone or ceramic whereas the shaft, o f wood are rarely encOllntered intact ." lightweight discoid whorls are generally u!.l'd with dropped spinning, a t«hn lque still common th roughout west ern Asia and the fU!-8tole (heavy ceramic whor lJ) wit h sup ported spinning, a t«hn lquc no longer e;o;tanl in t he Old World but , t il l practiced by the Navajo and the tribes of equatorial South AmNica.U Supported spinn ing 1$ an older. slower technique in which the Ih",e processes of yarn producti on, draft ing spinning and winding on are carried out in sequence, whe .... a . in dropped spinning. d raft ing and spinning are carried 01.11 s lm ul taneou. ly, ..,sulting in not on ly longer lengths of more uni fonn ,nd hence stronger yarn spun with greater ra pidity. but also finer yam,"

The whorls of t he Chalcollthic period of the soothern Levant are of two distinct types: the fi rst

• Clndon .. 011_. l"J1-.. l!-a,·Io.don I9&>. In ~ Shoff., .nd Grang .. · Toylor 1_. 2:11>. " B .... lo.don I~W. 1 5~ . ill. 26.1. " B> ... ~ doo ' 9110. 11<.JlL 41.): Cl odo,1 t1 01. lUG, ZlIl. " a. ... A<iot119&>. 151 ""'. 71 . "C...,..·fooIl'1S<. <II ~ au A<iot1191O. 151_~ n 611", MtU .. rt 1961 . .. ~ydor 1965.17S-"~ " 1I(>p1 .. ", Lntwood 1'117, II. .. SchIck. ptr>oruIt <ommunkatlool. ,. Cornmomv-~lIerin ...... 1006. fiI. lS.S. " Ryder. pot..., ... 1 commWlKaiion. " Ilo<hbo" 1977. 11. ~ ' ·n>:!in • ...:.I N6rMtu\:;old 191a, figs a. 9. H. " ~.rbor l <)<J l , <1 -<. : Crowfoot I 9Jl . 1· 21 . Crowfoot 1954 . 414: Ki".11 191&, 2<-26.

2. TM UMrgtM1' of the GhGSSIIlilln Tatilt Inc/wiry in 1M South.." Levanl

00

''9''rtl.J. Spindk .mons !rom 8ir n-S<I{<IJL (o>wtnyo( 1M fmrll-.m Ci'nIU ar}mualrm (CRr)). PIIOIog"'l'htd by .tIlt .. fogtl.

discoid/lrnticuiar in form wIth a bkonical perforation manufactu~ from ground down sherds or limeslo",", and the se.:ond spheroid or biconical in form with a straight p<'rforatlon manufactu~ (rom low fired day. We examinlrd 381 whorls (fig. 2.3) from variolU Chalcolithle slles (excluding the Gi~t Il'pcrtoi", which was not available) and selectlrd 320 for analysi •. Sherd whorls con.t ituted the majority en,,) with an average diamet .. r of 4ilmm and an ~ra8" ",eight of 109. The second type (I'" of the sample) hal an average diameter of tsmm and an a ....... rage Wl'ight of 65g."

Both tyl"" of whorls are known from the Pottery Neolithic period but in vrry limIted numbers {t.g. :seven from Sha'ar Hagolan and 2S. t he greatest number. re<:orded from Jericho)." They also appear throughout the Chakolithic sites but are stI li a minor phenomenon (e.g. eight at Nahal Mishmar)." Only in the Seer Sheva valley ,ites. at Gilat and at Teleilat Gha"ul is there a dramat ic Increase in their numbers. Whorb.,.., encountered In the Golan siles in domestic conte~h adjacent 10 doors," In Ihe Beer Sheva valley sil ... and at GHat they are found onlhe surface, in fills and in pits.-

Spinning bowls, or fibre wetting bowls are heavy, well-firf:d bowls with internal handltobl

• LtV)' 1006. ILl. IL 1, ~ G.rfinlrllwt: 1'. w~ I'lliI •• 1.-6JO. pI.l~l , - B" '~Gon 19W.l!J-I~ , Ill. 51 , 51, •• tp".ln 1998.28. H ..... 11 , 9), 101. Ill , • Lt,y~. l ~ l ; levy" .1, 2006. lOb i. , O,j,

"

riyu,. U fibr • ..... lfi"9 bowl ""'" 81, ,.·5a/Mi Ifr_ Coo""n'9" ",llnin )'/9(1, /'larK'" WI/9j. Coortrly of}. /'tmx. C. Comm"'9'- P,lltrin aml l'" CRr;.

fi9ltrt 2.$.lIqrnrnrmian o(a 1Iorirom~' 9""''''' loom fr<n 8ad.>ri {ITonr IInml"" and (41.,.,.. T~ 19U. ptnvm/ '"i,

u:sed 10 hold water and provide thc ll('cessary t raction for t he spliced/ knotted bast fibres which are drawn through the handle under t"mion, in the procUI of being spun into yarn. They are reron:led from Early Bronze II horizon. in Crete, Middle Kingdom Egypt. and Late llronu and tron Age horizons in the Southern L.t>vant and contcmpo~ry Jap~n. ~ The earliest of all. however, are rfforded from two Chalcollthk site. in th" Southern Levant; Neve Ur and Bir es·Safadi, (fig. u) both reported in 1M: $arne article."

There are no ..... preSl'ntat ions of the horizontal ground loom in the southern levant but one ... "" found in 8adari, an [gyptian lite (fig. 2.5). The Aadarian culture dates mainly 10 the second half

,. ~.rbtr ' ~1 , 70_75 .

.. P.""""..t 1967. ZZJ. pl. 41: 9. 10.

2. The fme'!lenc, of th, Ghas.sulian hxtil, Industry in the Southem L.v~nt

of the 5th mi llennium and thus is contemporary with the Ghassulian." Archaeological evidence. from both the Badarian and the Ghailulian sitel attests to a tranlitional process from the use of skins to text iles."

A bowl recovered from a female grave depicts a hor izontal ground loom with all iti componentl" and what appears to be the presence of a weft fringe as found on the wrapping sheet and kilt from the Cave of the Warrior (discussed below). Two figures stand to one side of the loom. at each end of a horiwntal line over which are looped pendant. paraJlel lines of ~qual length: apparently double weft lengths ready for weaving as recorded from the Cave of the Warrior and in Early and Middle Kingdom Egypt ."

Several pieces of wood. some smooth. SOme processed and oth~rs with friction marks excavaled from the Chalcolithic layer of Nahal Mishmar (fig. 2.6) Cave were recomtructed as a horizontal ground loom. based primarily on local Bedouin analogiel." The reconstruction il probl. matic. There are incongruities. textual and graphic. within the publication. between the published artefacts and the artefacts held at the IAA facility in Jerusalem. and technical problems with the loom reconstruction and the ancillary weaving equipment. Despite the problematic nature of the material and its reconstruction. il i, possible. as Ihe excavalor suggests.lhal the two major pieces with deep wide notches a few (entimetre, before each end (I and 2 in Fig. 2.6). the point where the lash ing' of th~ loom were attached. were indeed breast and cloth beams." However. not from the same loom but from two dist inct looms.

To conclude. the inhabitan ts of some of the Ghassulian sites were spinning flaxen fibres into linen yarn using fibre wetting bowls. primarily in the dropped spinning technique using spindlel with discoid sherd whorls. The yarn . continuous and double weft lengths . was woven into textiles on horizontal ground looms using heddle technology.

"""'"W As stated earlier. mOlt Chalcolithic textiles are from the Judean desert and the Dead S-ea basin caye sit" {fig. 2.7) ." I n addition. two fragment' were reported from Teleilat Ghassul" . The assemblage is characterized by homogeneity of raw materials and techniques of production. The linen. neither dyed (apart from 42m of black weft yam and 63m of black warp yarn in the wrapping sheel of the Cav~ of the Warrior" ) nor bleached. ranges in colour from white and pale yellow to dark brown undoubtedly primari ly influenced by the micro· ~nvironments of preservalion loci. but also by the initial relting conditions." Decorative clements are rare. although one is recorded at the Cave of the Treasure." and three in caVel VI/4 6 and VIl I/9 in the northern Judean desert ."

" Ko<hl<r ,mo. u bl.l.l " BNnt<.>n m d C.ton·TOOmpwn 192~. 16. ll7; l OVY 1006. 1,6. " Brunton and Caton .n",mp",n 192~. pI. XLV ltt/70k. .. Barb., 19"11. 81 note l . 1,1, la nd; and H.1I 1979. 143. .. B .. ·Adon " >IiI.11)_ 1 ~2 . ill. · .... .. Bar·Ad"" 1930.119. " Aharoni 1%1. II. pl. ). A. B. C. I); Bol, Adon 1m:>; CinOOn "oJ. 1900 . ll9-lJ4; s<hH 1993. S<hid lool. l lJ-21". ~ C"""'foot 1 94~. 14(1: C)"(I~'fOO\ 1%4. 4n: .... . Ilon ' ~11 . l%. ~ Schick 1993, 9-12 .

.. CinOO.-f" 01. 19W. 229. " IhJ. " S<hi<k ~oo,. ,J l- ll'.

fi9ur< 2./i Compononl> of a hor;"mwi groona loom(,) and ,,",,<S5Orits {rom Nahal Mishm"r (from lkIr-Aaon19llO,

ill."). (>1m",), of I'" I""t! Exploration witty.

rhe textiles a ..... woven in plain weave, in which the warp count is greater than the weft (warp facedl, or in which the warp and weft are equal in both systems {balanced weave)." The yarn count. threads p"r Cm (tpc) can be divided into three categories. low - 8, 8. 9 ' 9. 10' 11. 12' 7. medium - H. 12, 16 , 13,18. 14 and high - 28. 18 tpc. Selvedges are predominantly simple, sometimes with supplementary warps sewn along the outermost warp thre~ds Or with grou!"'d outer warps or outer warps sl igh t ly thkker than those of the body of the texti les." Most of the sewing structures. hems or seams are crudely sewn in two, three and four ply threads and on one occas ion with double thread." However. no sewing needles have ever ken recove ..... d from any Cl1alcolithic site.

The textiles of the Cave of the Warrior near Jericho (Fig. 2.1) constitute an exception to the

" [ indorf" al. 1900, 119; s<hH 1<;98, ll L ~ Cindorl ,( a1. 19W. ZJO; s<h;, k 1 ~~, Z11 . ~ B .. -Adon 19W. HI, 11. 31. 36: C;ndorf "aL 19W.112

2. The Emergence of the Ghrusulian rextil, Industry in the X>!uhrm Lt'Wm

Fig"'" 2.7. Tex!ile from Nahal Mi, /wt<lr (from Bar·Adon J!I8Q. ill. :J1). COIIrt"}" 0{ th. Iva<! [>pi","!i"" Soc;'!y.

fragmentary and predom i nantly plain weave of the earliest fabrics. Six textiles were uncovered at the cave. Three of them (Textiles A. B, and C) are associated with a primary burial (''The Warrior"·J, of t he stratigraphic phase B which is radiometrically dated to c. 3,800 cal. BC. An additional three textile, (D, E, atld f) were associated with a Phase C burial of a child. radiometrical ly dated to (". 4,300-4.250 cal B.C." Although an Early Bronze Age was favoured for the "Warrior·· burial." it is worth noting that t he tu t iles of the child burial that are centuries earlier are very ~ i milar to the "W.rrior" fabrics.

rhe m.jor text ile (fig. 2.S) - Textile A - is " wrapping sheet (shroud) . Its sile, 7 ' 2m. is unp recedented in thi~ time bracket in western Asia and the Nile Valley." The wrapping sheet and the two addit ional t ext iles as~ociated with the buri.l, the kilt (B) and the sash (e). are

~ B."had . nd Sluked l'i9~ . i-~;J"1l <"tol. 1'i9~ . .. Sch ick ".1. 19M. 111 ~ Schick 1998. Ill.

by jand Levy and l:;aac Cile~d

d

, , l

o

''9U'' n . Th. Cal'< of the Warrior wropping '"«! ({rom 5<""'. J998, fig -J.o). Count')' ofrht /,,0,1 Antiquirit s Authority.

morphological ly intact with ends and selvedges and in contrast to other desert sites their stratigraphic context hal not been disturbed by later ocCllpation."

Textile A ra nges in colour from off-white to d~rl:: brown. The major detenninants for the colour variations appear to be the ochre. which WJ5 sprinkled Over the body or cloth, and the effect of the decomposing body. Technologically, the body of the textile is as other Chakolithic period textiles; warp faced in plain weave with a middle range thread count. i s ' 20- 11 ' U Ipc of predominant ly s2$ spun yarn."

At the extreme ends of the textile are decorative band" two at each end, executed in black, weft thread~ in basket weave, half basket wNve and triple threads in one shed over paired warps, Th~ black weft thread$ were dyed after plying with an un identified sub$tance." The end$ of the text ile te rminate in twisted, plied and knotted warp fringes c. 1Scm long."

The three outermost warp thr~ ad, of one selvedge, al ~o dyed black, have been woven a, a 'ingle unit to create a decorative, reinforced ,elvedge." A narrow black warp stripe, six warp threads wide flanked by 11 outermost non-dyed warp threads forms the second selvedge, although thi ' i, not a conventional selvedge. The doth was not woven from continuous yarn but yarn two weft picks long. After every two weft picks, the two protruding weft threads were wound around the four outer warp threads and tied in a quasi buttonhole stitch to form a weft fringe IOcm in length."

The se<:o~d textile, a wrap-around kilt. measuring 104m· O.9m was ~ standard item of male att ire with pictorial representations from Egypt and Me~opotamia ." It i~ also a plain weave, warp faced text ile woven from ~zs ~pun linen yarn, morphologically simi lar to the wrapping sheet, with a decorative band in dyed black yarn at each end, a weft fringe and a twisted and knotted warp fringe at one end."

~ Schick '''' . ' . 1. 1l . .. s<nkk '<;9S . I-So " Kor<n , .... 105. ~ Schick 1995. 10_". pI. ).1.

" s<hick 199a, f1g. 1.22. ~ s.:h ick 19')" n fig. 3.l6. ~ Schick 1998. 21. .. s.:hid 1998. IS. flg> 1.1~. 1.J6

2. Th~ Emergence of the Gh<lSsulian Textil, Industry in the South€m Levant

The third text ile, a sash c, 2m ' O.2m, a customary element of Egyptian male dres~ worn by all social levc/" i, attested from the old Kingdom (3000 BCE) onwards." The width varie, from 16- 25cm and the yarn (ount from 13.13- 21 ' 16 tpe. The inability to preserve uniform width indkate~ lack of ~k ilL The sash woven from s2S Ipun li nen yarn i, a natural kige colour wilh simple selvedges and decorative bands, two at each end of ,ountered, weft twining terminating in warp fringes."

Textil e D. the largest of the three textiles. r",overed from the earliest phase of the Cave of the Warrior measures C. lAm' O.07m with paired outer warp threads at the ~el vedges. It i, woven in plain weave from S2S linen yarn with a medium range thread count of c. 19' 15 t]X." The textile is similar technologically. Material, spin, weave and selvedge type is si mi lar to a textile r",overed from the Cave of the Treasure."

The Textile Economy in Context It is our intention to discus, klow the way in which the textile production was incorporated into the socio·economic system of the Ghassulian culture. Textiles of the size similar to the shroud of the Cave of the Warrior, albeit in coarse wool, were ,till produced until 30 years ago amongst the peasantry of the Hebron hil l ~ by kin groups. primarily for wedding needs." The production proce~s appears complex. but when reduced to units of produ(!ion, its simplicity is revealed (see appendix for a detai led arithmetic break down of all stages of production and person power).

Splicing. the first stage in processing of ancient linen yarn . entail~ moistening and gluing end-to-end two or three fibres. preferably with saliva which int~racts with the pectin resulting in a strong bond. and subsequently pressing the join down on a smooth hard ,urfaa. The joined fibres are given an initial twist on the thigh and the resultant rove wound into skeins or balls for spinning." Splicing is depicted in Middle Kingdom Egyptian tomb sceneS in text ile workshops, as one of the several stages in the intensive conveyer belt style of product ion, carried out by young girl\." We propo\c that splicing wa, a sedentary, daylight, all SeaSOn activity su itable for older women, skilled in fibre craft. but no longer physically capable of herding or agrkulturallabour. Alternat ively. it could have been a summer act ivity for all the fema le members of a household during the agricultural off-season. This fits the simpler nature of the Chalcolithic economy compared with the complex Egyptian economy of the Middle Kingdom. Rates of product io n are calculated for this reconstruction as those of dro pped sp inning, since the inserted twist is minimal (not as in thigh spun yarn) with most of the twist inserted during spinning.

We stated ea rlier that Chakolithic yarn~ were spun and plied (,2S) in the dropped spinning technique, the predominant technique of the period." Ethnographic rates for spinning nax in this technique are not ava ilable. However. an average Peruvian spinner, spinning since childhood. spinning wool wit hout a distaff and using a spindle without a hook, 'pins 62m per hour and plies

" Vogel-,ang w t ... ood 19\13, M .

.. S<hi<k 19\18. 15-11. fi g> l.'~. l .'9. l .5 1.

.. S<h i<k 19-98. 11_15. fi g> B1.1.16 ~ Bar-Adon 198<). 16Z. pl. 15.4, {[ndorf "01. 19&1. Zl9.

" Vog. 119S9. S5; weir ' 970. pis 10. 11. " B.m., 19-9 1 .• 6 .... 8 " Do'ie. l~ll. pI. XXXVII . " S<hick 2002 . 238: Scni.d 19-98, 20.

by Janet uvy and Isaac Gilead

95m per hour. ~ Th~ advantage, of dropped spinning vi,;; y;s ,edentary supported spinning are mobility and duality, It is an automatic ,kill that can be carried out together wi th any non-manual act ivity and does not impinge on the primary ta,k. It is the prime example of fema le multi-tas~ing in all periods and is particularly smooth ly integrated into year-round herding,"

The Cave of the Warrior wrapp ing sheet measu res 7 '2m with 3500 warp threads and 8,400 weft picks. The extrapolated yam length is 41 .300m." Thus the total t ime ~xpended in the mJnufacture of the yarn for the textile. splicing. spinning and plying calculated according to the above mentioned rates of production, is 248 single per,ondays (,ee appendix). However, herding with simultaneous spinning and plying is generally carried out by two Or three young females of an extended family."

Schick propose, that the textile was woven on a wide horizontal ground loom as still used in the Hebron heights." A loom is a piece of household equipment of an extended family used as 'equired and passed from generation to generation. lthnographic analogies from the mid 20th century from Yemen to Norway, attest to the nature of th is household craft." The two metres width of the Cave of the Warrior wrapping ,heet, determined the minimal size of the horizontal ground loom that was probably used ,

The loom, stretched out to the full length until it s completion of the projected text ile, i, sct up by the wcavers using heavy mallet , and rocks." Warping begins at one side of one end with a weaver sitting behind each beam. Floth in Cisjordan and Transjordan a child runs back and forth between two weavers with the ball of yarn ." 24.5 ~ms in the case of the wrapping sheet (see appendix). Weav ing on a horizontal ground loom is always conducted during the summer by both local peasants and Bedouin and the pastoral nomads of central Asia." An average healthy ad ult walks 4.3 km per hour." One may assume that a healthy child walks the same distance in twice the number of hours. Taking into conside ration local summer temperatures. lack of shade and a child's stamina, three days were allotted for warping.

The leashes of equal length. attached in succession to each alternate warp thread, and the h....ddle rod are manufactured of mult ipl~ ply string to withstand the friction and tension during weaving. In thi' reconstruction th~y arc calculated as made specifically for the project but in traditional economic' they arc unknotted after use, kept and reused." tach leash. 30cm long. wil l be considered to be offour ply yarn. Thus the time expended in leash yarn production calculated according to the aforementioned criteria is t~n single person days. Preparing the leashes involves measuring, cutting and tying a double knot at the ""d. The t ime expended in the ir preparation i~ five ~ingl~ person days , Th~ time ~xpt"nded in attaching the leashes to the alternate warp threads with a slip knot and slipping on two loop, at the other end to the heddle rod calcula ted

" Bird l%!!. H. ~ Ilocho.rg 1917, 50-1 1. unnumo.I<"d fLgs. ~ S<hid 199~.~- 1J , ~ P<rson.1 oo><, ... ,lion> ~ s<hid. 1996, lO, pI. l . ll , ~ Goil.;n ,.".]; Iloffm. n , ...... W nole" " crowfool 191 1. 26, " crowfoot 191>, 10, "(. ,,ington.Sm ith \0]$. ,; 11.",.y ] ..... , 07 ~ Hard, and Nichol., 1995, 1.0/4, ~ ~offm."" ]%<.'1.<3.

2, Th, Eme'genu of the Gh<l5sulian Textile InJ"stry in the Southem Levant

(based on our own tim~d experimentation - J. L.) is ten single !",r.an days (see appendix). Stage, on~ and two of heddle produ~ti o n are the type of tasks that are ~arri~d out simultaneously by a number of per.ans whereas the final stage, with the need for accura~y, ,.,-as probably ~arricd out by a single person as attested by contemporary pra~tkes."

We propose that the wrapping cloth WaS woven by two skilled weavers and three unskilled children. The role of the children was simply to pass the ba ll of weft yarn from one to anothe r through the sheds. The weavers ,at on either side of the loom receiving and transferring the weft yarn. ensuring there was no loss of text ile width and knotting the weft fringe. As the weav ing progressed. the children could no longer aCCeSS the yam from the rear and sat on the woven textile . Analogou, practia, ar.. documented with the manufacture of textiles from the Hebron hill, and with the manufactur~ of reed and palm matting from Egypt and Penia." The t ime to weave the bodyofthe textile (minu, weft fringes, warp fringes and decorative bands) is based on the calculation that it takes seven spinners to supply the need, of one weaver." The weft fringe. 4100 double weft, knotted in a quasi-buttonhole stitch around four outer warps was produced at the Same time as the weaving of the body of the textile." The time allotted for its production is based on our own timed ~xperimentation - J. L. (,ee appendix). Thus the body of the text ile with it, weft fringe could have been easi ly woven by two ski lled women and three unskilled children in 28 days working ,ix hours a day,

At each end of the texti le are two de<:o rative bands. 35 and 37 pick rows wide, in basket weave and halfbasket weave and plain weave in black dyed yam." We suggest that the bands ..... ere inserted manually by two kinswomen working simultaneously. The figures for the rate of product ion are based on our own experiments with interlacing - ]. L. (see appendix), Th us five day. are allotted for the production of these bands , The textile terminated at both ends in a warp fringe of 180 twisted. plied and knotted tassel" We propose that the tassels were a].a worked simultaneously by two kinswomen and to those we all ot two days. All stages of splicing. preparation of heddle leashe, and wcaving are based on a six hour working day assuming the women had to tend to other daily chores. e.g. grinding grain, collcct ing firewood, cooking and baby minding, Warping is based on a four-hour working day since it i, small children who eXp"nd most of the energy in thi' activity. To reiterate, weaving i, conducted in the open without shade and late summer temperatures in the region run as high as 42·C." Spinning and plying are calculated on an eight­hour working day. Although the same temperature, prevai l in both Situations, sheep and goats and shepherds/shepherd~"es tend to rest in the shade during the heat of the day."

In sum, we propose that spinning and plying were carried out .imultancou,ly and incessantly, then a~ now. with herding. the primary task. As wch spinning and plyingof unlimited quantit ies of yarn would not have impingedor brought into disequ ilibria the agricultural-animal husbandry cycles of the extended households, I n the southern Levant . weaving with a horizontal ground loom is a summer activity, The manner in which the loom is pegged out until the t~xtile is completed

~ Hil:!en W10, 14o-14 L H Crowfoot 19)), pI. 6; Weir 1970 pl. 10; Wulff 1966, 220,

~ !laroer ' '''' ' . 87. ~ Sc~ ick 1'>98, 12 , ~ Sch i" 1993, 9- tO. " II«r She .. OcloOer 1010. " pe1"l¢l1.1 ob"rva!ion'.

by Janel Levy and Isaac Gilead

fi9"" 1.9. Worn," \woving on 0 9roond loom in lilt Soulll,m IItbron lIills. Oo:,oo.r 1'186. villa!!" ""Jil;""al ""","i"9 (trom xhi<:k 199!I. pI. 3.12). Coo.-usy of Tal v"!J'l.

demands assured dry weather. The Chalcolithic subsistence agriculture was based primarily on wheat, barley and pulses." In such an economy agricultural activity ceases after harvesting the wheat and lentils at the end of May-June and resumes after the advent of the winter rains. Thus, weaving could have been carried out during the agric ultural off-season when labour was not required and as such smooth ly integrated into the existi ng economic regime.

Although this reconstruction is theoretical, it is supported by local ethnographic analogies. A photograph taken forty years ago in a hamlet in the Judean heights shows a textile of similar dimensions to the one from the Cave of the Warrior woven by three women on a horimntal ground loom.~ An almost identical photograph. taken in the same area ten years later, shows th~ same tool and the same mode of wcav ing (rig. 2.9 ). No one would suggest it was other than an in itiative of a household. The above reconst ruct ion is both compatible with the human resource, and organisat ional abi lit ies of an extended fami ly in an agricultural community in the Chalcolithic period. The production of large texti les would not have caused any major disruption in a household mbsi5tence economy. On the cont rary. it ..... ould have been grafte<l onto an exist ing structure which

~ Gil"d "B~. '"0. ~ W~ir 1910. 17. pI. s.

2. Tht' Emtrgt'rIU of tM Ghas.iulian Trxtllt InJU$tl)' In thr 500.rh€m uvant " itself was geared to textile production fordomcsticoonsumptlon. In r",t . _cakulate that it was po»Sible for an extended family to manufacture yam and wea~ with ease two such t('Xtiln per annum. ThLl$. il Is nO! only po»Sible but aoo proNble that textiles such as those found in or the Ca~oflhe Warrior were the product of small'lClIle enl~p~neurial activity wilhin an ntended family of one of the s.ettlemenls of the region with access to raw materials.

In the light of our reconstruclion we express reservat ions regarding the proposal of levy r t dl. for the presence of an attached lext ile workshop al the purported sanctuary at Gila!." They Infer the pres.ence of such a workshop from the presence of a number of awls and a comparatively large whorl assemblage ." However, neither do awls, which are primarily associated with leather craft and basketry," nor does the high freqllency of whorls at Gl lat (N _163) indicate the presence of a s.anctuary workshop. since whorls alS<) occur in almost ident ical number; at Bir es ·Safadi (N _l6II, for example, but In household contexts.

'Two enigmatic concave mud basins'located in the middle of the .. nctuary were proposed as retting basins (Of" the flax us.ed in Gilat li~n prodlJ(:tion." To ret Is the Old [nglish causative verb to rot. Retting is a stinking, bacteriological process deflned by lIalnes a. odious and by Carrington­Smith as nauseating.M Without unduly belabouring the point, the middle of the sanctuary is not a suitable locus of operation.

In sum, the domestic mode of production rejected by the eKCavatOr; and analy~ts,'" would appear to be an appropriate context in which te~tile production was conducted at Gilat, Bi r n ­Safadi and other Chakolithic sites.

Cond u, ions

Duri ng the first half of the 1St millennium AD, the Jordan and B~it Shean valleys were f~mous fo r their linen. It Is probable that flax waS cult ivated in the same area duri ng the Chakolithic period too. rlbre wetting bowls are encountered at the northern end of the Jordan valley and in the Belr Sheva valley. Frequently. raw materials and the associate t«hnology travel in tandem, A north-south uis of diss.eminat ion of innovative technology and movemen t of associate raw material via the Judean Desert is rea.o;'lIIable. and the large assemblage of whorl5 from Teleilat Ghassullocated at the$OuthemmostendoftheJordan valley is worth noting. ThUS,one may posit that flax was both grown aoo unde......,nt primary processing In the Jordan valley and ani~ In the Beer Sheva valley sitn as processed fib..., ...,ady for spinning.

Whorls are encountered in domestic contexts in concentrations no larger than the domestic mode of production. The~ is no material evidence for either specialized workshops producing textiln for exchange or the hieran:hy to support the system. It would ap~ar that the textile prodlJ(:tion of the Chalcolithic period, even the manufacture of large textiles, was an Integral component of the household economy, as confirmed by local ethnographic observations, adjusted to the rhythm of a mixed farming economy.

~ 1.0,),,,.12000.1'06,7)5. ~ e",_ 2006. (,%, 1.c'1 "at "', 111 .. Campa". 1919. S'. ~ I.e')'''..!. 2006. 1lS, - 11010 ..... 1919, n : Carrln:gt ... ~!h !915. 11. '" In)' If'" lOO6. 120.

by janel Levy and Isaac Gilead

Admowltdg..men ts We wish to extend out thanks to Hamoudi Khalai ly who drew our attention to the unpublished spindle whorl a$$emblagcs from Bir es-Safadi and Abu Matar. We al$o wi~h to expr~" our gratitude to the staff of the CRr] for thcir hospitality. Further more, we wish to thank the IAA staff at Bdt She mesh and at Jerusalem, particularly Galit Litani, who facilitaled access to the spindle whorl assem blages and pertinent organic artefacts recovered from the Judean desert.

We wish to thank Tamar Schick who was gencrous with her time ond shared difficult to obtain publications. In addition we thank beth Catherine Commenge and Tal Vogel for the permission to use images from the ir publications_ Thanks are also due to Alter Foge l who photographed a ,election of Bir es-Safadi whorls.

Special thanks are extended to, Roi Levy. Tal Ro~enman, Davida Degen, Karni Golan and Milena Go~ic for help and encouragement. We also wish to express our thanks to Elizabeth Barber, Catherine Breniquet and Irene Good with whom we corresponded and who helped bring various a~pects of thi~ re~earch into focus.

This re,earch waS funded by the Israel Science foundation, grant No 395/05.

Ap pendix P<.-.c<1-pow<r inv<stm(n< ill tht pnxluction <>f I". (<IV< <>f In. Warrior wrappi,,!! W<f; fo<>m proasstd fib" to finWtM. proa.'l

Notes , 5<. toxt , B.1..J on)".oo w:arp ,h".d," 1m , l1loO . It. rn.t. worp th".d" O.lm ' 'ply , 1.100 ' ~ (ply yor") , Spun yarn divid<d by 1 (r.tio of 'pin""" to "",av~r<) • [>cubl. wfft thr .. d< , 18<) u,,,,I, in e>c~ """P fring<

• .. •••

warping roqui~ . Crow of thrtt I"'opl. we.ving roqui,., . crew of flv< l"'o~l. knotting the wdt fringe i, done by one p<rwn .lon~ whil. tho oth..- four m.mb"" of the crew , it idle .w. iting il> complclion

2. Jhoo EmtrgellCt 0( tht Gh.usu!ian TaJi!r Induslry in tht Sourllnn /.evant " Bibliography ..... cdlm". G. 2001. Nt ... Radiocarbon Dilln for 1M K...d Mal from 1M CI'. of II>< T~ ... "",. RoJiorItrWn 4)~.

1247- 1254. Ah. ",nl. V. \961. T.xpWition II. 1s"",1 rxpfomloonJournal ll. 11 - 2". Alon . C. 1950. Th. J"'" in tlltl' I..>od In riot Tolmud", A9" (70-640 C[ i.]CN lllcm. ~.Ine,. P.l9!9. Lit><n, lIat>l 5pinniOjj "tid 1<1'0""9. london . B.ar-Adon. P. 1980. TIw C"", of ,lot f .. "",,,. ~N!l.lem. B.arber. E. 1 !ltl. "",h",.,.;.; Tatik>. Princeton. 1Iarbor. E. 1m. -.. .. I'.\:Jot Titt n..., 20,000 Vtw>, N.,.., Yorlt. B.arshad. D and ShaUd. L 1'l'J8. The DiKovfry of the c= and it, Uavation. In T. Schid: (rd.) TIlt c.,... of lilt

Wanior: )-l.Jen-.iem. Bln!.J. 1%11. H.ndspo>n Yam Prodl>Cl1on Rain In II>< Cu.oo ~" '" "*N. Tnri" N""" .. jazmall:3. 9-1'. Brunton. C. Ind Caton· Thompoon. C. 1921. TIlt &.Joridn ("mli:t",."., 8 ritl,h School of Artha~ In tgypl .nd

...... ""cd Quorit<h. london. C.mpan •• D. 19M. No,uli"n and """",Nto/irni<' Tool>. BA R lnte,n.fion.I 5e,ie. ,.94. Oxford. Carrington-S mith. J. 1975. 5pi"" i"9. w,o","~ "n" TUlil. Monuroau" in Pr.ntsl",i, G,ltct. Un publl.hed PhD

Oi ... rt.tkm. Hobart : Un;,""' ily o(Tum. nl •. Clndorf. T_ Ilorowitz. S. rnd 81 um. R. 19&1. Talile Re"",i", from the CI,-," of N . ... I Mi ,hm.,. I" P. &a"Adon

Tht c ..... oflltt frNw". Jerus.dem. 229-2li. Com ..... nge.C .. ~.y. T. Mon. D. and Kanu. r.. 2006. cilar. Figurinr<: E>cp!oring the _ialand Symbolic DhmtUions

of R."...,..nlatlon. 1ft T. lLYy (~.) A~. Anrhrop%gy ond c..Jr. London. 1lHJO. C""' ..... ~·hllerin, C. 1'190- 1.<1 _ dt ~i (~<>II IV ... iIlioI" """'" I'm duIrio:rt .... Pan ... Crow/OOI. C. 1911. /IItt/oah "'IIoRd Sp/It~I"!II~ q,p. oswI tIa. Sud"". B&nkt'ltld M .......... New •• Ilillilax.. Crow/OOI C. 1954. Texliln. Ilolhll')' and Mau. In C. 51ng .. and L Holmy_cd (~.) A Ifut"", rfl.rnJWJlogy Vol. I.

O.ford. 4 1)-4~~ D .. i ... N. 19lJ. n .. TIlt!.," T""'bo. [gyp! Dlplor,tion Fund . london Den,p"y, J. 1975. F;!>no Crop<. Cain<"l ile . r ia. f , 3dln. D. _nd No,d<n,l:iiild. L 191&. Obo, Z~i" n utld 5pi""," bti.u" Indio",,,, Slld.",mh .. , Giit.borg G.mn""!. Y. 1m. Tht r .... wh" .... J.ru .. lem. Gilead. I. 19". Tho Chokolilhic ,,*rkld In lhe !.evon!.}oIl""" ",World Prt/Iistory 2.~ . 197-417. Gilead. t 2009. Tho N...,lithic-1:hokolthic T",..si(ion in lhe Soutt...m ~va ... : La!e Sinh ·Fifth Milknnium (ullu",1

Hisl<>l')lln J. Skeo and D. L.id><rman (odolT...,..;l ..... in 1'ndI~. Oxford. 11S-1~S. Gilead. I~ MarWr. O~ Kholally. H .. Tabian, P. A~i. Y. and v-...... I. Y. 2004, The lItil !:WI Chalcolathlc flinl

worbhop in e..er Sht-va: • P~lImlnary R.port.jazmoJ '" 1M _I ,,",hilt"'" 50dny "H. n~_2U (,oiloin. So 1955. Portrail of a V ....... nlt. We_",' vill.!".jrw>"oh.lori<>l S1.did XVII. 1.3-26. Crigson. C. 2006 TI>< ..... orked !lone from tM Ch.koJilhic Site of Gil.t: Interim Report. I. T.lLYy (rd.) Art~.

A.,h~ aftd Cuil. london. 685--702. l1"n • • c. Ind Nichola. T. 1988. ri ... ·S<l .. 5<.M",ds "" Landsc-"p" Art" i,,,,,",,; Dt>i9" and C"",,'ru,,"" llor .. New

Yor k. Harvey. J. 19%. Tmil, .. of " n,,,,1 AAA london. Hilden. J. 2010. Stdouin Wr."tIg of Saudi A",,",, .nJ itt N.Y."""'" London. Ilochix"" B. 19n.lIo~ San" Crul. llolTJII.l1n. M. 19M. TIlt W4rj>-W,.op.lttll.«wll. 0.10. luU. A. Donohu •• D. urmi. I. and Segal. D. 1998. Radiocarbon dal1ns of rind.. 1ft T. Sdtkt (cd.) TIlt C""" rf ,lot

WJmo..~ru"""'-1Io-I12. K.i$UIi. M. 1918. Y.manJdorh-~ Nt £coooomi< Study. _ York. Koehler. E. 2010. I'nhi.lory. In A. !Joy<! (od.) A C<>rnp<l""'" 10 ArIritnl rgyp!. Vol. 1. Maidtn. MA. 2S_i7. Koren. Z. 1998. Co lo, II"..ly.i, of Ih. Tatl~. In T. Schick (od.) 1h. C ..... <J( 1M 1\'",.,.;",-. J.ru<awm . 100-106-la ndi . S. I nd It. ll. ~ 1 979. Th~ Di$<""''1 . nd Con,orv.t ion of an Ancie nt Egypti,n Tun i<. Sfu"", in CO<\lrn'Olion

24 . 14 1 _1~1.

by J~ne! Levy ~nd )S<ldC Gilead

Le.y.). 1006, The '''!coWh" Tm!l. {n"",'ry in ,h. So.< ,n,m L,,,,,n': TooI~ T«hnol"'lY onJ Prod"ct~ Unpub li.hed M,\. The . i. , Stn-Gurion University of tl>< Neg'v, Il<or Shev.

l.ry. T. 1006, Archaeology. Anthropology and Cult, l xp loring Re ligion in formativ. Middle Kange Socirlie •. In T. levy (ed.] Arcll .... "'!Y. ~n'hropol"'!Y and C"lt , L<>ndon, 3- 33.

l.vy. T. Connor. W. Rowa". Y. and '\'Ion . D, 2006. TI>< lnt .ru ification of production at Gilat: T~xtil~ Production. In T. l.ry (eJ,) Mclta<oIogy, ~ntnropology ond 'uit. London. 705- 738

Ma lion, '\'. 1~33. I.e. fouille, de l'in,titut B ibli~ue Pontifical dan, I. vaU. duJourd.; n, BiNi<'" U, 29< -J.O I. Moo,"y. r. 1988, Th. Ch'kolit hiC lIo.reI from N.h..1 Mi,hm"" 1<r •• 1 in (onr.xt. Wmd ~rr"atology 10/l. 171-

tS9. P~rrot, J. 1967. Neve Ur. nou~1 asp'<t du Ghi,wulien , )",,,1 [xpl:vatio" ,Ioornoi 1 H . 101- 2)1. Renf",w. J. 1973. Pai,,,,,,h...,w.ony, Nev. York. Roux, Y. 200J , ,\. Dynamic System. fromework for Studying T<'Chnologkal Change: Applicat ion to the Emergen"

ofthe Potter', w hee l in tn. Southern levant , )"",,,,,1 of Ard ... oI",i<ul Meth<>d ond Thwry 10/1 . 1-:lO. Ro",.n, Y. and Go lden, J. 1(l()'1. The Chi lcoli thit Period of the Southern Leva ,,!: ,\. Synthetic Rev;e w. }ott",,,1 of

World I'r<hi<'ory 22, J- 92. :X:hicl. T. 1998. Th, Cal'< of ,h. "'-a.-nOr: A ro.mh Miil,,"i"m 8",iol in ,il< )ud,an D<5<rf. Je rusale m, :x:hi, •• T. 1002. TI.. Early S", ketry . nd Textile, in t he Northe , n Jude.n De .. rt. ~'i"", .1 ,1 . 223 - 239, Vogel, T, 19~9. Vil l. ge Woaving in the 5outh<rn Hebron lIill,. ,\.rill 75, 7~-87. YogeiMng-EMtwood, G. 1993 PIIo"",n", E~p'i:m Clothi"9, t,., iden , W.indling, L 1947 , Long Vtgtlot-l. nN", Now Yor\:. Weir. S, 1970. Spinni"9 and W,o,'i"" in PoI«tin,. L<>"don, Weir. $ , 1976. TIt, B<d"" in.l.ondon. Whe.le r, M. 1982. ,\.ppendix F. Loomwe ight> md Spindl. whorl>. In K. Ke nyon (eJ,) m<rnltbm otJ<ri<ho Vol. IV.

t"",don. 611_637. Wulff, II , 1%6, Tht Tltldi'iQmd Croft, of Pmia. C.mbridge . M.",