the challenges facing speech-impaired students in classroom interaction in tanzania: a...
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ST AUGUSTINE UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
THE CHALLENGES FACING SPEECH-IMPAIRED STUDENTS IN
CLASSROOM INTERACTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN SENGEREMA
DISTRICT: A PSYCHOLINGUISTIC STUDY
MKAMA, Ildephonce
A dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Education in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the award of Master degree of Arts in Linguistics
October, 2013
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CERTIFICATION
I, the undersigned, certify that I have read and hereby recommend for acceptance by the St.
Augustine University of Tanzania, a dissertation entitled “A Psycholinguistic Assessment of the
Challenges Facing Speech-Impaired Students in Classroom Interaction in Secondary Schools –
Sengerema District”, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Master degree of
Arts in Linguistics by the St. Augustine University of Tanzania.
Name……………………………………… Signature…………………..
Date……………………………………….
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DECLARATION
I, Mkama Ildephonce, hereby declare that this dissertation is my own original work and that it
has not been presented and will not be presented to any Higher Education Institution for the
award of a Master’s degree or any other relevant award.
Signature....................................................................... Date................................. ......
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©COPYRIGHT
This dissertation is copyright material protected under the Berne Convention, the Copyright Act
1999 and other international and national enactments, in that behalf, on intellectual property. It
may not be reproduced by any means, in full or part, except for short extracts in fair dealings, for
research or private study, critical scholarly review or discourse with an acknowledgement,
without the written permission of the Directorate of Postgraduate Studies, on behalf of both the
author and the St. Augustine University of Tanzania.
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DEDICATION
To my parents Constantine Kazana and Rosalia Ibrahim, my wife Magreth Kusipa, my beloved
son Vianney Willy and to all speech-impaired students in Tanzania.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work would not have been successfully completed without the moral and material
assistance from various individuals. Since it is not possible to mention them all by their names, I
would like to convey my gratitude and thanks to some of them. I would like to express my
gratitude to the Almighty GOD for his love and kindness, protection and guidance onto me
throughout and for keeping me healthy and alive to date. This dissertation would have not been
possible without countless hours of discussion and sound commitment of my supervisor, Dr.
Amaka Ideh Edith of St. Augustine University of Tanzania for devoting her precious time to
guide me from the initial stage of proposal writing to research completion. I am really grateful
for her generous assistance, guidance, encouragement, advice and criticism. Her diligent
guidance and input throughout the study enriched and created the foundation of this dissertation.
I very much appreciate her contribution.
I would like to appreciate the RAS-Mwanza Region and DAS-Sengerema for allowing me to
conduct this study in their administrative regions. Without their support, this work would have
ended nowhere. With them, I thank my distinguished respondents for their inner will to give me
answers and assistance whenever I needed. I am sincerely expressing my appreciation to my
lovely parents Constantine Kazana and Rosalia Ibrahim for their heartfelt assistance and
concern to bring me up and care for my studies up to this level; their support is highly
appreciated. The inner appreciation to my wife Magreth Kusipa, distinguished brothers and
sisters, and my coursemates for keeping encouraging me during all the time I was conducting
and writing my research work. I really love them all.
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ABSTRACT
This study was undertaken to determine the challenges facing speech impairment in classroom
interaction. The objectives of the study were designed in such a way that enabled the researcher
to attain the reliable information of the study. The findings of the study discussed in Chapter four
have revealed that, unlike of other countries in the world, Tanzanian Special Needs Education
provision does not recognize speech impairment as the serious problem which may (or may not)
hinder students’ academic performance and thus it should seriously considered. Studies cited in
Chapter two, have shown that the concern of many scholars have put much interest on studying
speech impairment in relation to behavioral disorders and the effect of such disorders in
academic performance. Chapter three covers research methodologies that were used in the study.
In order to collect reliable data, the researcher used interview and observation as the tools for
data collection. The study involved 607 individuals including 13 speech-impaired students.
Collected data were analyzed descriptively. As discussed in Chapters four and five of this study,
students with speech impairment are not considered as clients for Special education needs and
thus are integrated in the normal school mainstreams and do not get any special assistance of
their problems, and there are no any special teachers trained to deal with these students. Chapter
five of this study consists of the conclusion and recommendations of the study. Following the
nature of the study, some of the recommendations are directed to the educational planners and
policy makers to see how speech impairment can be included in special needs education
provision(s) and some recommendations how teachers may have fair dealings to every student in
the classroom, inter alia, to establish the sound learning environment to every student
notwithstanding their differences.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ................................................................................................................ ii
DECLARATION................................................................................................................. iii
©COPYRIGHT ................................................................................................................... iv
DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................... v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................. vi
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................ xiv
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. xv
CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................................... 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Background to the study .............................................................................................. 1
1.3 Statement of the problem ............................................................................................. 4
ix
1.4 Objectives of the study ................................................................................................ 5
1.4.1 The main objective ................................................................................................... 5
1.4.2 Specific objectives.................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Research questions ...................................................................................................... 6
1.6 Significance of the study ............................................................................................. 7
1.7 Scope of the study ....................................................................................................... 7
1.8 Limitations of the study ............................................................................................... 8
1.9 Definition of Key Concepts ......................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................... 9
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................... 9
2.1 Introduction................................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Empirical literature...................................................................................................... 9
2.2.1 Meaning, nature and types of speech disorder ........................................................... 9
2.2.1.1 Stuttering ............................................................................................................. 12
2.2.1.2 Autism ................................................................................................................ 13
2.2.2 Classroom Interaction and Participation ................................................................. 14
x
2.2.3 Classroom management handling strategies ............................................................ 20
2.2.4 Speech Impairment in Tanzania .............................................................................. 21
2.2.5 Speech Impairment in other countries ..................................................................... 23
2.3 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................. 25
2.4 Relation of literature to the study ............................................................................... 27
2.5 Research Gap ............................................................................................................ 27
CHAPTER THREE ..............................................................................................................29
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .........................................................................................29
3.0 Introduction............................................................................................................... 29
3.1 Research approach .................................................................................................... 29
3.2 Research design ........................................................................................................ 29
3.3 Target Population ...................................................................................................... 30
3.3.1 Study area .............................................................................................................. 30
3.4 Sampling ................................................................................................................... 31
3.4.1 Sampling procedures .............................................................................................. 31
3.4.1.1 Purposive sampling ............................................................................................. 31
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3.4.1.2 Representativeness of Key Informants ................................................................. 32
3.5 Research methods ..................................................................................................... 32
3.5.1 Participant observation ........................................................................................... 33
3.5.2 Semi-structured interviews ..................................................................................... 33
3.5.3 Documentary review .............................................................................................. 34
3.5.4 Piloting .................................................................................................................. 34
3.7 Data recording and analysis ....................................................................................... 35
3.8 Ethical consideration ................................................................................................. 35
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................37
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS .......................................................................37
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 37
4.2 Data Presentation and Analysis ................................................................................. 37
4.2.1 Data from documentary reviews ............................................................................. 37
4.2.1.1 Subject syllabi ..................................................................................................... 38
4.2.1.2 Schemes of work ................................................................................................. 39
4.2.1.3 Lesson plans ........................................................................................................ 40
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4.2.2 Data from semi-structured interviews ..................................................................... 40
4.2.2.1 Speech-impaired students’ interaction in learning ................................................ 41
4.2.2.2 Teachers’ strategies to facilitate speech-impaired students in classroom .............. 44
4.2.2.3 Speech-impaired students’ motivation for interaction in classroom learning ........ 47
4.2.2.4 Speech-impaired students’ challenges in classroom interaction ............................ 49
4.2.2.5 Availability and the role of speech-impairment specialist teachers ....................... 51
4.2.2.6 Improvement of speech-impaired students’ classroom interaction ........................ 52
4.2.3 Data from observation ............................................................................................ 54
4.2.3.1 Speech-impaired students’ motivation for classroom interaction in ...................... 55
4.2.3.2 Teachers’ influence on speech-impaired students’ learning .................................. 56
4.2.3.3 Reactions of classmates to speech-impaired students’ .......................................... 56
4.2.3.4 Teachers and students’ relationship during class interaction ................................. 58
4.2.3.5 Teachers’ awareness of speech-impaired students’ needs ..................................... 58
4.2.3.6 The role of teachers in assisting speech-impaired students to cope with learning.. 59
CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................60
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...........................................60
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5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 60
5.2 Summary of the findings ........................................................................................... 60
5.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 64
5.4 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 65
5.4.1 The status of speech impairment in SNE in Tanzania ............................................. 65
5.4.2 Teachers’ learning strategies for speech-impaired students ..................................... 66
5.4.3 Speech-impaired students’ inspiration in classroom interaction .............................. 69
5.4.4 Recommendations for further studies...................................................................... 70
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................72
APPENDIX 1 .........................................................................................................................81
APPENDIX 2 .........................................................................................................................82
APPENDIX 3 .........................................................................................................................83
APPENDIX 4 .........................................................................................................................84
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADHD – Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
ASHA – American Speech-language Hearing Association
DAS – District Administrative Secretary
F1-F4 – Form one to Form four
MoEC – Ministry of Education and Culture
MoEVT – Ministry of Education and Vocational Training
RAS – Regional Administrative Secretary
SCT – Social Cognitive Theory
SIS – Speech-Impaired Students
SNE – Special Needs Education
TSD – Teachers’ Service Department
URT – United Republic of Tanzania
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Categories of SNE-Tanzania………….……………….…………………......……23
Table 2: Categories of SNE-Australia……………………..…………………………….….25
Table 3: Responses on classroom interaction……………………………..……………......43
Table 4: Responses views on teachers ‘strategies………..………………………………....46
Table 5: SIS motivation in the classroom……..…………...….....……………..……..…....49
Table 6: Challenges facing SIS in the classroom ……….…….…………………….……..51
Table 7: Teachers’ views on class learning improvement……….…….…………………..53
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CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
This research determines the challenges facing speech-impaired students in classroom
interaction. As will be discussed later, speech-impaired students in Tanzania are integrated
in normal school mainstreams, which is the disadvantage for their learning. This chapter
covers the background information, the statement of the problem, the research objectives
and questions, the significance of the study, the scope of the study, study limitations and
lastly, the definition of key concepts.
1.2 Background to the study
In Tanzania speech-impaired students have not had a big lobby behind them, because they
are not as conspicuous within the range of disabilities as severely physically disabled or
mentally challenged children. Students with speech impairment face difficulties in self-
expression. They may have e it her t oo fast or too slow speech. This situation affects
them in some ways in the course of interacting with their fellow students in learning
and outside the classroom. I n T a n z a n i a , these speech-impaired students have been
integrated in the same class with normal students and they get equal handling
(disregarding their linguistic challenge) during classroom lessons whatsoever. Special
Needs Education (henceforth SNE) provision in Tanzania overlooks speech-impaired
students as the people who need special handling in learning. According to URT (2000,
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p.11), Special Needs Education in Tanzania refers to education provided to
children with disabilities.
Categories of disabilities provided with educational services include those with visual
impairment, hearing impairment, intellectual impairment physical disability, autism and
the deaf blind (see table 1). Speech impairment is not included nor is it regarded as the
problem that needs attention and special handling during classroom lessons. Speech
impaired students who are integrated in the same classes; need to ask questions, answer
questions and contribute to learning during class lessons. Since they have problems in
speech, it is rather difficult for them to cope maximally with the lesson. Better learning
environment is triggered by establishing the good teacher-student and student-student
relationships in both classroom and out of class settings (Frymark, 2010). It is through these
settings a child is facilitated to learn and eventually achieves better academic performance.
Different teaching-learning methods are employed by teachers in order to enable
students’ better learning. Research has shown that participation in classroom activities is
important in order for effective learning to take place (Gomez, Arai & Lowe, 1995; Tsou,
2005). Active classroom involvement helps students to learn not by just sitting in class
listening to teachers’ talking, but by talking about what they are learning, writing about it,
relating it to past experiences and applying it to their daily lives. By so doing students are
making what they learn as part of themselves (Chickering & Gamson, 1987). When students
can relate to what they are learning, they tend to improve the retention of information
(Bransford, 1979).
In addition, active classroom participation is important in promoting affective learning
(Kember & Gow, 1994; Billson, 1986; Raw & Heyl, 1990). Many reasons have been found
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for encouraging students to participate in classroom interaction. Pedagogical and education
environmental factors like classroom management (Auster & MacRone, 1994; Fassinger,
1995; Howard & Baird, 2000), class size (Constantinople, Corneilius, & Gray, 1988;
Fassinger, 1995; Howard, Short & Clark (1996); Howard, James & Taylor (2002) and
classroom instructor communication variables (Fassinger, 2000; Karp & Yoels, 1976) have
been proven to have influence on students’ classroom participative behaviors.
Teacher-student and student-student relationship in classroom interaction is the
significant factor towards students’ learning. Language problem is one of the many factors
that affect students’ interaction during the classroom lesson and has rarely been linked to
students’ involvement in classroom learning. Several sociolinguistic studies (Zaline et al.,
1997; Rubagumya, 2007 and Tibategeza, 2009) which have been conducted in classroom
interaction have revealed that the language of instruction is the major factor that affects
classroom interaction. They contribute that the language of instruction in Tanzania
secondary schools makes students passive listeners hence the class is owned by the
teacher. Not enough have been established o n language disorders as the problem of
speech impaired students for their classroom interaction.
An active classroom interaction between teacher and students during classroom lesson
counts much on students’ understanding of the subject matter, and interaction among
students enables good relations among them and they may assist each other in the course of
learning hence yielding good academic performance. The equal treatment in terms of
teaching methodologies and classroom management between speech-impaired students and
non speech-impaired students poses a challenge to speech-impaired students on how they
actively interact with normal students in the course of classroom interaction. It is for this
4
situation the study was carried to establish the challenges facing speech-impaired students in
classroom interaction.
1.3 Statement of the problem
Speech-impaired students in Tanzania make a group of special needs students who have
been overlooked in special needs education. The study of students’ speech impairment
has been an interesting area of investigation. Several studies have been conducted in
different areas of speech impairment. Mustapha (2010) studied language aphasia in
Malaysia. His study reveals that there is a big relationship between aphasia and human
behaviors. Aphasics who were studied were found to have behavioral disorders including
impulsiveness and emotional. Marcon et al., (2007) studied the classroom situation where
she discovered that other students often stigmatize behavioral disorder students because
these behavioral disorder students are easily tempered, which is a stigmatizing factor in
front of non-speech-impaired students.
Persistence of stigmatization among students makes these speech-impaired students feel shy
to interact with their fellow students in matters relating to academics hence leading to poor
performance in their examination(s). Speech impaired students despite that they face
difficulties in self-expression; they are not taken as a special case to be considered in
the curriculum in that they are regarded as normal students in the classroom instruction in
Tanzania. They are subjected to equal and the same handling in the academic arena; the
situation which may unnecessarily be a challenge to their interaction in academic activities.
It is the interaction of speech-impaired students with the non speech-impaired students in
the classroom lesson and during the students’ group discussions in Tanzanian secondary
5
schools that influenced the researcher to conduct this study in order to determine the
challenges these speech-impaired students face during classroom interaction.
1.4 Objectives of the study
Kothari (2004, p.02) elaborates that; the purpose of research is to discover answers to
question through application of scientific procedures. He submits that, the major aim of
research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered. Being
guided by the objectives, Kothari identified that, every research has its own purposes and
objectives. This study was therefore influenced by the following objectives:
1.4.1 The main objective
The main objective of this study was to determine the challenges facing students with
speech impairments in classroom interaction.
1.4.2 Specific objectives
i. To find out problems facing students with speech impairment during classroom
interactions and to assess the extent to which these problems affect the learner
to cope with learning.
ii. To find out different strategies used by teachers to assist students with speech
impairment in participating actively in the classroom discussion(s) and to assess
how these strategies are helpful to the learner in learning environment.
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iii. To find out whether schools have specialist(s) t ha t facilitate speech-impaired
students in learning.
iv. To evaluate speech-impaired specialists’ roles in achieving sound learning
environments for these speech-impaired students.
v. To find out how academic documents (syllabi) inspire teachers to prepare their
lessons by regarding speech-impaired students
vi. To establish ways to improve speech-impaired students’ classroom interaction
1.5 Research questions
i. What problems face speech-impaired students’ participation during classroom
interactions and group discussions?
ii. What are different strategies employed by teachers to assist students with fluency
disorders during the classroom discussion(s) and how are these strategies helpful to
speech impaired students?
iii. Are there any specialist-teachers for these speech-impaired students to assist
them cope with learning?
iv. What role speech-impaired specialists play in achieving sound learning to speech-
impaired students?
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v. How do academic documents inspire teachers to prepare their lessons by regarding
speech-impaired students in their classes?
vi. How can classroom interaction be improved to suit both non speech-impaired and
speech-impaired students in learning?
1.6 Significance of the study
Previous studies (Marcon et al., 2007; Mustapha, 2010) on language disorders did not deal
with challenges facing speech-impaired students’ participation in academic activities
during the classroom activities. These studies have contributed much on the knowledge on
relationship between aphasia and behavior disorders. These studies raised the gap in
classroom interaction that has been tried to be filled by this study. Therefore, this study is
of great importance for psycholinguistics research. It is the expectation of the researcher
that this study will be the source of reliable data for linguistic studies in general, particularly
when verifying and supporting psycholinguistic theories about language problems and the
classroom interaction.
1.7 Scope of the study
This study was meant to be conducted only on speech-impaired students and how
they interact with non-speech-impaired students in their daily school life in the
classroom situation. Speech impairment covers language impairment in which a person has
problems in phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. In articulation
impairment a person tends to omit, substitute and distort sound segments of a word; in voice
impairment, a person has problems in pitch, loudness and voice quality and lastly is
8
fluency impairment. This study was focused on fluency impairment in which it studied
students with interrupted speech in relation to their participation in classroom interaction.
1.8 Limitations of the study
Since the study was focused on the relationship between speech impairment and classroom
participation, the major block was the scarcity of speech-impaired students. Again, since the
study was conducted in fixed time, the researcher did not broaden it to involve many
schools in order to meet the deadline, and this caused some of the important things for
analysis to be left out.
1.9 Definition of Key Concepts
Classroom interaction - This refers to an activity of talking to one another and working
together with them. In this study, classroom interaction was used to mean how speech-
impaired students take part in discussions during class lessons.
Challenges – T hese are things that are difficult and which require great effort. To this
study, all problems that affect speech-impaired students in classroom interaction were
regarded as challenges.
Speech Impairment - Speech impairment is the language disability or a typical
development of a sound or group of sounds that result in reduced speech intelligibility in
that person substitutes, distorts, adds, or omits sounds at an age when the sound should be
produced correctly. However, in this study, speech impairment was used to mean fluency
impairment.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Introduction
Classroom interaction has posed the great challenge on the part of the teachers and students
on one part and applied linguists on the other part. There are different factors that have been
put forward as the cause and effect of this interaction. Language ability is seen as the major
stimuli which either hinders or promotes classroom interaction. This section presents the
empirical literature, theoretical literature and the relation of the literature that is relevant to
this study. All these have been discussed in relation to speech-impaired students in the
classroom discussion(s). At the end of the section there is a research gap.
2.2 Empirical literature
2.2.1 Meaning, nature and types of speech disorder
Speech disorders have been discussed differently in relation to their nature and severity.
Speech activities begin in the brain. Infection of some parts of the brain may lead to speech
disorder. Fromkin and Rodman (1993, p. 442) point that language impairment suffered by
aphasic are not due to any general cognitive on intellectual impairments nor are they due to
loss of motor or sensory control of the nerves and muscles of the speech organs or hearing
apparatus. Aphasic can produce sounds and hear sound.
The substitution of morphemes in a word is referred to as jargon aphasia (Fromkin and
Roudman, 1993). They give the example of the morphemes substitution in table to sable,
10
and this may lead to the production of nonsense forms. Owen (2009, p. 387) asserts that
approximately 5% of the total population, including about 10% of the children in
elementary school, has communication disorders of various types and severity. This ranges
from the common /w/ for /r/ articulation substitution as in wun /wΛn/ for run /rΛn/ to the
lack of language use of severely autistic children. In addition to their disorders, affected
individuals must also bear the stigma of differences. According to Love (1981):
Every speech disorders considered minor and easily remediable...are apparently
viewed as stigmatizing by large group of listeners in the general public … Speech,
language and hearing disorders which greatly reduce intelligibility of conversation
and therefore limit the communicative exchange of thoughts and feelings are often
met with outright public rejection and result is obvious social isolation (p. 486).
Usually students with this kind of morpheme substitution are culturally affected in that they
fail to produce some phonemes that are not found in their own dialects. This is much
experienced in the Kurya1 tribe(s) where they substitute /r/ for /l/ and among the Haya
2
where they substitute /ngi/ for /ng/. Students with this kind of problem(s) may get problems
in expressing themselves in front of their fellow students. Owens (2009, p. 387) submits that
traditionally communication disorder has been classified as organic, non-organic or
combined in origin. Organic disorders have some physical origin, such as brain damage or
1 One of the tribes in Mara Region which is related to Zanaki both found in the Mara Region of
Tanzania.
2 The common tribe in the North-West Tanzania and specifically in Kagera Region
11
hearing loss. Non-organic causes include such things as fealty hearing or environmental
deprivation. In actual practice, many communication disorders have both organic and non-
organic origins.
In practical, every form of neurosis or psychosis there is same alteration or disturbance of
speech and language behaviors. From the mildest types of neurosis, in which the patient(s)
may express his anxieties by a slightly abnormal repetitiousness of speech, or by noticeable
hesitations or speech blocks, to severe schizophrenias in which speech is fantastically
garbled in what is often called “word salad” there is the evidence that, these abnormal
mental states can influence both the form and content of speech. On the other hand, all these
behaviors represent extreme forms of phenomenon that occur in normal individual slips of
the tongue, over repetition of certain words and phrases and even garbled speech. They
apparently represent lapses in attention and in the central control of speech processes, as
well as the operation of motivational dynamics. The “word salad” speech of the
schizophrenic can be regarded as the result of three factors (Carroll, 1964, p.73):
The disorganization of syntactic behaviors, that is, an extreme form of the kind of
disorganization that occurs when we make false starts and change the grammatical
construction of a sentence.
Paranoia, the tendency to replace the ordinary names for things that substitute
names-neologisms and other lights personal symbols. It may be a result of fearsome
(anomalous to taboo wards).
12
Alcohol and certain drugs can produce a heightened labiality of verbal association,
this is the freewheeling association.
Basing on the nature and severity of speech disorders, Carroll (1964, p. 72) identifies
several types of speech disorders as follows:
2.2.1.1 Stuttering
It is a disorder of speech that makes its appearance in the small proportion of children
(ranging for 1 to 5%), usually about the age of two to seven years, Bishop (2001, p.45)
defines stuttering as:
A disturbance of rhythm and fluency of speech by an intermittent blocking,
convulsive, repetition or prolongation of sounds, syllables, words, phrases or posture
of speech organs. This is much higher in boys than in girls.
He adds that stuttering may be a result of heredity or environmental anxieties and conflicts.
Psychologists like Ripple, 1965; Bishop, 2010; and Carroll, 1964 argue that, stuttering
arises when circumstances make a young child anxious about his speech, that is, the fearful
that he will not speak well.
Geng (2011) contends the magnitude of effects of stammering ranges with age. At early
ages up to 17 years, a child experiences difficulties and several challenges in social
interactions. The affected child slowly develops phobia to speak in front of the mass which
emanates from shyness. At a school setting, a child usually tends to remain silent in classes
and around the school during non academic activities including games. Geng calls this
13
situation a behavior disorder. Experience shows that, most of *stammerers at early ages (up
to 17 years) perform relatively poorly in academics. This is the result of developed behavior
disorders that affect social interaction.
In Tanzania, a child gets at 17 years when s/he is in form four. It is at this age students with
stammering experience several challenges in social interactions. They have difficulty in
articulation(s) as the result they fail to express themselves fluently. Woolfolk (1987, p. 216)
suggests self-management approach to be the suitable approach that should be taken by the
students with stammering. Students themselves need to set their academic goals, observe
their own work, keep records for their performances and evaluate their own performances.
2.2.1.2 Autism
This is the difficulty in communication, and it includes both speech and gesture. Ripple et
al., (1965, p. 78) contends that often children with autism have a delay in speech and in
severe cases sometimes do not speak at all. They also fail to use gestures to replace words.
Frequently students with autism misuse pronouns and gradually they fail to have
conversation with others. Eventually, students with this problem will develop phobia to
speak before their fellow students. In the course of classroom setting, students with autism
will remain passive in class since they cannot freely participate just as normal students.
When upset or excited, they also harm themselves by skin biting or head banging. They may
also show significant aggression towards other students or inanimate objects or may have
frustrations.
14
Because speech is a learned function, any interference with learning ability may be expected
to cause speech impairment. Ripple et al,. (1965, p. 79) contributes that, the most common
interfering conditions are certain neurosis and psychosis, mental retardation, and brain
damage, whether congenital or acquired. Articulation itself may be impaired by physical
disabilities such as cleft palate, cerebral palsy, or loss of hearing; it may likewise deteriorate
because of paralysis of any part of the articulating mechanism. Impairment may also be the
consequence of unconscious imitation of poor speech models or inadequate perception of
auditory stimuli.
2.2.2 Classroom Interaction and Participation
Studies on classroom participation which focused on teacher behaviors or communication
variables (Fassinger, 2000; Karp & Yoels, 1976) have identified teachers as playing an
important role in shaping classroom interaction. Several of teacher behaviors like verbal and
nonverbal immediacy (Rocca, 2001), self-disclosure (Goldstein & Benassi, 1994), and
calling on students (Dallimore, Hertenstein & Platt, 2006) have also been identified as
having a positive effect on students’ class participation.
Another factor that affects students’ participation in class is grade. Assigning participation
grades has been practiced by many school teachers (Balas, 2000; Fritschner, 2000; Tatar,
2005) in order to stimulate oral participation and motivate reticent students to speak up in
class. Students have the tendency to put in more efforts in participating in class activities
when they are graded (Dallimore, Hertenstein & Platt, 2006). What and how students learn
depend on what they think they are going to be assessed on (Biggs, 1999). When class
participation is a part of evaluation that determines the overall grade for the course, students
15
are more likely to be motivated to participate and engage in their own learning (Dallimore,
Hertenstein & Platt, 2006).
Despite of the importance often assigned to participation in classroom discussions, it has
been repeatedly reported in many studies that most students do not participate (Caspi,
Chajut, Saporta, & Beyth-Marom, 2006; Crombie, et. al., 2003; Gorsky, Caspi, & Trumper,
2004). Crombie, et. al.,(2003) found that 64% of the students never, rarely, or only
occasionally asked or responded to a question in the classroom. Caspi, et. al., (2006)
reported that about 55% of the students never or rarely participated in class. This classroom
phenomenon has been a concern to teachers because “involvement matters” (Weaver & Qi,
2005, p. 76).
Despite the above factors affecting students’ interaction in classroom setting, the effect of
students’ language-impairment is a noted factor directly observed in classroom interaction.
Mustapha (2010) conducted the study in Malaysia on language impairment and behavioral
developments. His study reveals that, there is a good relationship between language
impairment and behavioral disorders. It asserts that students with language impairments
have behavioral disorders, this makes them aggressive, easily tempered, and they suffer
stigmatization from their fellow students. ASHA3 (2003) observes that speech impairment
interferes with human behaviors when such impairment is severe in that a student stutters
more than five words in a minute. However, the normal and mild speech impaired students
have not demonstrated to suffer from behavioral disorders.
3 American Speech/Language-Hearing Association
16
Upon improving classroom interaction and participation, Morcom et al., (2007) asserts that
there is a good relationship between behavioral disorder(s) and the classroom participation.
To her, students with behavioral disorders usually lack interpersonal skills and generally
they cannot co-operate with their fellow students in the classroom activities. Her study
submits that students with behavioral disorders tend to have poor performance in their
academic activities because they are very emotional in such a way that their fellow student
fell to co-operate with these behavioral disorder students.
Frymark (2010) contends that school children (speech-impaired) face difficulty in
interacting with their peer. He adds that creating a classroom that is conducive to learning
begins with the “development of human relationships that are functional and reciprocal”
(Arthur-Kelly et al., 2006, p. 61). A positive teacher attitude is the key to a positive and
productive learning environment and is achievable by enhancing students’ socialization.
Strong teacher-student relationships can make all the difference in the success of a student
and are achievable when the teacher utilizes key elements of socialization such as the
modeling and instruction of prosocial4 behavior, communicating positive expectations,
attributes, and social labels; and reinforcing desired behavior (Brophy, 1996 ). If the teacher
has a positive attitude towards students, and he believes and acts as if all his/her students
will be successful, then students will live up to those expectations. A positive teacher-
student relationship built on trust, understanding and mutual respect, and where
communication is open supports students academically, socially and personally.
4 Voluntary behavior intended to benefit others
17
Classroom communication is a complex process and includes the entire environment, for the
concept of communication involves not only the verbal message, but the non verbal
message as well (Uko, 2006). Arthur-Kelly et al. (2006) claims that advanced organization
of the physical classroom environment is of fundamental importance and will influence the
attitudes, behaviors and expectations of students as the classroom aesthetics are considered
part of the overall development of the classroom ecology. When the environment is
welcoming and enables children to meet their basic needs, students feel safe and supported
and are more able to devote effort to achieving self actualization through learning (Arthur-
Kelly et al., 2006, p. 124). Therefore, in classroom management, teachers’ good
communication skills facilitate problem solving and the resolution of conflicts.
Classroom communication is therefore a fundamental component in promoting positive
behavior and a positive classroom climate for classroom teachers. On the contrary, poor
communication skills can lead to disruptive behaviors that can hinder a teacher’s
management of a classroom, owing to the reason that communication is a two-way process
which involves sending and receiving messages. To assist students in becoming comfortable
in their learning environment, Arthur-Kelly et al (2006) suggests that “clear behavior
standards are necessary” and should be established as soon as possible.
Therefore, the development and implementation of clear organizational routines and
procedures (Arthur-Kelly et al., 2006, p. 142) need to be established so that any anxiety or
confusion that students may be experiencing in regard to behavioral expectations is reduced
and a positive learning environment enhanced as students feel more secure as they are aware
of the behavior that is expected of them individually and as a class. Teachers who maintain
a positive learning environment by establishing and maintaining clear student expectations
18
not only support the developmental needs of their students academically, but also socially
and personally (Portel, 2000). It would be evident that teacher’s behavior has an effect on
student behavior. Although it is not expected that all teachers have identical personalities,
several investigations of the effective dimensions of teachers’ behavior have yielded
guideline for fostering productive student behavior and mental health.
There is evidence from studies done in classroom setting to support the notion that students
react positively to teachers’ behaviors. Reed (1962) found that a teacher so characterized
has a favorable influence on students’ interest in studies. In the correlation study, Ryans
(1961, pg. 87) noted a strong positive relationship in elementary school classrooms between
observer’s assessment of productive student behavior (alertness, participation, confidence,
responsibility) and identified patterns of teachers behavior. In order for productive learning
to go on, teachers must maintain a sense of order and decorum in the classroom. The way
the teacher manages a student’s in classroom settings is another form of teacher behavior
having affective consequences.
Ripple (1965, pg. 179) points out that the goal of education should be geared to promote
effective and efficient students’ learning. It should be at developing all human abilities and
nourishing appropriately wholesome effective characteristics. Factors influencing students
learning are numerous and diverse. To arrive at useful conceptualization of classroom
learning it is necessary to classify these variables into manageable categories.
Gallagher (1964) has proposed a model of productive thinking as a function of motivational,
personality, and cognitive factors operating in different environmental situations. He sees a
large number of different patterns of intellect, motivation, personality and environment
19
leading to productive thinking. It is suggested, for example that, an individual operating
under high motivation might overcome the effects of an inadequate environment.
More closely related to classroom participation, Klausmeier (1961) has presented a
conception of factors affecting teaching-learning processes in any behavioral5 setting for
learning. Six main factors are identified:
i. Learner characteristics
ii. Teachers characteristics
iii. Learner and teacher behaviors
iv. Group characteristics
v. Physical characteristics of the behavior setting
vi. Outside forces
These general formulations suggest the complex interrelationships of many factors and
classes of variables affecting classroom interaction and learning. For the interest of this
study, these formulations call attention to the important influence of affective factors. As
used here, affective factors are those referring to personal-social-emotional behaviors of
5 Klausmier uses it to imply verbalizing, doing and feeling the entire range of cognitive,
psychomotor and effective activities engaged in by teachers.
20
teachers and speech-impaired students and to the feeling tone of the learning environment
generated by their interactions.
2.2.3 Classroom management handling strategies
The way the teacher manages students’ behaviors in classroom setting is another form of
teachers’ behavior having affective consequences. A series of studies of classroom
management by Kounin and Gump (1961a, 1961b) is revealing in this regard. It was found
that the teachers’ techniques of handling a misbehaving kindergarten child had different
degrees of socializing success on other children in the classroom. Control techniques high in
clarity (defining the misbehavior and specifying how to stop) were most successful. Control
techniques high in firmness (standing closer to the child and looking at him until he stopped
misbehaving) were successful only for audience children who were misbehaving at a time.
Control techniques high in roughness (showing anger and physical handling) were least
successful and tended to be followed by behavior disruptions, decreased involvement in
school works and overt anxiety. Flanders (1978, pg. 67) investigated how learning and
achievement are influenced by the nature and quality of teacher-pupil interaction. Students
experienced two different learning situations. Social-emotional differences between the two
situations were created by the role of the teacher. In one situation teacher behavior
supported the teacher first, the problem second and the student third.
As noted above, it is very important for a teacher to know his/her class in order to establish
a good environment for each student to learn comfortably. Geng (2011) points out that
ADHD students have difficulties in handling their studies due to their associated behavioral
21
disorders. Although these students have behavioral disorder, teachers have the big role to
them in handling their studies. Geng (ibid, p. 19) points out that although teachers have a
strong influence on students, both behaviorally and educationally, it is very important to
ensure that they are aware of how to talk to ADHD students to prevent any negative
outcomes, given that ADHD students have been found to be prone to academic failure,
negative social behavior and impaired relationships with peers.
Witt and Martens (1983) found that the main component influencing intervention
acceptability ratings is the perception of whether the intervention is to be helpful for a child
and suitable for the mainstream classroom settings (Sherman et al, 2008). In fact, more
traditional forms of behavior management, such as negative behavioral sanctions and
extensive verbal instructions have been found to be ineffective in managing ADHD
students’ behavior (Du Paul & Weygandt, 2006), and some strategies have been found to be
condescending and cause students to resent teachers and schools (Prosser, 2008). The
establishment of good and positive relationships with students will encourage greater
responsibility for behavior and learning. It is therefore essential for both pre-service and
practicing teachers to understand productive and appropriate ways of talking to ADHD
students. Developing behavior management strategies that are appropriate and adapted to
suit individual students’ needs is also necessary in order to create a positive learning
environment for all members of a class.
2.2.4 Speech Impairment in Tanzania
This section gives the general view of Special Needs Education in Tanzania (henceforth
SNE) with regard to speech impairment. It provides the Special needs categories with
22
school specifications in Tanzania. As defined by URT6( 2000 p. 11) SNE in Tanzania refers
to education provided to children with disabilities. Categories of disabilities provided with
educational services include those with visual impairment, hearing impairment, intellectual
impairment physical disability, autism and the deaf blind. Children with disabilities in
Tanzania are provided with educational services at various levels ranging from primary
through secondary to higher learning institutions. The government report7 (2000) identifies
that, there are 161 schools (primary-secondary) dealing with the special needs students and
hereunder are categorized depending on the impairment specification.
Table 1: Categories of special needs and the respective number of schools
Type of Impairment Number of Schools
Visual Impairment 25
Hearing Impairment 18
Intellectual Impairment 89
Physical disability 4
6 URT (2000) World Data on Education, 6
th edition
7 URT (2000) Education in a global era: Challenges to Equity, Opportunity for Diversity-CCEM 14
Halifax Nova Scotia
23
Deaf Blind 1
Autism 2
Resource Centers for Visually Impaired 22
Total 161
Adopted and modified from URT report (2000).
The above table identifies that, speech impairment is not included in the SNE provision in
Tanzania, thus, speech impaired students are intergated in the normal curriculum of
Tanzanian Education system.
2.2.5 Speech Impairment in other countries
UNESCO (2007) identifies that SNE policy differs from one country to the other. It submits
that, it is relatively difficult to identify the special educational needs and therefore some of
the impairments, for example speech impairments are overlooked. UNESCO (2007) puts
that;
In Australia for example, the SNE policy identifies language disorder as one of the
contents of special education. The anti-discrimination Act of 1991 and Disabilities
Act of 1992 require all students despite their abnormalities to be given education
equally. Primary and secondary special educational needs are governed by
legislation. The Education (General Provisions) Act 1989 provides the basic
24
legislative framework (Queensland) which regulates education for all students of
compulsory school age. It places emphasis on the provision of programs of
instruction that have regard for the age, ability, aptitude and development of all
students, and does not discriminate between people who are able and people with
disabilities so far as compulsory education is concerned. Other relevant legislation is
contained in the Anti-discrimination Acts of 1991 and 1992 and the Disability
Services Act 1992.
Categories of special educational needs are not defined in legislation. A student with
a disability is defined in the Education (General Provisions) Act as ‘a person who
has not attained the age of eighteen and who, in the opinion of the minister, is
unlikely to attain those levels of development of which he is capable unless he
receives special education’. Consider the following categories of SNE as stipulated
in Australian Education Provision.
Table 2: Categories of Special Education Needs in Australia
*i ii iii iv v vi vii
Day special schools x x x x x
Special classes in regular schools x x x x
Resource rooms x x x x x x x
25
Support teaching in regular classes x x x x x x x
Adopted and modified from UNESCO (1995) Review of SNE
* (i) Emotional and behavioral disturbance, (ii) mental retardation/severe learning
difficulties, (iii) physical/motor disabilities, (iv) visual impairment, (v) hearing impairment,
(vi) language disorder, (vii) learning disabilities.
From table 2 above, it is clearly shown that language disorder is identified in the Special
Education Needs policy of Australia and it is obvious that SIS are given special cases during
teaching and learning. As identified above, Tanzania Education Provision does not regard
language disorder as a problem which needs special attention during classroom instruction.
The Tanzanian categories of Special Educational Needs as stipulated in Table 1 above, does
not identify language disorder as a learning problem. This may be the main factor which
causes teachers to be less aware of students with speech impairments in class and as a result,
the SIS do not get the good learning environment and the consequence of it is poor
academic performance (Mustapha, 2010).
2.3 Theoretical Framework
This study is motivated by Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (henceforth SCT) since it
enables teachers to develop the personal characteristics, behavioral patterns, and classroom
environment that promote self-regulated learning.
26
Teachers and parents know well that children learn from not only direct instruction and
performance, but also from their vicarious experiences, peer interaction, and even the
media. Social cognitive learning theory is based on the fact that learning is a social event
that occurs under a variety of circumstances, and results in a variety of outcomes. SCT is
based on the idea that learning and the subsequent performance of certain behaviors are the
result of the ongoing and reciprocal interaction between a person, the environment, and the
already learned behavioral patterns of the individual and group (Bandura 1986). Each
student, therefore, responds to instruction and modeling through the lens of these three
elements.
Students bring to any learning situation a unique set of mental constructs, a fluctuating
emotional state of being, and most importantly, a personal sense of self-efficacy, or feeling
of capability and likelihood to succeed. These factors then interact with the habitual
behavioral patterns of the individual, such as procrastination or organization, and the
environmental factors, such as the nature of the task, the social and physical environment,
the modeling and reinforcement received by the individual.
Because learning is inherently a social event, teachers can easily manipulate the classroom
environment to promote the positive aspects of socialization and use them more proactively
toward student learning. For example, teachers can set the classroom up as a learning
community, incorporate cooperative learning activities regularly, reinforce model behaviors
by students, provide differentiated tasks, and support students as they recognize and
acknowledge their own self-efficacy.
27
Rather than fighting the natural social tendencies of children, teachers who apply Bandura's
SCT to their classrooms will develop a group of students who are self-motivated and see
themselves as agents of their own learning. Children who become self-regulated learners in
the process will be successful as students and as adults because they will have mastered the
personal skills and necessary strategies for controlling their own behaviors, interests, and
future.
2.4 Relation of literature to the study
Several literatures surveyed in 2.2.1, 2.2.2 and 2.2.3 have provided good basic information
on speech-impairment and its challenges in classroom interaction. However, among them,
the most influential literatures include Mustapha (2010), Marcom et al., (2007), Frymark
(2010), Brophy (1996), Arthur-Kelly et al (2006) and Geng (2011). These studies directly
relate to the study in that, they all present speech impairment in relation to the students’
academic effects. The researcher found them potential literatures because they built a strong
foundation about speech impairment upon his study.
2.5 Research Gap
Different studies have been done in the field of languages each basing on various areas of
interest. Each of these studies has treated language as problem. Mustapha (2010) studied
language aphasia in Malaysia. His focus has been the relationship between language aphasia
and behavioral disorders. The further study of Morcon (2007) links the behavioral disorders
and classroom interaction. Carroll (1964), Owen (2009), Love (1981), Woolfolk (1987)
studied language as the problem of communication. They contribute that, any language
problem contribute to communication problems. Woolfolk (1978) shows the link between
28
language problems and behaviors. Frymark (2010) studded the interaction of preschool
children in classroom situation with the role of the teacher in such an intervention. Despite
that different studies have been done in the field of psycholinguistics, much has not been
done to the relationship between speech impairment and classroom interaction, which
comes to be the gap intended to be filled by this study.
29
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter provides the basic information on the methods that were used in getting and
analyzing data. This chapter contains research approach, design, population, sample and
sampling techniques, data collection methods, data recording and analysis.
3.1 Research approach
This study was carried to determine the challenges facing speech-impaired students in the
classroom interaction. The researcher used qualitative approach where he wanted to
understand the holistic picture of speech-impaired students in classroom interactions in
Tanzanian secondary schools.
3.2 Research design
This is the way the research was organized. Kothari (2004, pp. 31-32) defines a research
design as an arrangement of traditions for data collection and analysis of data in a manner
that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with the economy procedure. This
paper applied case study design where speech-impaired students were the focus of the study.
A case study design is the framework that intends to study the holistic picture of a single
bounded case. It refers to the in-depth examination of a single example of a class of
phenomenon (Seale, 2004, pg.420). Therefore, the case study allows an investigation to
retain holistic and meaningful characteristics of realized events such as communication and
30
interaction behaviors of students in classroom setting. Under this aspect, the case study
helped the researcher in assessing several challenges speech-impaired students face in their
classroom interaction.
3.3 Target Population
The study explored information about the interaction of speech-impaired students in
classroom interaction. The population involved in the study included speech impaired
students; teachers and non-speech impaired students all from secondary schools who make
the total of 607 individuals comprising of 583 students (see appendix 4), 13 speech-
impaired students (see appendix 4 and 11 teachers (Including 3 Headmasters). It is to this
population the researcher intended to conduct the study because each of the groups plays
part in classroom interaction.
3.3.1 Study area
The study was conducted in the Sengerema8 district in the Mwanza
9 region of Tanzania,
where some secondary schools were involved in the sample. The study area was selected
because it is the researcher’s workstation, so it made it easy for him in collecting the data.
8 This is one of the seven districts of Mwanza Region-Tanzania with the coordinates, 02
021’S,
032030’E
9 It is one of the regions on Tanzania and is found in the Northern part of Tanzania.
31
3.4 Sampling
This refers to the process of reducing a whole population into a small manageable unit of
variables, which contains all the characteristics of the entire population of study. It is also
defined as the process of obtaining information about an entire population by examining
only part of it.
3.4.1 Sampling procedures
Sampling procedure is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population
(Kothari, 2004, pg. 55). There are two types of sampling procedures, namely, probability
and non-probability sampling. The researcher conducted the non-probability sampling when
selecting students and teachers to be involved in the study. Non-probability sampling means
sampling procedure that does not afford any basis for estimating that each item in the
population has been included in the sample (Kothari, 2004, pp. 60-67). The study used non-
probability sampling in order to get data from subject teachers and speech-impaired
students. The classes were chosen basing upon the presence number of speech-impaired
students enrolled in the classes. The classes had an enrolment of a total of 13 speech-
impaired students. 11 of the participants were males and 2 were females.
3.4.1.1 Purposive sampling
This is the sampling method where by the respondents are selected regarding their ability to
give the needed information. Purposive sampling implies relying on the researcher’s
decision with regard to which elements should be included or excluded in the sample
(Adam, 1989, pg. 138). This technique enabled the study to have relevant information from
32
respondents with special features regarding the demands of the study. For the case of this
study, this method was applied in selecting respective classes and discussion groups which
contain speech-impaired students who were observed in order to know their participation
during classes and in group discussions. Teachers who knew classes containing speech-
impaired students assisted in selecting such classes. The researcher got direct data through
observation. The participants for the interview were carefully selected using maximum
variation sampling. The purpose of using this kind of sampling was to document unique or
diverse variations in order to identify important communication patterns that cut across
variations. Teachers and speech-impaired were identified and purposely involved in a
sample.
3.4.1.2 Representativeness of Key Informants
This is the method of selecting informants who can offer the researcher important
information about the research topic and objectives. The subject teachers, speech-impaired
students and headmasters (see section 3.3) were the key informants in this study. They were
informally interviewed after class lessons and during informal conversations.
3.5 Research methods
These are also called research techniques (Kothari, 2004, p.08). They refer to the methods
the research is to use in performing research operations. The research used the following
research methods; participant observation, semi-structured interviews and documentary
review.
33
3.5.1 Participant observation
This method implies the collection of information by the way of investigator’s own
participation while observing. The researcher attended classes and participated in-group
discussions, which are inclusive in order to assess the participation of speech-impaired
students in academic discussions while sticking on the major issues guiding observation.
The researcher focused on determining challenges facing speech-impaired students in a
course of learning.
In each school, different classes were observed separately and this enabled the researcher to
be efficient in collecting respective data. During the first stage of the study, observations
were carried out: 11 teachers, 583 non speech-impaired students and 13 speech-impaired
students were involved in this study. During the observation period, the researcher used a
classroom seating chart to identify speech-impaired students and to record each student’s
verbal participation. The researcher also took field notes to document all occurrences of
participation behaviors of students in the selected classes.
3.5.2 Semi-structured interviews
The researcher used this method when conducting informal discussions with teachers during
informal conversations. Semi-structured interview(s) were also conducted to speech-
impaired students when the researcher participated in-group discussions (see appendix 2). In
the second stage the researcher conducted semi-structured interviews with the respective
subject masters who teach these speech-impaired students (see appendix 1). Respondents
were asked about their personal experiences in classroom participation regarding speech-
34
impaired students, perceptions regarding classroom interactions, challenges facing them
during classroom interaction and the factors that influence them to participate in class. Each
interview lasted for approximately for 10 minutes.
3.5.3 Documentary review
The method focused on obtaining relevant and reliable academic documents from schools,
which have a link on education provision in Tanzania. In order to be successful in this, the
syllabi were consulted to study lesson provisions, special education provisions were also
consulted as to study the national special educational categories in Tanzania. Schemes of
work and lesson plans were scrutinized in order to determine teachers’ preparation before
lessons with much attention on speech-impaired students’ consideration (see section 4.2.1).
These documents revealed to the researcher some important issues regarding the weakness
of the Tanzanian education system regarding the speech-impaired students in classroom
interaction, and they contributed to the researcher’s recommendations.
3.5.4 Piloting
A pilot study is a preliminary and usually a small-scale research study designed to test
logistics and gather information prior to a large study for improving the main study’s quality
and efficiency. The pilot study was conducted in Mwanza region in Tanzania in May 2012.
Three streams (F2A, F5 and F4A) of one secondary school were identified for this purpose.
Four speech-impaired students and three teachers were involved in testing the research
instruments namely semi-structured interviews and observation. The aim of this pre-testing
was to make sure that, the guiding questions fit the objectives and they provide the valid
35
data, to identify logical problems likely to happen in the proposed methods and to detect
provoking issues that may be raised by the selected methods and questions.
3.7 Data recording and analysis
The researcher jotted down the important information from participant observation
especially during classroom lessons. Other information from informal interviews was taken
on the field notes. All these data from interviews and observations were recorded daily and
they were coded10
and interpreted before being presented. Recurring patterns of
participation exhibited by the students in the classroom activities were identified through
reading and re-reading the data. The final categories were derived from the identification of
similar themes from multiple respondents. The emerging patterns were revealed and they
were basically categories of behavior that reflect speech-impaired students’ perception of
what makes them participate more in class and patterns of their participation.
3.8 Ethical consideration
Ethical consideration is the determination of what is right, appropriate, proper or just and
fair by researchers and their actions should reflect this (Emory & Cooper, 1995). Thus, they
put that, ethics on privacy, confidentiality and fairness are important to all parties associated
with the researcher as they affect the rights of individuals and ultimately the quality of data
obtained. Furthermore, the quality of research results may be threatened if the question of
ethics and ethical behaviors are not addressed. The application of ethical procedures into
10 The researcher assigned numbers to responses regarding their similarity in order to make them easy to
analyze and interpret
36
research activities should be primarily designed to protect the rights of participants from
harmful or adverse consequences.
By considering research ethics, the researcher has highly observed confidentiality of the
data source. No part of this work has a respondent been mentioned by name. To observe
codes and concerts, respondents were notified during data collection and they were given
freedom to ask for clarification, to withdraw from the study and to volunteer to the study.
The researcher maintained trust during data collection, analysis and presentation, that is, the
good relationship between the researcher and respondents and to the researcher’s
responsibility not to spoil the field for others in the sense that potential research subjects
become reluctant to research. The researcher did not ask the names of the respondents as to
make the study impersonal.
37
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on presentation and analysis of the data collected from Tanzanian
secondary schools that were taken as a study sample. To maintain confidentiality of
respondents who would not want to be associated with the information they shared with the
researcher, schools are labeled using symbols. These secondary schools are labeled SX, SY
and SZ. The information presented was collected through observation and semi-structured
interviews after classroom lessons, debates, subject clubs and during discussion groups. In
all these situations, the researcher was interested on assessing challenges facing speech-
impaired students (henceforth SIS) when interacting with the peers during academic
activities.
4.2 Data Presentation and Analysis
The data in this chapter are presented according to research tools that were applied in the
field, namely, documentary reviews, semi-structured interviews and observation. Depending
on their nature, some data are analyzed descriptively and others statistically.
4.2.1 Data from documentary reviews
Through this method, the following official documents were scrutinized: The geography
syllabus for ordinary level (2009) and English syllabus for advanced level (2010), schemes
of work (first term 2012), and lesson plans (June to July 2012). The reason for using syllabi
38
varying in dates is due to their latest versions. The review of these documents was meant to
obtain the information on the consideration of speech-impaired students during classroom
lessons as per objective five.
4.2.1.1 Subject syllabi
A subject syllabus is the layout of what should be covered by both students and teachers
within a particular time of learning. Most syllabi are meant to ensure consistency between
schools thus; teachers should cover what is prescribed in the syllabi. Examinations are
usually set covering what is set in the syllabus. No one criterion was used for the selection
of the syllabi involved in the study. The intention of the researcher was to understand a
general objective of education in Tanzania with focus to the regard of speech-impaired
students in classroom situation. The main objective of secondary education in Tanzania (see
appendix 3) which gives equal provision of education to every individual is stipulated at the
beginning of each syllabus.
It was found that, no part of the selected syllabi gives special attention to any special
education need in the classroom situation especially to students who are integrated in school
mainstreams in Tanzania. Since a syllabus is a sole guide in classroom learning, it guides a
teacher what to teach and what methods to be involved, and since it does not recognize
speech-impaired students as a problem to be considered in classroom situation, the teacher
does not regard speech-impaired students as a special case in learning. The researcher noted
that speech-impaired students’ needs are not given consideration in secondary syllabi
instead priority is much on the transfer of knowledge to students.
39
4.2.1.2 Schemes of work
Nine schemes of work particularly of English language (F1 & F4), Geography (F1), History
(F3 & F2), Civics (F4 & F2), Kiswahili (F3 & F1) were scrutinized. All the schemes of
work selected were for fist term 2012. Selection of lesson schemes of work was done
randomly and researcher’s intention was to explore how teachers put attention to their
students’ needs with a particular attention to speech-impaired students. It was found that all
schemes of work were prepared depending on the demands of the particular subject syllabus
(students’ competence) and the secondary education objectives (see appendix 3)
The researcher found that consideration of speech-impaired students is not given
prominence at all during the preparation of the schemes of work. Thus, speech-impaired
students are forced to interact unequally with other students during classroom. The
researcher finds this to be a problem onto the speech-impaired students to meet the national
educational goals (see appendix 3). The researcher asked follow up questions that meant to
explore whether teachers prepare their lessons by considering students with impairments
(speech impairment being the focus) to teachers. Responses from teachers show that, there
are some classes that contain speech-impaired students who need special attention but
individual students’ needs are not considered in the syllabus. Teachers’ goal is to cover the
syllabus on time and thus schemes of work are prepared to meet that demand. This nature of
response was the same to all teachers in three schools surveyed.
40
4.2.1.3 Lesson plans
These are teachers’ plans on how to go through a particular topic with a given time. Usually
lesson plans are divided into section activities with a specific time of coverage. Eleven
lesson plans from June to July 2012 were studied. These are English (F2A, F4A & B,),
Kiswahili (F1B, F2A & B, and F3B), Civics (F1A & B, F3B) and Geography (F4B). The
purpose was to assess teacher’s considerations for students with special needs in classroom
situation during the prior preparation of the lesson.
The researcher found that, none of the scrutinized lesson plans considers needs of speech-
impaired students in the classroom situation. This observation raised the question as to
whether teachers know the behavioral differences of their students in the classroom. Follow
up questions that meant to explore different considerations prior to preparation of the lesson
were made. Responses from teachers reveal that lesson plans are prepared depending on the
scheme of work and the syllabus. The question of topic coverage forces teachers to stick on
the syllabus and the scheme of work. Speech-impaired students were not considered as the
special issue for teachers’ lesson management.
4.2.2 Data from semi-structured interviews
The researcher conducted semi-structured interviews from 25th
July 2012 to 19th
September
2012 on subject teachers and speech-impaired students. This was done after class lessons at
SX, SY and SZ. The interviews gathered data from respondents regarding the interaction of
speech-impaired students in classroom situation as well as understanding the key role of
41
teachers in handling the diverse class. The questions that were asked focused on the
following themes:
i. Interaction of speech-impaired students in classroom learning, basically on the
factors affecting classroom interaction
ii. Teachers’ strategies in facilitating speech-impaired students to cope with learning
iii. Inspiration of speech-impaired students towards their interaction in learning
iv. Challenges facing speech-impaired students during classroom learning
v. The improvement of learning situation in a diverse class
vi. Availability and the role of speech impairment specialist teachers
4.2.2.1 Speech-impaired students’ interaction in learning
The researcher wanted to assess how active speech-impaired students in classroom situation
are. As to be a biased free study, several questions were asked to teachers (subject teachers)
and speech-impaired students soon after the class session. The questions were designed in
such a way that the researcher could explore the extent to which speech-impaired students
participate in classroom situation. The underlying question was ‘How active are speech-
impaired students during classroom learning?’ Answers from the respondents are
summarized in the tables below:
42
Table 3: Responses from speech-impaired students on their class interaction
Students’ responses
Many speech-impaired students do not participate lively in classroom learning activities
because they are afraid of being laughed at by their classmates when speaking
Few speech-impaired students participate actively in classroom activities and they are
those who take speech-impairment as a challenge in their learning
There is a need for the teacher to make a good arrangement during class lesson, which
will enable all students to participate fully in learning
Teachers’ responses
Not all speech-impaired students are inactive in class. There are some who are very
active in class and they perform better in their studies as compared to other speech-
impaired students
It is better for speech-impaired students themselves to know their weaknesses and set
programs which will make them attain their goals than waiting for the teacher to help
them to cope with learning
Some students’ efficacy comes as an individual effort and behavior
43
Responses in table 3 above suggest three problems surrounding speech-impaired students in
their classroom interaction:
i. There is a negative attitude of non speech-impaired students on speech-impaired
students during classroom interaction.
ii. There is a problem with speech-impaired students themselves, which is behavioral,
and this can be solved by speech-impaired students themselves.
iii. There is a problem with teachers and this is much on efforts to assist speech
impaired students in the class. A teacher still has a role to play in classroom
management.
From the interviews carried out, students perceived classroom participation as the process of
learning that involves taking part in the discussion, asking questions, answering questions
and responding to the teacher; verbally or non-verbally. Half of the students (that is 7
students) interviewed would not take part in whole-class discussions unless asked or
prompted by the teacher. When asked whether they would volunteer to participate in class
discussions, four out of thirteen speech-impaired students responded in the affirmative. That
is, 30.7% of all speech-impaired students would volunteer to participate in class discussions
and 69.3% would not volunteer to participate in class discussion.
Further, it was also found that the older speech-impaired students tended to be more
participative in class. This finding is consistent with previous research (Howard & Baird,
44
2000; Howard & Henney, 1998; Howard et al., 1996). They proved that age was a strong
predictor of class participation where the older students are more likely to participate than
younger ones (Howard & Baird, 2000; Howard & Henney, 1998; Howard et al., 1996).
Generally, the views of teachers in table 3 show that it is good for speech-impaired students
to set objectives and goals that are meant to be met at the end of their course. Two teachers
argued that, students’ efficacy comes as an individual effort and it is not quite that all
speech-impaired students face difficulties in learning. There are some speech-impaired
students who have coped with the situation and they are best students in the class. Again
there are four teachers who admitted that there is a problem especially when a teacher needs
to accomplish what has been planned to be covered, thus it is good for the syllabus to
identify this problem in order to make these teachers aware of it.
4.2.2.2 Teachers’ strategies to facilitate speech-impaired students in classroom
interaction
This section was meant to explore different strategies taken by subject teachers to assist
students with speech impairments during classroom situation. Different questions regarding
the main theme were put to respondents. These questions were asked to teachers and
speech-impaired students. The researcher intended to assess exactly whether teachers
facilitate speech-impaired students to involve actively during classroom learning. Thus, the
basic question was ‘Are there any strategies employed by teachers to assist speech-impaired
students to cope with learning?’ Responses from teachers and speech-impaired students are
summarized in the table 4 below:
45
Table 4: Responses on teachers’ strategies to facilitate speech-impaired students’
classroom interaction
Students’ responses in table 4 show that, there is little assistance of teachers to speech-
impaired students during classroom activities. Some speech-impaired students argued that,
there are some teachers who have negative attitude towards them. However, this is raised by
Students’ responses
Teachers hardly assist speech-impaired students in classroom learning
Some teachers have negative attitude to speech-impaired students therefore
usually they do not select them (speech-impaired) to ask or answer question
during class session
Some teachers sometimes are a reason for the failure of students
Teachers’ responses
It is true that some teachers do not assist these speech-impaired students in class
situation and the reason is that they ignore the students’ differences in class
Some teachers fail to divide the lesson, and if much attention is paid on the
speech-impaired students, there is a problem of not completing the syllabus in
time
46
the situation that, during class sessions some teachers tend to avoid selecting speech-
impaired students to ask questions during classroom learning. Another argument from
speech-impaired was that, following the reasons stated in table 4 above, some teachers
attribute failure to some speech-impaired students. Data indicates that, eleven out of thirteen
speech-impaired students, that is, 91.7% of the speech-impaired students interviewed felt
that their teachers play an important role in encouraging them to participate in class. Views
from teachers in table 4 raise three arguments the researcher noted:
i. There is no any strategy purposely taken by teachers to assist students with speech
impairment in classroom situation despite the fact that teachers know students
behavioral differences in the classroom situation
ii. Teachers do not employ any strategy to assist speech-impaired students because they
fail to divide the lesson.
iii. Completion of the syllabus is given more prominence than students’ understanding
of the subject matter
The following factors were identified by students to have an influential effect on speec-
impaired student classroom participation.
Teacher behaviors
Eight out of thirteen speech-impaired students interviewed mentioned that they participated
more when they liked the teacher teaching them. They explained that when the teacher was
47
enthusiastic, supportive, patience, gave encouraging remarks or praises, and did not scold
them, they felt compelled to voice out their opinions or share ideas in class.
Graded participation
The award of marks motivated the participants to participate more in class. Ten speech-
impaired students stated that they were more likely to be active when they knew that they
were being graded.
Classmates’ attitude
Eleven of thirteen speech-impaired students explained that having supportive classmates
was important for them. When their classmates gave them encouragement, they felt more
relaxed in sharing their ideas.
Generally, teachers agreed that there is a big problem for speech-impaired students
especially when it comes to classroom interaction.
4.2.2.3 Speech-impaired students’ motivation for interaction in classroom learning
The intention of this section was to explore how speech-impaired students are inspired to
learn in the normal classes (school mainstreams). The researcher wanted to assess:
i. The influence of teachers onto speech-impaired students in classroom interaction
ii. The influence of non-speech impaired to students with speech impairment during
classroom interaction
48
Questions that were set to determine how speech-impaired students were motivated to
interact with other classmates in classroom learning were asked of subject teachers and
speech-impaired students. Semi-structured interviews to teachers and speech-impaired
students were conducted separately in order to give freedom to every respondent to express
his/her views pertaining to motivation of speech-impaired students in classroom interaction.
Responses from respondents (teachers and speech-impaired students) are summarized in the
table 5 below:
Table 5: Speech-impaired students’ motivation for classroom interaction
Students’ influence
Some classmates laugh at speech-impaired students when they are
contributing in class. This makes speech-impaired students less motivated to
learn.
Some students encourage speech-impaired students to speak/contribute
something during classes/group discussions
Few speech-impaired students in schools become self-motivated to learn
Some students (SIS) isolate themselves due to behavioral disorder
Teachers’ influence
Teachers do not prohibit classmates from laughing at speech-impaired
49
From the answers in table 5 above, it was identified that teachers and non-speech-impaired
students have a big role in creating good learning environment for speech-impaired students
in classroom interaction. There is a tendency for classmates to laugh when the speech-
impaired student makes the argument. This tendency has a negative effect to the particular
speech-impaired student, and that tendency may make him/her remain passive in the class.
Nine of thirteen speech-impaired students explained that having supportive classmates was
important for them. When their classmates gave them encouragement, they felt more
relaxed in sharing their ideas.
4.2.2.4 Speech-impaired students’ challenges in classroom interaction
The researcher wanted to assess exactly about challenges speech-impaired students face
during classroom learning. Teachers and some speech-impaired students were sorted to
provide responses. Responses from teachers and speech-impaired students for follow up
questions that were meant to explore challenges facing speech-impaired students in
classroom interaction from teachers and students are summarized in the table below:
Table 6: Challenges facing speech-impaired students in classroom interaction
students. This is the negative motivation for these students (SIS)
Some teachers are not concerned with the speech-impaired students’ needs,
thus they (teachers) do not encourage them (SIS) to participate fully in
classroom activities.
50
Students’ responses
Students feel shy to speak before their fellow students because they are afraid of
being laughed at
Some speech-impaired students are getting isolated by their fellow students
because of their behavioral disorder11
Some teachers tend to avoid asking questions to speech-impaired students, and
this leads them (SIS) to feel inferior before their fellow students
Teachers’ responses
Some students have developed phobia to speak in front of their fellow students.
This affects much their interaction with their fellow and their learning in
particular
Lack of academic goals and target is the predominant problem among many
speech-impaired students
Some of speech-impaired students have a tendency of isolating themselves due to
some behavioral disorders. This affects much their collaboration with their fellow
11 These are anti-social behaviors affecting speech-impaired students. These behaviors include aggressiveness,
stigmatization, etc
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and this may affect their learning
It is not easy for a teacher to recognize every student’s needs in the class situation
Responses from table 6 above revealed that speech-impaired students face several
difficulties in classroom interaction. This affects their learning hence their academic
performance is poor. Some speech–impaired students argued that, some of them have
behavioral disorders and this makes other students to isolate them (SIS). Some arguments
revealed that, speech-impaired student feel phobia to speak before their fellow students and
this makes them feel inferior before their peers. The general view of teacher as stipulated in
table 6 above is that some speech-impaired students are a reason for their own fate.
Teachers agreed that, speech-impaired students face difficulties to interact actively in the
class during learning. These difficulties may be directly or indirectly created by themselves
because some of them do not manage their own differences. Teachers submitted that, it is
not possible for a teacher to recognize individual needs for every student.
4.2.2.5 Availability and the role of speech-impairment specialist teachers
Semi-structured interviews were conducted on 7th and 10
th August and 17
th September 2012
to heads of SX, SY and SZ respectively because they are aware of their teachers’ academic
specialization. Questions were designed for heads of schools and they were meant to
explore information on availability of specialist teachers. All three heads of schools agreed
that they have not been receiving speech-impairment specialist teachers in their schools.
Usually teachers are posted to secondary schools regarding the deficit of teachers in specific
52
subject. Responding to follow up questions that needed to know how these speech-impaired
students are handled, one head of school admitted that, speech-impaired students are not
considered much in academic activities. Two heads of schools argued that, the major
function of their teachers is to implement the curriculum. So if curriculum does not direct
how to handle these speech-impaired students (to mean a special program) it is not easy for
teachers to design a program for such cases. The researcher witnessed this during class
observation (see appendix 4)
4.2.2.6 Improvement of speech-impaired students’ classroom interaction
Semi-structured interviews were administered to speech-impaired students and subject
teachers. Interview questions were designed to explore respondents’ views on how learning
could be harmonized to every student to learn comfortably. Underlying question was ‘What
could be done to improve the learning situation to suit every speech-impaired students?’
Responses from respondents are summarized in the tables below:
Table 7: How classroom learning can be improved for speech-impaired student?
Students’ views
Teachers should make efforts to understand differences of every student in the
class setting, this will enable the teacher to manage his/her class better
Schools need to make a special academic program to assist speech-impaired
students in class
53
Speech-impaired students should accept their differences and that will make them
easily cope with others in learning
There is a need to incorporate speech-impairment in SNE provision in Tanzania
and this will assist teachers and curriculum developers to consider speech-impaired
students’ needs
Teachers’ views
Subject teachers should understand the behavioral nature of the speech-impaired
students and that will help the teacher to manage the class in such a way that every
student feels belonging to the class, hence learn comfortably
Speech-impaired students themselves should manage their own learning through
setting objectives to be met and this will enable them involve in learning despite
their behavioral disorders
A general view of students is that speech-impaired students are not considered in terms of
their needs during classroom learning. This makes them face several challenges as pointed
above. From table 7 above, speech-impaired students pointed that, some students have
concern to their fellow speech-impaired students in learning. The problem is with teachers
and curriculum planners who do not consider these speech-impaired students. On the other
54
hand, there is a need for speech-impaired students themselves to understand and accept their
differences and this will help them to manage their goals in learning.
Responses in table 7 reveal that speech-impaired students are not considered as having
special education needs. Experiences from other countries including Kenya show that
speech impairment is incorporated in special education provisions (see table 2) and this
enables teachers to handle these students in a special way that enables such students to
participate fully in learning. Moreover, this is a challenge in Tanzania education system that
is mutual exclusive.
4.2.3 Data from observation
Observations were conducted from 25th
July 2012 to 19th September 2012 by observing on-
going classroom sessions (see appendix 4). Observations were conducted to all three
schools, SX, SY and SZ. Observations were guided by socio-cognitive theory (see section
2.3) where emphasis was put on the following:
i. The motivation of speech-impaired students for their classroom interaction and
learning
ii. The reaction of other students when speech-impaired student make contribution
during classroom learning
iii. The attitude of teachers and non speech-impaired students towards speech-impaired
students
55
iv. How teachers facilitate speech-impaired students to cope with learning.
4.2.3.1 Speech-impaired students’ motivation for classroom interaction in classroom
learning
Different cases regarding speech-impaired students’ motivation in learning show that
sometimes speech-impaired students are potentially good academically and that is revealed
by their effective collaboration in learning.
Case 1
This observation was conducted on 7th August 2012 in Form I B at SY. The researcher
attended the first period (Mathematics) at 8:00-9:20 am. The classes contained 105 students
and were identified two speech-impaired students. During the course of learning, in all the
questions the teacher asked in the class, neither of the two speech-impaired students tried to
either answer or ask questions. Speech-impaired students were passive despite the fact that
teachers did not discourage them during class lesson.
Case 2
This observation was conducted on 10th August 2012 in Form III B at SY at 11:20-12:00 pm
during “Civics” period. The class had 81 students there was identified one speech-impaired
student. The researcher observed that, the identified speech-impaired student was very
active in asking and answering questions. This situation implies that speech-impaired
students can manage themselves in learning and hence, participate fully in class activities.
56
4.2.3.2 Teachers’ influence on speech-impaired students’ learning
Case 3
This observation was conducted in Form I A at SX on 25th
July 2012 during the English
period. The observation was conducted in 80 minutes from 8:00 am – 9:20 am. The class
had 98 students in which there were identified three speech-impaired students. During the
progress of the session, one speech-impaired student raised his arm but the teacher did not
appoint him to say what he had. The researcher noted this as the negative influence of a
teacher for the student academically.
4.2.3.3 Reactions of classmates to speech-impaired students’ classroom contributions
Case 4
This observation was done in Form I A of SX on 25th July 2012 from 8:00 am – 9:20 am. It
was observed that one speech-impaired impaired student had attempted to raise something
in the class during the progress of the session. Consequently some classmates started
laughing quietly while bending to their desks. Following this incidence, the researcher had
to ask follow up questions to non speech-impaired students after the lesson aiming at
exploring ‘why students laughed when the speech-impaired student wanted to talk’.
Response from one non speech-impaired student was ‘He is a good*stammerer’
57
Case 5
This is another case that was observed in Form III A at SX on 27th July 2012 during
Kiswahili period at 11:20 am-12:00 pm. The class contained 90 students: two of whom were
identified as speech-impaired students. One of the two speech-impaired students attempted
to come up with something in the class, upon doing so, some students kept enjoying
(laughing) him and lastly he became angry before the teacher intervened the situation.
Case 6
This was observed in Form IV B at SZ on 19 September 2012 during the English subject
club12
. The researcher conducted a 40 minute observation from 11:20 am-12:00 pm. The
class had 62 pupils of whom 2 are identified as speech-impaired. It was noted that, speech-
impaired students were collaborative. One speech-impaired student was participating very
actively in learning by asking several questions to the presenter despite of the fact that other
students laughed at him.
From observations, it was found that quite a small number of speech-impaired students
accounted for the majority of interactions among students in the classes. More than 50% of
the observed interactions involved (a) instances in which teachers directly called on specific
students to attempt to give their views or answers, (b) cases in which speech-impaired
12 This is the school activity whereby students hold a hot discussion on a particular topic of a subject. Usually
teachers attend in order to assist when students fail to compromise. In Tanzania it is equivalent to University
Seminars.
58
students either kept silence or responded to the comments or questions of other students and
(c) situations in which speech-impaired students give short responses.
4.2.3.4 Teachers and students’ relationship during class interaction
The main target of conducting a study in this theme was to determine the extent to which
teachers interact with their students (SIS) and vice verse, and to study the relationship
between the speech-impaired students and peers. This observation was conducted in all
schools SX, SY and SZ in classes containing speech-impaired students (see appendix 5). At
the first place, the study was meant to determine the teacher – student communication in the
classroom activities, and attention was put to speech-impaired students. In all the cases
above, subject teachers dominated teaching-learning activity. Students were hardly allowed
to interact with the teacher especially in asking and answering questions, raising. Teachers
were the main speakers in teaching-learning activity.
As identified in table 6, some speech-impaired students are getting a problem with social
interaction. This is due to the fact that some of them have behavioral disorders; are short
tempered and shy, which basically make non speech-impaired students get difficulties in
interacting with speech-impaired students.
4.2.3.5 Teachers’ awareness of speech-impaired students’ needs
Teachers need to be aware of their students’ behavioral differences and that will assist them
to set strategies (learning strategies) in order to create a good learning atmosphere to each
student in class. As identified in table 4 and some cases above, teachers are not aware of
their students’ behavioral differences rather they are concerned with teaching the content
59
only. An argument from one teacher at SY revealed that, due to large number of students in
one class (see cases above), it was not possible for a teacher to understand every student’s
needs in the class and that made the teacher to focus more on teaching and less on special
education needs.
4.2.3.6 The role of teachers in assisting speech-impaired students to cope with learning
The researcher conducted several observations in on-going classes in SX, SY and SZ and
asked follow up questions to determine the teachers’ basic roles for speech-impaired
students. In all classes in which the study was conducted it was observed that speech-
impaired students were integrated in regular classes in school mainstreams. It was observed
that:
Normal subject teachers were also responsible for dealing with speech-impaired
students
Not any special assistance was given to speech-impaired students in order to enable
them to learn comfortably
Not any speech impairment specialist teacher was found in all schools despite the
fact that speech-impaired students were integrated in classrooms
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter provides the summary of the findings, overall conclusion and
recommendations of the study on the challenges facing speech-impaired students in
classroom situation in Tanzania. The conclusion is drawn regarding to special needs
education provisions in Tanzania and the recommendations are organized in themes that
fulfill the demands of research objectives and findings.
5.2 Summary of the findings
This study was meant to determine challenges facing speech-impaired students in classroom
interaction in secondary schools Tanzania. The objectives of the study were; 1) to find out
problems facing speech-impaired students in classroom interaction 2) to find out different
strategies adopted by teachers to assist speech-impaired students in learning 3) to find out
the availability and roles of speech-impaired specialist for speech-impaired students
teachers in schools 4) to assess the extent to which speech-impaired students interact in
classroom learning 5) to establish ways to improve learning environment for speech-
impaired students.
In order to get answers to the objectives above, the researcher employed semi-structured
interviews that were administered to speech-impaired students, teachers and some non
speech-impaired students usually after the class session, debates, subject clubs and students
61
group discussions. Answers collected in the field have clearly answered the research
questions (see section 1.5). Findings show that, there is a problem with education
curriculum in Tanzania. Speech-impaired students have been forgotten in Tanzania
education provision. The study shows that students with speech impairments face several
challenges in classroom interactions namely the following:
They are laughed at by their fellow students especially when speech-impaired
students try to participate in class discussions
They are avoided by their fellow students due to their behavioral disorders,
Some teachers do not care for speech-impaired students’ needs during teaching-
learning process
The above problems can fall into major two categories:
i. Teachers’ behavior in the classroom
ii. Classmates attitudes towards speech-impaired students
Through observation, the researcher noted that some teachers dominated the teaching-
learning process, the situation that restricts students (including speech-impaired) to
participate fully in a learning process. It was observed that some speech-impaired students
remain passive in classes. They do not either ask or answer question to teachers in
classroom learning. In all the schools in which the study was conducted it was noted that
speech-impaired students are integrated in normal classes.
Generally, the above challenges can be categorized into major three categories:
62
1. Psychological challenges
Under this category, students slowly develop phobia to interact with their fellow students
during teaching-learning process. As observed in case 4 above, some non speech-impaired
students tend to laugh at speech-impaired students when these speech-impaired students
contribute in a learning process. Development of phobia is dominant in this category.
2. Sociological challenges
These are challenges emanating from social interaction. The study identified that some
speech-impaired students face social stigmatization. As presented above, some speech-
impaired students have behavioral disorders which in some ways make the speech-impaired
students isolated by their classmates.
3. Cognitive challenges
These challenges include passive learning and poor academic performance. This study
identifies that in some cases speech-impaired students learn passively in class. This is due to
the fact that classmates are not collaborative with speech-impaired students in learning.
Despite the fact that these students face several challenges during classroom learning, there
are no speech impairment specialist teachers to assist these speech-impaired students to
cope with learning.
Regarding to the strategies that are employed by teachers to assist these students with
speech impairments, findings show that neither teachers nor students themselves engage in
63
establishing good environments for enabling speech-impaired students to participate
actively in learning. Teachers are devoted to cover what they have intended to cover in a
period. That means, teachers do not bother to study the psychological differences of their
students before attending their classes. This makes speech-impaired students to learn in a
difficult situation and some of them find themselves learning passively. Passive learning
may have an effect on their academic performances.
The silence of Tanzanian special education provision in regarding speech-impairment as the
serious on the part of speech-impaired students implies that:
i. Speech impairment specialist teachers are not prepared for speech-impaired students
ii. No special education provision for speech-impaired students
iii. Speech-impaired students to be integrated in school mainstreams
Experience from other counties shows that, speech impairment is regarded equally as a
special and serious problem that need special handling in classroom situation. In Kenya, for
example, National special Needs Education Policy Framework (2009, pg. 18) identifies
speech and language impairment as one among the special education needs for Kenyan
students. This gives the opportunity to every child to access better and quality education
equally. Having studied the status of speech impairment in Tanzania, the researcher became
motivated to study challenges facing students with speech impairment in secondary schools
– Tanzania.
Social Cognitive Theory of Albert Bandura became a benchmark for theory testing. Bandura
points out that, learning is a social behavior that needs a teacher to manage it as to create a
64
good and health environment for every student to learn. He contends that there is a big
relation between social behavior and cognitive development of a child. Regarding students
with speech impairment, Bandura notes behavioral disorder as a less stimulus for child’s
cognitive development and maturity. He further argues that, a teacher who applies SCT in
classroom setting will influence students to learn by themselves, that is self-efficacy.
Following the qualitative nature of the study, the researcher used a case study design, which
is the in-depth investigation of a several cases of speech-impaired students. The case study
involved various experiences of respondents, and the results have liability to generalizations
to other parts of Tanzanian secondary schools. Data were collected through observations
and semi-structured interviews.
5.3 Conclusion
In the current era, the issue of education is important for every individual despite his/her
abnormality. The definition of SNE in Tanzania is isolative and segregative in that it leaves
behind some of the groups that are not defined (see section 2.2.4). Taking examples from
countries namely Australia, Bulgaria, Botswana, and Austria, the definition of SNE is
mutually inclusive in that it covers the large area of abnormalities (see Table 2). It is
important to note that speech impairment is just as other impairments. Findings show that,
there is hardly any consideration of speech-impaired students in classroom learning and
teachers do not bother to learn their classes before preparing the lesson. It was found that,
no specialist teachers are trained to assist speech-impaired students in the class to cope with
learning. As the consequence, some of the students (speech-impaired students) face
difficulties with them learning creatively they fail (Marcom, 2007).
65
It is rather obvious that students with speech impairment face several problems to cope with
learning. The researcher noted that, some speech-impaired students never give up despite
that they were laughed at (see case 2). It was also observed that teachers do not give any
assistance to SIS. In short, learning environment for SIS in classroom setting is difficult. SIS
are integrated in school mainstreams and they are not easily identified for assistance.
Bandura’s SCT suggests that, learning is the physical activity that needs to be prepared by
the teacher to enable each student to learn comfortably. Some teachers are arrogant to
children/students the situation which inhibits students efficacy. Teacher traits and
classmates attitude were found to be the main factors affecting speech-impaired students
towards their active classroom interaction and participation. It is thus important for teachers
and classmates to establish a friend environment for speech-impaired students and every
student to participate fully in learning.
5.4 Recommendations
Following the researcher’s observations in the field as pertaining to challenges facing
students with speech impairments in classroom interaction, the researcher recommends the
following:
5.4.1 The status of speech impairment in SNE in Tanzania
The definition of SNE should include language impairment (in which speech impairment as
its sub set will have its regard) as to enable students with interrupted speech be treated as a
special case in classroom situation. Examples from other countries (Australia, Austria,
Bulgaria, and Botswana) show that, language impairment is regarded as a special
Educational need, thus SIS get equal treatment as other schools (see table 2).
66
Where necessary, since other special educational need students have special schools as
identifies in table 1, it is equally important to have special schools for SIS. This is to enable
SIS to have self-efficacy in learning. This will make speech-impaired students to study
comfortably and as a result, they will achieve better academic performance.
Students should set their learning objectives that will make them strive to meet such
objectives .This will force them to cope with learning by exposing themselves to interaction
with their fellow (peers).
Teachers should assist in developing these students’ confidence by encouraging them to
speak or contribute something in the class. Since some of the students tend to laugh at these
SIS, teachers have a big role to build behavior of children (Geng, 2011 p.19). Teachers
should stop these students to laugh at the SIS as an attempt to eradicate social-behavioral
diversities.
5.4.2 Teachers’ learning strategies for speech-impaired students
This study found that speech-impaired students do not have a special curriculum guiding
teachers to assist them in learning. It was also noted that, teachers do not have any strategies
set to help SIS handle their learning by coping with their fellow students. It is therefore
recommended that;
Teachers should understand their students in both school and classroom setting. This
involves knowing their behavioral differences and needs. That will help teachers to establish
a sound assistance to students with special needs particularly speech - impaired students.
Rather than fighting the natural social tendencies of children, teachers who apply Bandura's
67
SCT to their classrooms will develop a group of students who are self-motivated and see
themselves as agents of their own learning. Children who become self-regulated learners in
the process of learning will be successful as students and as adults because they will have
mastered the personal skills and necessary strategies for controlling their own behaviors,
interests, and future.
Teachers should be aware of their students’ needs that will help them (teacher) to give
enough assistance to the needy students. Again teachers should plan for how to teach these
special needs students as to make these SIS cope with their learning. Students themselves
should make their own strategies that assist them with learning. Woolfolk (1987, p. 216)
points out that, self-management strategies are good for students themselves to monitor their
learning as to meet their objectives set. Students themselves need to set goals, observe their
own work, keep records for their performances and evaluate their own performances.
Stigmatization among SIS has been noted dominant among the young age than the elders.
The more SIS adapt to it, the more they get used to it.
It is recommended therefore that, teachers should have a big role in assisting these SIS to
cope with learning. Such assistance can be in forms of motivation, encouragement and
several practices to speech impaired students. As noted above, this will make SIS learning
relaxed hence they may have good academic performance.
Most of special needs students need to have specialist teachers to assist them to cope with
learning. According to URT Report (2000), Tanzania has 161 schools of SNE categorically
as identified in Table 1. Moreover, as per UNESCO (1995) since not all special needs
students are involved in SNE School, some of them are integrated in school mainstreams.
68
This needs each school categorically to have a specialist teacher to accord these SNE
students assistance.
It can also be remembered that in Tanzania, speech impairment is not regarded as the
special educational needs, thus no teachers are trained for speech-impaired students. It was
observed that, all schools in which the study was conducted had no any specialist teachers
to assist these SIS as to cope with their learning. This may make speech-impaired students
experience poor performances in their studies (Marcom, 2007). Therefore, the researcher
recommends that;
The Ministry of Education should make arrangements, allocation and re-allocation of
specialist teachers as per demand of needy students at the respective schools. This aims at
upholding the participation of students in academic activities. Even student with speech
impairment needs to have closer handling. Badura’s SCT asserts that, a teacher who takes
learning as the physical activity will usually harmonize the student’s differences. Since there
are SIS in school mainstreams but there are no specialist teachers, regular teachers (non-
specialists) are responsible for such handling of these needy students.
As was observed, despite that teachers know these SIS, there is no any purposive effort done
by these teachers to assist these needy students to cope with their learning. Geng (2011, p.
19) points out that, although teachers have a strong influence on students, both behaviorally
and educationally, it is very important to ensure that they are aware of how to talk to ADHD
students to prevent any negative outcomes, given that ADHD students have been found to
be prone to academic failure, negative social behavior and impaired relationships with
peers. This gives the input that, children, despite their behavioral differences, they need a
69
very closer assistance in their day-to-day learning. And this is a specialist teacher who is
well-trained for special students.
Mustapha (2010) submits that, students with speech impairment will usually suffer
behavioral disorders and the consequences of it; they will isolate themselves from the peers.
This situation will inhibit collaboration among students themselves hence affect their
learning. It is thus suggested that, teachers have a big role in molding the behavior of
children. Being closer to these needy students with help minimize stigmatization among
students hence assist them in their learning.
It was observed that, some teachers do not restrict the classmates reaction when the SIS
attempt to contribute something in the class. The effect of that situation is to make SIS
passive learners. In spite of the fact that teachers have big role to harmonize learning
(Mustapha 2010, Bandura 1986, Geng 2011), some teachers tend to forget their significant
role to students careers. It is thus recommended that, teachers should stick to their
professional conducts and TSD regulations regarding to teachers responsibility to the child,
state, and community, profession and employment.
5.4.3 Speech-impaired students’ inspiration in classroom interaction
In any learning, students’ participation denotes students’ understanding of the subject
matter. Bandura (1986), Geng (2011) and Marcom (2007) point out that, students have
differences in behavioral experiences depending on where they are from. Such differences
are brought to learning situation. As to enable good learning, teachers need to be aware of
students behavioral differences as to enable them learn comfortably. Bandura (1986) asserts
70
that, learning is the physical activity which is affected by several reasons. A good teacher is
he/she who applies Bandura’s SCT in the classroom situation.
Teachers should adopt good participatory methods of learning as to make each student
participate fully in learning, she/he attain efficacy in learning. Arthur-Kelly et al (2006)
claims that advanced organization of the physical classroom environment is of fundamental
importance and will influence the attitude, behaviors and expectations of students as the
classroom aesthetics are considered part of the overall development of the classroom
ecology. When the environment is welcoming and enables children to meet their basic
needs, students feel safe and supported and are more able to devote efforts to achieving self
actualization through learning.
5.4.4 Recommendations for further studies
Much of what has been studied in the field of psycholinguistics is the field of second
language learning and acquisition. Since the field itself deals much with the brain and
language, many linguists have not put in to study it. As pertaining to speech impairment,
several studies have been conducted. As identified in 2.5 above, several scholars (Marcom,
2007; Mustapha, 2010; Geng, 2011; Bishop, 2010) tried to show the relationship between
speech impairment and behavioral disorders, behavioral disorders and academic
performance. This study has shown the challenges facing speech-impaired students in the
classroom situation. However, the researcher recommends next studies to be conducted in
the following fields:
On the relationship between speech impairment and academic performance
71
On the relationship between speech impairment and age
The above fields will need to complement what has already been done in speech
impairments. It is equally important to note that, the study of speech impairment is broad
and it needs more studies to come up with critical issues in the field of psycholinguistics.
72
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APPENDIX 1
INTERVIEW GUIDES FOR TEACHERS
1. How are speech-impaired students inspired to interact with their classmates during
classroom learning?
2. How do you assist speech-impaired students to cope with their lessons
during classroom interaction?
3. In your experience, what do you consider the challenges facing speech-impaired
students during classroom interaction?
4. How can speech-impaired students’ interaction be improved in classroom
situation?
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APPENDIX 2
INTERVIEW GUIDES FOR SPEECH - IMPAIRED STUDENTS
1. How do you address your interaction in classroom learning situation?
2. How do teachers facilitate you to interact with others during classroom learning?
3. How do you feel when you speak before your fellow students in the classroom
and during classroom interaction?
4. What do you consider to be the challenges that hinder your classroom interaction?
5. What should be done to improve your learning in the entire classroom situation?
6. What teacher behaviors do affect your participation in classroom academic
activities?
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APPENDIX 3
OBJECTIVES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN TANZANIA
i. Consolidate and broaden the students’ scope of basic ideas, knowledge,
skills and attitudes acquired and developed at primary education level.
ii. Enhance students’ development and appreciation of national unity, identity and
ethic, personal integrity, respect for human rights, cultural and moral values,
customs, traditions and civic responsibilities and obligations.
iii. Promote students’ linguistic ability and effective use of communication
skills i n Kiswahili and English.
iv. Prepare the students for opportunities for the acquisition of knowledge,
skills, attitudes and understanding in prescribed or selected field of study.
v. Prepare the students for tertiary and higher education, vocational,
technical and professional training.
vi. Inculcate in the students a sense and ability for the self-study, self-
confidence and self-advancement in new frontiers of science and technology,
academic and occupational knowledge and skills.
vii. Prepare students to become responsible members of the society.
Source: URT (1995, pg.6)
84
APPENDIX 4
CLASS OBSERVATIONAL SCHEDULE
DAY DATE CLS TIME SUBJECT NO.
STDN
NO.
SIS
SCHOOL
WEDNESDAY 25th
July 2012 F.1A 0800-
0920
English 98 3 SX
FRIDAY 27th
July2012 F.3A 1120-
1200
Kiswahili 90 2 SX
FRIDAY 3rd
Aug 2012 F.4A 0920-
1040
Geography 65 2 SX
TUESDAY 7th
Aug 2012 F.1B 0800-
0920
Mathematics 105 2 SY
FRIDAY 10th
Aug 2012 F.3B 1120-
1200
Civics 73 1 SY
MONDAY 17th
Sept 2012 F.2B 0800-
0920
English 81 1 SZ
WEDNESDAY 19th
Sept 2012 F.4B 1120-
1200
English
(Club)
62 2 SZ
- 70 -