Along the Royal Road:

From Kol to Phnom Rung,

Ancient Angkorian Settlements Compared

Samnang Kim

Edited by

Frederick B. Goss

Bangkok

Institue of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University

CONTENTS

Foreword v

Preface ix

Introduction 1

Ancient Settlements at Kol 11

Ancient Settlements at Phnom Rung 61

Comparison between Kol and Phnom Rung 109

Summary and Conclusion 141

References 146

The Author 153

Foreword

The Institute of Asian Studies (IAS) is an interdisciplinary academic

research institute within Chulalongkorn University functioning as an inter-

institutional organization, with the aim to promote interdisciplinary studies bearing

on Asian affairs. The Institute’s activities include conducting research, organizing

academic seminars and training, exchanging scholars and publishing books and

journals relating to Asian issues. The Institute also develops audio-visual aids to

promote interest in Asian affairs among the general public.

Along the Royal Road: From Kol to Phnom Rung, Ancient Angkorian

Settlements Compared is derived from a MA thesis that provides interesting

information and analysis on an ancient relation between the Angkorian kingdom and

the northeastern part of Thailand, before the emergence of Ayudhya as a new

political center in mainland Southeast Asia. This publication is a part of the English

publication project of the IAS.

This volume has been supported financially by the “Dr. Wolfgang Wittwer

Memorial Fund” tenable at the IAS. The Fund was jointly established by the IAS

and the Volkswagen Foundation in memory of Dr. Wolfgang Wittwer who headed

the Asian Studies Program of the Volkswagen Foundation and passed away during

his term of duty in the 1980s. This project aims at promoting selected thesis of

young scholars in areas relating to Asia at the international level and meets our

primary mission in creating a better understanding of the Thai perspective on Asian

issues among English readers. The IAS also plans to publish many more interesting

research works of the same category.

We are profoundly grateful to the author and his advisor for their

contribution to this volume. Needless to say, without their cooperation this

vi Foreword

publication would have been impossible. Special thanks is also due to Dr. Wolfgang

Wittwer Memorial Fund for support and contribution to the publication, and Dr.

Khien Theeravit who has put a great deal of effort in establishing this English

publication project.

Sunait Chutintaranond

Director, Institute of Asian Studies

Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok,

September, 2011

Foreword

In selecting Kim Samnang’s MA thesis titled A Comparative Study of

Ancient Settlements at Kol in Cambodia and Phnom Rung in Thailand for

publication, no doubt Chulalongkorn University has made a judicious decision. At

least two main reasons may be stressed here.

The topic itself is a very original and attractive one, dealing with a

comparative study of two sites, both archaeological and still living today. Both are

situated on the axis of the royal road departing from the Angkor capital to the big

area marked by the Phimai temple. One is located close to the capital, compared to

the other which is rather distant but impressive by its position on an important hill.

Although both are Angkorian, are the lay-out patterns of the two sites similar, i.e.,

did the two respective communities share the same model of space organization, or

did a “provincial” one have a distinct view or way of life?

Another merit of this work relates to the appropriate use of modern

technology and tools; for instance, the results of different remote sensing surveys

followed by meticulous checks carried out several times on the ground at the Phnom

Rung area in Thailand, and Kol area in Cambodia.

One must recall that in addition to his own and praiseworthy work,

specially oriented to his dissertation, Kim Samnang previously benefited from the

results of a collective investigation involving different researchers from various Thai

and Cambodian institutions. He himself actively participated in and contributed to

the Khmer-Thai project called “Living Angkor Roads Project”, initiated by Dr. Surat

Lertlum, which is a model of collaboration between countries for the sake of

knowledge.

viii Foreword

I feel honored that Chulalongkorn University has invited me to have a look

on this important work.

Ang Choulean

The Royal University of Fine Arts

Cambodia

Preface

This work is an outgrowth of my research and study for a master’s degree

from Chulalongkorn University. I became interested in this topic as a result of my

work at APSARA National Authority, the government authority overseeing the

management, preservation and conservation of the legacy of the Angkorian Empire.

My interest is in mapping and geography, and this study gave me an opportunity to

combine my interest with research on Angkorian history. In addition, I am hoping

this volume will help highlight and strengthen the close historical relationship

between Cambodia and Thailand.

In the course of my research and study, I received the assistance and advice

from many people, to all of whom I am grateful. First, I would like to express my

gratitude to my professor Dr. Ang Choulean who has been my educator and advisor

on Cambodian history, especially regarding the ‘Civilization of Angkor’, and for

other countries in Southeast Asia since I have been on the staff of APSARA

Authority. I am also indebted to Mr. Im Sokrithy and the Living Angkor Road

Project, and Dr. Surat Lertlum, head of Living Angkor Project for providing me with

a clearer understanding of research archaeologies and ideas for the development of

this research. As well, I wish to thank Dr. Klairung Amratisha, my principal advisor

for my MA thesis and Dr. Surat Lertlum, my thesis co-advisor.

I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr. Sunait Chutintaranond, the

Director of Southeast Asian Studies, and my committee chairman. Moreover, I am

grateful to all the professors and lecturers at Chulalongkorn University who

provided me with great knowledge of Southeast Asian. My heartfelt thanks go to

Mr. Hong Kimcheang and Mr. Meak Chantheng, who encouraged and helped in

Bangkok; Mr. Tosapon Ketwut, who assisted to provide and find the GIS datasets;

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Poomjit Ruangdej, Ajarn Jarunee and Ms. Ny and her relatives in

x Preface

Buriram Province, who facilitated in the collection of data at Phnom Rung; as well

as all the Cambodian students and friends who shared their many ideas and support.

This research and current volume could not have been accomplished

without the financial support of the Rockefeller Foundation and Chulalongkorn

University. In this regard, I would like to thank the Institute for Asian Studies for

selecting my research for publication.

Last, my profound appreciation goes to my wife, Khut Vuthyneath and my

parents-in-law, for all their effort taking care my daughter, and my family for their

encouragement and moral support throughout my time of study.

Samnang Kim

Siem Reap, Cambodia

1

Introduction

The existence of the ruins of Khmer sacred worship monuments and other

archaeological remains, together with a large number of important inscriptions in the

territory to the northwestern part of the former Angkor capital centered near the

great Tonle Sap Great Lake, including the area of present-day Northwest Cambodia

and Northeast Thailand, indicates that numerous significant Khmer monument sites

in this area were spread throughout this region from the 6th or 7th centuries onward

(see Aymonier 1999a; Aymonier 1999b; Lunet de Lajonquière 1902, 1907, 1911;

Coedès 1942, 1951, 1953, 1954; Wolters 1974; H.R.H. Sirindhorn 2004; LARP

2007, 2008). Afterwards, with the emergence of the Angkorian Empire from the 9th

to the 13th centuries AD, the Angkorian kings expanded their territory over almost

the entire mainland Southeast Asia.

As a result of this emergence, many ancient agglomerate areas, small

towns/cities, other satellite provincial towns, public route networks, and small and

large sacred worship temples were established over the huge territory under the

influence of the Angkor imperial power. Two of these areas, Kol, on the outskirts of

the present-day Siem Reap area of Cambodia, and Phnom Rung, in the northeastern

part of present-day Thailand, have been identified as crucial ancient agglomerate

areas along the royal road from Ya odharapura (the Angkor center) to the provincial

town of Vimayapura (Prasat Phimai). One was located close to the Angkor center,

while the other one would be considered as having been in the provincial sphere.

The density of ancient settlements spread over these areas is evidence that

both the Kol and Phnom Rung regions had been occupied since prehistoric times,

and that both of these areas noticeably were developed as large, crowded areas

during the Angkor period. In this aspect, it would appear that Kol and Phnom Rung

were influenced by a similar program of urbanization from the Angkor court. Under

2 Introduction

the same domination of the Angkor court, similarities and differences are apparent

in these two areas, and it is these that are the subject to the study detailed herein.

Historical Background

Thousands of years before the emergence of the Angkorian empire in the

9th century AD, the region located on a sloping terrain running from the northeast to

the southwest between the northern part of the Tonle Sap Great Lake and Kulen hill

(‘mountain of lychee’) in the northwestern part of present-day Cambodia was the

location of ancient settlements of humans evidenced by a number of pre-historic

archaeological sites in this region. According to studies by Elizabeth Moore and

Richard Engelhardt using the UNESCO-ZEMP database, at least 60 to 69 pre-

historic habitation mound sites in the Angkor plain have been identified, with some

of the sites possibly dating to the Neolithic period (Moore 1993, 1998; Engelhardt

1996). As noted by Bernard Philippe Groslier, in the urban complex of the Angkor

capital, these pre-historic sites include Prasat Ak Yum, Prasat Baksei Chamkrong,

Prasat Chau Say Tevoda and Prasat Trapeang Phong (Ang, Prenowitz and

Thompson 1998: 26-30; Engelhardt 1996: 154; Stark 2004: 93-95). In addition to

circular moated sites, at least three very well-known pre-historic sites have also been

found to the northwest of the Western Baray: Phum Reul and Phum Lovea (Ang,

Prenowitz & Thompson 1998: 26-30; Moore and Freeman 1998; Engelhardt 1996;

Stark 2004) and Phum Snay, a looted site, situated a bit further from Angkor

(O’Reilly, Domett and Pheng 2006).

After the emergence of the Angkor civilization, some of these pre-historic

sites were occupied by pre-Angkorian and Angkorian settlements. In the present-day

Siem Reap region, at least two main groups of pre-Angkorian sites can be found

around the Western Baray in the vicinity of the first capital of Angkor, Harihar laya

(Ang, Prenowitz and Thompson 1998). In the first group, there have been a number

Along the Royal Road 3

of pre-Angkorian sites found: one significant pre-Angkorian city known as “Banteay

Choeu” or “Wooden Fortress”; Prasat Ak Yum (8th century); Prasat Prei Kmeng (7th

century); Prasat Khnat; Prasat Kok Po (8th century); Prasat Roluh; and Phum Prasat

(Ang, Prenowitz & Thompson 1998: 31-32). It is noteworthy that at Prasat Kok Po,

and its complex, and Prasat Prei Khmeng, a ninth-century Angkorian king,

Jayavarman III, paid attention to maintaining these sites as worship places and

celebrated ritual ceremonies well into the Angkor period.

In another group of pre-Angkorian settlements, remains can be found of a

few pre-Angkorian temples erected in the vicinity of the Roluos region: Prasat

Trapeang Phong; Prasat Svay Pream; Prasat Prei; Prasat He Phka; and Prasat Olok.

Unlike the Western Baray region, the eleventh-century Angkorian kings maintained

important cults at the pre-historic and pre-Angkorian site known as Prasat Trapeang

Phong (Ang, Prenowitz and Thompson 1998: 32-34; Stark 2004).

With respect to the northeast region of present-day Thailand, the area has

remained the scene of a complex situation until today. Significant historical features

of the past in this region with regard to archaeological evidence from excavations

and other inscription sources have been newly discovered. With the presence of the

Chi and Mun Rivers, it can be assumed that there were at least 250 to 300 ancient

prehistoric sites situated along their valleys, both non-moated and moated sites

(Supajanya and Vallibhotama 1972; Moore 1988). According to Charles Higham

and Rachanie Thosarat (2004), the settlements in this region can be dated to at least

some thousands of years ago through the evidence from their excavations from 1992

to 2001 under the umbrella of a long term research program entitled “The Origins of

the Civilization of Angkor”. As a result, four important prehistoric sites were

discovered, both un-moated and moated: the Ban Lum Khao site, falling in the late

Neolithic and Bronze period; Non Muang Kao dated to the Iron period; Noen U-

Loke dated to the Bronze and Iron periods; and Ban Non Wat dated to the early

4 Introduction

Neolithic period – all of them located along the lower and upper Mun Rivers

(Higham and Thosarat 2004).

With the occupation of numerous ancient settlements around this area,

Angkorian kings showed interest in expanding their power and territory in this

region during the 6th-7th century. As a result of a systematic survey of the Khmer

sites in Northeast Thailand by Groslier in 1977, about 250 ancient Khmer sites

covering over existing prehistoric and Dvaravati (Mon) sites were identified;1 some

of which have collapsed with only the basements remaining. Some of these sites

were erected together with inscriptions during the reign of King Bhavavarman and

Citrasena (Mahendravarman) in the 6th-7th centuries. Interestingly, several

inscriptions refer to Citrasena’s military victories beyond the Dangrek Mountain

range; for example, inscription K.1106 found at Prasat Phimai (Groslier 1977;

Vickery 1998: 75).

After King Jayavarman II proclaimed himself King of Kings or universal

monarch (chakravartin) on the top of Mahendrapura (Kulen Mountain today) in 802

AD, Angkor power started to centralize and expand until it became a great empire

covering the mainland of Southeast Asia (Ang, Prenowitz and Thompson 1998). In

the following periods, the Angkorian kings conquered territory, especially in the

northwestern part of present-day Cambodia and present-day Northeast Thailand,

where existing settlements had been located since pre-historic and pre-Angkorian

times. Through the explorations of Lunet de Lajonquière from 1901 to 1911,

hundreds of Khmer temples and other ancient settlements were depicted on his

archaeological maps (Lunet de Lajonquière 1902-1911). In addition, Aymonier

studied Khmer temples and inscriptions that had mushroomed widely to the

northwest of Angkor, particularly in the region of present-day Northeast Thailand

1 Dvaravati is the name of a Mon civilization established in the lower Chao Phraya River valley inpresent-day Thailand which flourished from the 6th to the 13th century. Source: “Dvaravati,” 01 March 2010 <http://www.britannica.com/ EBchecked/topic/174783/Dvaravati>.

Along the Royal Road 5

(Aymonier 1999a; Aymonier 1999b). For example, Prasat Phimai, Prasat Phnom

Wan, Prasat Phnom Rung, and Prasat Muang Tam are large significant worship

monuments built between the 9th to 13th centuries during the Angkor period (see

Briggs 1999 [1954]; Talbot and Janthed 2001; Jacques and Lafond 2007). In

addition, toward the latter part of the Angkor period, it is apparent that the mega

infrastructures and other giant public construction projects during the reign of King

Jayavarman VII in the 13th century were continuously developed and expanded

throughout the empire. After successfully driving away the Cham from Angkor,

Jayavarman VII started to reorganize the kingdom by focusing on building up small

or large temples and extending his authority to more territory than his ancestors had

previously done. He paid strong attention to his people by launching a number of

public welfare programs, such as the network of public hospitals (arogyasalas)

throughout the kingdom (Kapur and Sahai 2007). In this regard, the late 12th century

inscription of Ta Prohm temple mentioned clearly that “…102 hospitals

(Arogyasalas) were built in cities and in various provinces…” (Coedès 1906: 80,

Face C: Stanza CXVII).2 As well, 121 rest-house chapels or dharmasalas3 were built

along the principal routes throughout the Kingdom as noted in the Prasat Preah

Khan inscription (Coedès 1942: 60-161; Maxwell 2007: 84-85). Similarly, the Sdok

Kak Thom Inscription, translated by Coedès in 1943, described the general public

infrastructures as well: “…rest-houses and water structures were built along the

roads for the convenience of travelers….” In this regard, the arogyasalas and

dharmasalas that were associated with the royal route were clearly constructed to

2 According to Briggs, these hospital temples were built in dedication to Bhaishajyaguru, the god ofhealing (Briggs 1999 [1951]). In addition, Briggs illustrated the spirit of the inscriptions that werefound at a hospital temples in stanza 13, which states “…He (Jayavarman VII) suffered from the maladies of his subjects more than from his own; for it is the public grief which makes the grief ofkings, and not their own grief...” (Briggs 1999 [1951]: 233). 3 “Dharmasala”, as used by Louis Finot, refers to a temple where people used to worship and take arest during a long journey to other cities along the road (Finot 1925a). A Chinese envoy, Zhou TaDaguan, who visited Angkor in the late 13th century, recorded in his notes the following: “…alongthe grand roads there are rest stations which they called Samnak….” In this sense, he is comparing “Samnak” with the Chinese post halts along the main highways (Pelliot 1902: 173).

6 Introduction

facilitate communication between this region and the Angkor center (Ishizawa and

Tamura 1999; LARP 2007, 2008).4

Kol and Phnom Rung

According to previous studies by the Living Angkor Road Project (LARP)5

(2007, 2008), Im et al. (2007), Preeyanuch (2005) and the Thai Fine Arts

Department (FAD) (1993), Kol and Phnom Rung, along with their surrounding

areas, became densely populated agglomerate cities/areas located along the principal

royal road from Angkor to Phimai during the Angkor period. This is evidenced by

the presence of numerous sacred Khmer monument sites and other ancient

settlements, many of which were the achievement of Jayavarman VII, such as

worship temples, dharmasalas, arogyasalas and local road networks. Given the

expansion of Angkor in terms of territory and civilization, especially from the 9th

century onward, it is obvious that the central of power based at Ya odharapura

exerted more and more influence on this sphere. Kol is geographically very close,

about 50 kilometers from the capital, but Phnom Rung can be considered as having

The stele inscription of Preah Khan, made between 1211 and 1213 AD during the reign ofJayavarman VII, contains significant information concerning Preah Khan and other shrines andtemples built on the command of this king. Lines 122-126 on side D of this inscription describe theestablishment of fire shrines along the roads that linked the capital city of Angkor to other cities in several directions. The inscription reads as follows:

122. On the roads from Yasodharapura (Angkor) to the [capital] city of Campá (Vietnam),there are fifty-seven buildings that are staging posts with fire,

123. [On the road] from the city (Angkor) to Vim yapura (Phimai, in north-east Thailand), there are seventeen houses of fire. [On the road] from the city (Angkor) to Jayavatí, and fromthence to Jayasi havatí,

124. thence to Jayaváravatí, thence to Jayarájagiri, and from Jayarájagiri to holy Suvírapurí,125. and thence up to Ya odharapura (Angkor), there are forty-four fire-houses; and there is

one on holy Súryaparvata,126. one at holy Vijayádityapura, and one at Kalyáçasiddhika. Altogether, there are one

hundred and twenty-one. (Maxwell 2007: 84-85)5 Living Angkor Road Project (LARP) is an international collaboration project between Cambodiaand Thailand established in 2005. LARP focuses on traces of Angkorian royal road networksleading from the Angkor center to Angkorian peripheral satellite towns/cities in present-dayThailand and Laos PDR. So far, LARP has discovered traces of a royal road from the Angkorcenter in Cambodia to Vimayapura (Prasat Phimai) in Thailand and their associated ancient settlements along this route.

Along the Royal Road 7

been located rather in a provincial sphere, around 162 kilometers from the capital

(Map 1-1).

Map 1-1: General maps of the Kol and Phnom Rung agglomerationsand the limits of the study areas.

In the Kol area some pre-historic sites have been discovered, some of

which were later occupied by pre-Angkorian and Angkorian settlements (Im et al.

2007).6 For example, the round moated site of Kok Preach Chang Er and Kok

Anglong Thom were clearly occupied in pre-historic periods, probably during the

Stone Age, as evidenced by the presence of stone tools and pre-historic ceramic

fragments and the physical characteristic of the sites (Im et al. 2007: 334-336).

Additionally, the discovery of stone tools at an un-dated temple (likely from either

the pre-Angkorian or Angkorian period) indicates that this was a pre-historic site,

now known as Kok Prasat Prei Kou (Im et al. 2007: 334-336). Interestingly, the re-

use of a pre-Angkorian lintel at Prasat Ta Kam, a hospital chapel, indicates

6 It should be noted that, according to the time frame of this research, which is defined to be fromthe 9th to 13th centuries during the Angkor period only, the pre-historic and pre-Angkorian sites are not focused on in detail and have been excluded in making the comparisons in this study.

8 Introduction

significant development of this area, with temples built over existing sites during the

reign of Jayavarman VII. In addition, the inclusion of the name Loke vara, known as

“Jagad çvara”, indicating the first emergence of Mahayana Buddhism in the 8th

century, was also found at this temple (Finot 1925b; Coedès 1951: 89).

In light of the fact that the Kol area had been occupied since pre-historic

times, and later was continuously developed during the pre-Angkorian and

Angkorian period, this area unquestionably played a crucial role as an agglomerate

city/area during that time. In this respect, urban developments, in terms of road

networks and other public infrastructure, were established following and respecting

the existing settlements. For example, the royal road from Angkor to Phimai turned

in order to pass this area and intersected two cross roads connecting to the central

villages/communities. This diversion appears to be a unique characteristic of the

royal road, as it can rarely be seen in other areas or along the other royal roads built

during the Angkor period (communication with Dr. Surat Lertlum 2010).

Furthermore, even though this is a relatively small area, significant public

infrastructure was built in the immediate vicinity, such as a main sacred worship

temple, a hospital chapel, a rest-house chapel and a number of water reservoirs, or

“baray”.

Along the same royal road from Angkor to Phimai, Phnom Rung and its

surrounding areas was another ancient agglomerate cities/area occupied since the

pre-history period and continuously developed during the pre-Angkor and Angkor

periods, as evidenced by the density of ancient settlements, with the ruined brick

basement of Prasat Phnom Rung and the dates of the 7th and 8th centuries found in

inscription K.384 being significant evidence of this fact (Preeyanuch 2005; H.R.H.

Sirindhorn 2004: 7). As well, within a radius of 10 kilometers from Prasat Phnom

Rung, there are many ancient sites from pre-historic times (Preeyanuch 2005; LARP

2007, 2008). For example, Ban Ta Ko Village site, Ban Bu Village site and Talong

Along the Royal Road 9

Kao Village site have been classified as pre-historic sites as made evident by the

remains of stone tools and the physical characteristics of the sites, both moated and

un-moated (Preeyanuch 2005: 110-113, 258; communication with Dr. Surat Lertlum

2010). More interestingly, in the vicinity of Phnom Rung, two arogyasalas and one

dharmasala were established during the reign of Jayavarman VII, with the distance

of the two hospital chapels, Prasat Kuti Rushi Muang Tam and Prasat Kuti Rushi

Nong Baray, located not far from each other. The close proximity of these two

hospital chapels appears to be a special case which rarely occurred elsewhere in the

territory of the Angkor Empire (communication with Dr. Surat Lertlum 2010).

Moreover, the presence of large water reservoirs is also considered significant in

establishing this area as an ancient agglomerate city/area and indicates a level of

social development attempting to emulate the urban complex settlements at the

Angkor capital.

A New Approach of Study

A relatively new knowledge of comparative study of the development of

ancient settlements was introduced to analyze and compare these two agglomerate

areas by utilizing Geographic Information System (GIS), Remote Sensing and

archaeological study approaches. A series of aerial photographs from 1945, 1954-7,

1967, 1976 and 2004, satellite images from 2000 and 2007, and other topographic

vector data were applied to interpret ancient traces that were analyzed, together with

survey data from the field gathered using GIS and Remote Sensing applications.

To provide a clearer idea of the ancient settlements in the aforementioned

agglomerations, this advanced mapping technology was applied to identify and draw

the archaeological structures to understand local settlement relationships and

developments of the Kol and Phnom Rung areas. From this, the development of the

10 Introduction

ancient settlements and a comparison of these settlements, both at Kol and Phnom

Rung, were examined.