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 DOI: 10.1177/109861119900200302

1999 2: 283Police QuarterlyDavid Bradford and Joan E. Pynes

Police Academy Training: Why Hasn'T It Kept Up With Practice?  

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POLICE ACADEMY TRAINING: WHYHASN’T IT KEPT UP WITH PRACTICE?

DAVID BRADFORD

Village of Glen Carbon (IL) Police Department

JOAN E. PYNES

University of South Florida

The movement toward community-oriented policing and problem-solvingpolicing has required the development of new police officer competencies.However, police academy training has changed very little in the past 20years. The authors recommend that police academies move beyond task anal-yses and the traditional components and include training in the skills neces-sary to be effective community-oriented and problem-solving police officers.Increased time should be spent on police recruits developing problem-solv-ing, interpersonal, and decision-making skills. The authors encourage thereaders to provide some additional training and curriculum suggestions.

Since 1986, community-oriented policing and problem-solving policing(COPS) initiatives were under way in more than 200 communities (Trajano-wicz, Steele, & Trajanowicz, 1986). Since that time, more than 10,000 lawenforcement agencies have received grants from the U.S. Department ofJustice’s Community Oriented Policing Services Office (COPS) to fundmore than 71,000 additional police officers and sheriff’s deputies across thecountry (U.S. Department of Justice, 1999). As defined by the CommunityPolicing Consortium (1999), community policing consists of three essentialand complementary core components: community partnership, problemsolving, and change management. Despite the emphasis of the core compo-nents and the pervasiveness of COPS monies flowing to law enforcementagencies, there have been very few changes to most entry-level law enforce-ment training curriculums (Alpert & Dunham, 1997; Marion, 1998; Ness,1991; Oliver, 1998; Peak & Glensor, 1996). COPS requires police officers

The authors’ names are in alphabetical order. They contributed equally to this article.

POLICE QUARTERLY Vol 2. No. 3, September 1999@ 2000 Sage Publications, Inc.

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to exercise more discretion, identify and analyze problems of concern to thecommunity, and work with the community to solve problems. The focus ofpolice work (i.e., protection and service) has shifted from its reactive pos-ture to encompass a variety of proactive responses that meet the needs oflocal communities (Oettmeier & Wycoff, 1994). Measures of success forCOPS programs are the reduced fear of crime among citizens, increasedtrust on behalf of the public, and the willingness of the public to cooperatewith police to solve crime and community problems (Goldstein, 1990).

The community policing philosophy and programs require new policingskills not previously tested for in the selection process or taught in basictraining academies. As the role of the police officer expands from enforce-ment to problem solving, training methods and curriculum needs must alsobe targeted to assist police officers in fulfilling their expanded responsibili-ties. If local law enforcement agencies are to meet the needs of the commu-nity through community-oriented policing, their recruitment and selectionprocesses must be amended to hire according to the knowledge, skills, abili-ties, and other characteristics (KSAOCs) that are important to effectivecommunity-oriented policing. Emphasis must also be placed on developingand implementing police recruit training and continuing education curricu-lums that are cognitive in nature and include problem-solving, decision-making, and interpersonal exercises. The purpose of this article is to addressperceived deficiencies in police training curriculums and to offer someideas for future training.

BACKGROUND

For years the police science literature has acknowledged that police train-ing appears to be inconsistent with the police role (Cummings, 1965; Ger-mann, 1969; Kelling, 1988; Kochur, 1997; Marion, 1998; McLaughlin &

Donahue, 1995; Meadows, 1986; Ness, 1991; Scott, 1981). Cummings(1965) demonstrated that more than half of the calls made to police involverequests for help in personal and interpersonal matters, such as family dis-putes. Germann (1969) found that 90% of police training was devoted toareas and activities in which police only spent 10% of their time, indicatingthat police spent 90% of their time in activities for which they received notraining. Scott (1981) analyzed 26,418 calls for police service and foundthat the great majority of police work involved order maintenance, service,and information processing-only 19% of the calls involved criminal activ-ity and only 2% involved violent crime. Lab (1984) found that 57% of calls

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made to the Charlotte Police Department consisted of disturbance com-plaints such as family disputes, prowlers, and false alarms. Meadows (1986)found that the entry-level training curriculum in 46 states mandated trainingin patrol, criminal investigation, the use of firearms, and force and that littletime was allocated to the interpersonal aspects of policing. Ness ( 1991 ) sur-veyed 210 police officers who had completed the Illinois Minimum Stan-dards Basic Law Enforcement Training, asking them to judge the adequacyof the training they received in performing entry-level tasks. The respon-dents thought that the training was adequate, and 15 out of 25 task traininggroups (60%) were rated as somewhat inadequate. Ness notes that manytasks that police officers are trained for may no longer be relevant; however,we draw a different conclusion. The task groups receiving the rating ofsomewhat inadequate were Police Communications, Criminal Investiga-tions, Crime Prevention, Interview and Interrogations, Field Note Takingand Report Writing, Patrol Operation, Collection and Preservation of Evi-dence, Driving, Civil Process, Civil Disorder, Case Prosecution, OfficeClerical, Court Function, Jail Operations, and Physical Activity.

Police Communications, Criminal Investigations, Crime Prevention, Inter-view and Interrogations, Field Note Taking and Report Writing, PatrolOperation, and Collection and Preservation of Evidence are all critical com-ponents of COPS policing. It is our contention that these responsibilities/tasks are still relevant-it was the academy instruction that lacked relevancy.Many researchers have noted that police academies often fail to providetraining on what an officer does on a daily basis and do not instruct officerson how to think and act (Alpert & Dunham, 1997; Bayley & Bittner, 1984).In a police training curriculum regulated by the Ohio Peace Officer TrainingAcademy (OPOTA), recruits receive only 1 hour of training in public rela-tions. Ethics, information on the elderly population, and victims of crimedid not receive any formal training hours (Marion, 1998). Brand and Peak(1995) surveyed Nevada Category 1 peace officers to determine the effec-tiveness of the state mandated Police Officer Standards and Training(POST) academy training. The patrol officers recommended training in theareas of street Spanish, verbal judo, courtroom testimony, field sobriety test-ing, and gangs/cults/hate crimes. They concluded that academy trainingmust be kept up-to-date to prepare new officers. Alpert and Dunham (1997,p. 61) acknowledge the dynamic nature of police training and pose thesequestions: What are the skills, information, and attitudes that one mustdevelop to be a good police officer? and What are the most efficient andeffective methods to provide the necessary training and education? Instead

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of curricula focusing on the memorization of laws, rules, and procedures,police training should expand to include community relations, interper-sonal skills, the problem-solving process, public speaking, and organiza-tional skills for coordinating meetings, activities, and programs (Kelling,Wasserman, & Williams, 1988; Oliver, 1998). Law enforcement trainersneed to become familiar with the research studies and other literature dis-

cussing the gap between academy training and what officers really do. Theyneed to listen to police officers and adjust training to meet their needs.As skill requirements increase, job tasks often become broader in scope

and less specific. In such situations job requirements become more flexibleand overlapping. This means that the community police officer mustbecome more of a general practitioner, a resource, and a problem solver andless of a specialist (Carnevale & Carnevale, 1993).

Police agencies must evaluate not only technical skills but also interper-sonal and leadership skills. Bullock (1995) states that the modem policeofficer must be formally educated, resilient, resourceful, empathetic, com-petent, and patient.

Metchik and Winton (1995) acknowledge that community policingstresses the patrol officer’s social and interpersonal skills. This goes beyondthe technical application of procedures to situations and encompassesgreater emphasis on cognitive skills, creativity, and flexibility so that prob-lems may be resolved in a more innovative manner. They provide two exam-ples of how police officers are now expected to be problem solvers.

A police officer is assigned to a beat in which automobile windows are smashed andvandalized each night. In order to formulate the best response, the cop must define theproblem and address the motivation of the offenders.A patrol officer might witness, for example, neighborhood youth painting graffiti

on a wall. The officer has to analyze the situation and define the problem. He also hasto search for the possibility of a deeper cause and how to address that most effectively.This may or may not include the arrest and prosecution of the offender. The officermust be sensitive to the needs of the community as well as responsive to the youthfuloffenders themselves. (p. 116)

Selection techniques will have to assess many of the skills associatedwith the use of self-managing teams. COPS officers need to possess initia-tive, judgment, decision-making, leadership, and interpersonal skills, aswell as other competencies often neglected during the selection process. Po-lice officer responsibilities vary according to where they work and the timeof day or night. In Houston, the proactive function requires officers to de-

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velop patrol strategies in response to various crimes such as burglaries, rob-beries, street-level narcotics, and criminal mischief occurring within neigh-borhoods. As officers learn about criminal activity via crime analysis, theyare encouraged to develop tactical plans to address the situation. Police offi-cer responsibilities do not end there-the police are expected to activelyreach out and build relationships with citizens (Oettmeier & Wycoff, 1994).

METHODS

The International Association of Directors of Law Enforcement Stan-dards and Training (IADLEST) is an association of law enforcement stan-dard and training managers. The purpose of the organization is to &dquo;research,develop, and share information, ideas and innovations which assist states inestablishing effective and defensible standards for employment and trainingof law enforcement officers and, in those states where dual responsibilityexists, corrections personnel&dquo; (Becar, 1998, p. i). IADLEST publishes theHandbook Reciprocity Requirements for Law Enforcement Officers. Thehandbook provides information about the various governmental reciprocityregulations relating to the employment and training standards for criminaljustice officers in the United States. Also included in the handbook are theBasic Academy training hours required for certification in each state. Let-ters requesting curriculum data were sent to each state agency responsiblefor certifying the training done in its state.

Although the state training boards have authority regarding the certifica-tion of curricula, many do not have direct authority over how the individualcurriculum is taught. In some states, colleges, individual law enforcementagencies, and state agencies sponsor training academies, resulting in a var-ied curriculum that provides the trainee with exposure to subjects beyondthe minimum required by certification. In other states, such as Illinois, thetraining board oversees local law enforcement training and supervisesregional training academies and mobile training units. However, the IllinoisState Police sponsors its own training academy that is not under the jurisdic-tion of the training board. In states where multiple training academies exist,replies received from the various boards generally included a listing of man-datory training subjects and the amount of time spent in the subject withoutany description or explanation concerning the subject material or how it wastaught. These responses were not included in the curriculum evaluationsand are represented in the chart as incomplete (IC). States from which wereceived no response are listed as nonresponsive (NR). We received 30

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responses (60%), of which 22 (44%) provided enough information foranalysis.We examined the available syllabi and the curricula in an effort to be able

to define the areas in the cognitive domain and those that were task oriented.Task-oriented training is defined as training that instructs the recruits inbasic repetitive skills and conditioned responses and is found in the reactivenature of the traditional and professional models of policing. Little attentionis given to the thinking patterns of the recruits; therefore, emphasis on deci-sion making and reasoning is neglected. Cognitive training is defined astraining that goes beyond the skill or task, such as how to complete an acci-dent report or traffic citation, and instead focuses on an awareness of theprocess that establishes correct and valid thinking patterns. If valid thinkingpatterns are established in the basic training process, the officer has the toolsto become a problem solver, not just a report taker and enforcement officer.

For example, if the subject matter for patrol procedure taught the skills ofconducting effective traffic stops, search and seizure, and so forth, the hoursspent in this activity were classified as task oriented. If the curricula forpatrol procedure went beyond the task and tactical method and includedsimulated scenarios, effective communication, and integrated skill

response requiring reasoning and application of knowledge and skills, thetime spent on the subject matter was classified as cognitive. For some of thestates, the course curricula or descriptions clearly stated that the content wastask or performance oriented. For other states, the information on the syllabior included in the course curriculum did not provide enough information forus to make a judgement. When that occurred, telephone calls were made tothe training directors at each state, asking them to explain the objective ofthe particular training subject. Eleven training directors or their designateswere called to obtain clarification on their state’s training curricula. Weindependently rated the training curricula. The degree of agreementbetween the raters was 93%. When differences arose, deference was

granted to the author who made the telephone calls and elicited additionalinformation.

RESULTS

The analysis of the curricula of basic training academies reveals that littlehas changed since 1986. Less than 3% of basic training academy time of thecurricula examined is spent in cognitive and decision-making domain, andthe remaining time is spent in task-oriented activities. The exception is the

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Commonwealth of Massachusetts, which has completely revised its basiccurriculum. All subjects are taught in cognitive domain (see Table 1).

The Commonwealth of Massachusetts realized that the goals of COPSpolicing required new teaching methods and strategies. In 1997, the Massa-chusetts Criminal Justice Training Council introduced a new training cur-riculum designed with a greater cognitive focus. Four guiding principlesprovide the foundation:

~ ethics (or character),~ law (or the constitutional basis for law enforcement),~ fitness (both mental and physical), and~ community-neighborhood policing.

Massachusetts identified five fundamental objectives:

~ incorporate community-neighborhood policing throughout;~ adopt a values-driven model of police training;~ integrate training and education;~ train as a collaboration of police organizations with a shared history, a common body

of knowledge, and an equal stake in self-evaluation; and~ enhance character by examining the complexities of society and the choices of police

officers.

The task skills and methodology are still taught, but from a cognitive per-spective. For example, the traditional objective in patrol procedure trainingwould normally be stated as an individual task accomplishment objective,such as identifying the procedures for the removal and disposal of injured ordangerous animals or identifying effective field interview techniques andprocedures or a tactic. The objective of the cognitive training is getting theofficer to &dquo;understand how to speak to, reason with, and listen to people andlearn to use communication skills to manage a wide range of problematicsituations. Physical tactics and tools, though readily available, are second-ary to the primary response of communication&dquo; (The Massachusetts Crimi-nal Justice Training Council, 1997, p. 3).

The KSAOCs identified as necessary for successful implementation ofcommunity-oriented policing are generally not addressed in the traditionalacademy training model. For community-oriented policing skills, traditionaltask job analysis methods have limited applications. Community-orientedpolice officers must utilize a wide repertoire of behaviors. Task and behav-ioral statements may no longer be effective in capturing the expanded

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TABLE 1. Basic Academy Time Spent in Cognitive Development Activities

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TABLE 1 Continued

Note: NR = no response to request for curriculum for analysis; IC = incomplete information to make ananalysis. Texas response did not include time spent in activities. Percentages reflect the percentage ofthe total academy instruction in cognitive domain.

responsibilities of police. Community-oriented police officers have beengiven increased control over a relatively broad set of tasks; their jobs havebecome flexible and are contingent on changing conditions (Oliver, 1998).According to Carson and Stewart (1996), employees are now expected to becross-trained and are expected to rotate tasks. Because employee respon-sibilities are changing so frequently, the most successful employee char-acteristic is the ability to learn new tasks. Today’s employees must havethe ability to adapt to a wide variety of work tasks, some of which may bepredictable and some of which are not.

NEEDED INNOVATIONS

The attributes and characteristics consistent with community policingcan be identified in the candidate during the selection process. The place tobegin is the initial application. Research done by Vodica (1994) and Carterand Sapp (1992) has indicated that police officer candidates with a collegebackground generally have better verbal and written communication skills,make better discretionary decisions, and have greater empathy for and toler-ance of differing lifestyles and attitudes. Campbelis (1999) indicates that anextensive and stable employment history and community involvement arealso indicators that can be obtained from the application. In addition,Campbelis proposes in-depth interviews with the candidate designed toidentify the problem-solving skills and techniques that the candidate maypossess. Bradford (1998) proposes that the preemployment backgroundinvestigation of a candidate contains three essential elements: Positive

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Candidate Identification; an in-depth personality assessment to determinethe candidate’s responsibility attitudes, motivation, and characteristics; andrevelation of the full extent of a candidate’s criminal history. Desirable char-acteristics can also be identified in the candidate in the interview process.DeLong (1999) recommends the use of problem-solving scenarios toenable the evaluator to determine if candidates has the needed attributes andcharacteristics.

For community-oriented policing to work, the interpersonal skills of lawenforcement personnel must be enhanced. Training can be directed towardassisting law enforcement personnel to recognize and improve their abilityto judge and balance appropriate behaviors befitting their positions; to moreeasily cope with undesirable behavior in others; to deal with ambiguity; tolisten, meaning to really understand what another person is saying andresponding so that the other person feels that his or her problems and feel-ings have been understood; and to structure interactions with the public(Carnevale, Gainer, & Meltzer, 1988).An analysis of today’s basic training curriculum reveals that problem

solving and interpersonal skills development are still a low priority ofadministrators and training directors. Conventional wisdom, however, rec-ognizes that the role of police officers has evolved and the new competen-cies needed for the successful execution of community-oriented policingrequire higher priority on the training hierarchy.

If community-oriented policing is to be successful, police officers mustreceive additional training in problem-solving, decision-making, and inter-personal skills. Other critical skills included in the above domains are skillsfor critical thinking, analytical skills, and conflict resolution skills. Researchindicates that exposing college students to an 8-week applied problem-solvingtraining program was effective in enhancing students’ problem-solving skills(Heppner, Baumgardner, Larson, & Petty, 1988). Self-report measurestaken 1 year later found that the training was useful for students who evalu-ated their problem-solving skills as being deficient. Students were intro-duced to the problem-solving model of D’Zurilla and Goldfried (1971),which includes a general orientation to problem solving, problem defini-tion, generation of alternatives, choosing an alternative action, andevaluation.Norman and Schmidt (1992) found that medical students exposed to

problem-based learning retained more knowledge and could recall moreinformation. In problem-based learning, students are presented with con-structed problems. The problems are usually descriptions of observable

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phenomena or events that need explanation. The task of the student group isto discuss these problems and produce tentative explanations for the phe-nomena, describing each in terms of some underlying process, principle, ormechanism. It is assumed that through the continuous exposure to real-lifeproblems, students will develop the skills to evaluate a problem, decidewhat is wrong, and make decisions on how to manage the problem. A sec-ond objective of problem-based learning is to enhance the acquisition,retention, and use of knowledge. Researchers believe that leaning newknowledge in the context of problems may foster its transfer and use whenneeded for the solution of similar problems. This model shares many of thesame characteristics of adult learning that is the foundation for many train-ing curriculums and university classes. This foundation typically includesknowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evalua-tion as its educational objectives (Bloom, 1956). Researchers believe thatadults learn more effectively through experiential techniques such as dis-cussion or problem solving, that adults want to learn a skill or acquireknowledge that they can apply pragmatically, and that adult experiences area valuable resource for learning (Knowles, 1984; Kolb, 1984; Zemke &

Zemke, 1995). These approaches have been used with success in teachinglaw enforcement ethics (Kleinig, 1990; Pollock & Becker, 1995).

According to Cooper (1997), police officers can improve their effective-ness by becoming skilled in conflict resolution methodologies. He believesthat mediation, problem solving, and problem management are allunderutilized in police work. Police officers able to resolve conflictsthrough more effective interpersonal skills and conflict resolution tech-niques will be safer in the performance of their duties. He recommends thatpolice departments deliver nonconventional conflict resolution skills train-ing to their patrol officers by entering into agreements with conflict resolu-tion programs offered by local universities or other qualified professionalswho can impart conflict resolution skills.

Police frequently confront dangerous situations that call for an immedi-ate response. Because of this, Larsen, Yelon, and Irving (1997) suggest theuse of legal decision models to guide police in deciding what kind of legalaction to take depending on varying circumstances. The models provide asystematic view of a group of laws relating to the same issue, simplify therelationship of the laws, and add to efficiency in learning and applying thelaw. Decision models focus attention and enhance efficient thinkingbecause they exclude irrelevant situational factors and stress the mostimportant variables for decision making. Officers would know what to look

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FIGURE 1: lraditional Model for Juvenile Shoplifting ArrestsNote: Prepared by David Bradford.

for in an event and where to restrict their thinking. Training in decision mod-els and job aids helps police officers in organizing the important aspects ofthe issues they face, and helps them to conceptualize the issue and identifythe mental steps to be taken when applying a law. A model can show how todetermine those facts that apply to a case and how to proceed to a resolutionby using appropriate legal action. The authors provide guides for typicalpolice functions such as search and seizure, securing evidence, and vehiclesearches. We believe that their models can be expanded to include manyaspects of community-oriented policing such as identifying neighborhoodcrime, disorder and fear problems, understanding the conditions that giverise to problems, developing and implementing appropriate solutions, anddetermining the impact of the solution implemented.

For example, juvenile shoplifting may be identified as a communityproblem. The traditional law enforcement response would focus on proba-ble cause for the arrest of the juvenile offender and his or her entrance intothe criminal justice system. A decision-making model based on the tradi-tional focus may look similar to the model in Figure 1. In problem-orientedpolicing, the law enforcement focus shifts from the traditional crime attackmode to resolving the problem.

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FIGURE 2: Problem-Oriented Policing Model for Juvenile Shoplifting ArrestsNote: Prepared by David Bradford.

A decision-making model focusing on the problem of juvenile shoplift-ing may be similar to the model presented in Figure 2. Such a modelexpands the beat officer’s thinking and focus from arrest and prosecution toproblem resolution.

As noted earlier, community-oriented police officers are now expected tobe proactive. They are also expected to learn about criminal activity viacrime analysis and develop tactical plans to address the situation. However,Peterson (1997) notes that law enforcement research and analysis skills arelacking from law enforcement training curricula. Crime analysis techniquesare also neglected. Analysis is perhaps the most integral part of any prob-lem-solving effort. It is also the most difficult step in any model for problemsolving. Police officers, because of a lack of knowledge and basic analyticalskills, tend to skip the analysis process in their enthusiasm to develop atimely solution. When officers neglect to perform effective and proper anal-ysis, they have nothing to rely on but old standard solutions, such as directedmotor patrol or foot patrol. In such instances, problem-oriented policingbecomes nothing more than a community public relations program provid-ing no solutions and having little to no positive impact on the problem.

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Traditionally, officers would look at crime statistics, location of occurrence,relationships between offenders and victims, time of incident occurrence,and other in-house information in analyzing criminal activity. The informa-tion for analysis was assembled through the use of pin maps, data flowcharts, and manual search of police reports. Based on the assembled infor-mation, officers established traditional responses such as Directed Patrolsunder the premise that concentrated patrol presence at &dquo;hot spots&dquo; at the&dquo;hot times&dquo; of criminal activity would reduce crime in those places andtimes. Assembly of the information was labor intensive and time consum-ing. Police administrators who engaged in such analysis generally dele-gated the task to a special officer or a special division under the heading ofintelligence. Training in analytical skills was highly specialized, selective,and generally not considered a necessity for the cop on the beat. Analysiswas left to the social scientist and the criminal analysis specialist. Thisphilosophy has resulted in a lack of training in analysis skills as notedabove and by Peterson (1997). Such skills are indispensable in analyzingthe types of data examined in problem-oriented policing efforts such asarrest, offender, victim, location, time of occurrence, frequency and type ofoffense, and contributing social and economic factors. By employing theappropriate analytical technique to determine relationship, correlation, rel-evancy, and validity, the problem-oriented police officer can analyze the rel-evant data to form an effective response to the particular problem efficientlyand economically. These skills also aid in the analytical process of evaluat-ing the success or failure of the response to the problem.

According to Peterson (1997), law enforcement analysis includes eightskills and abilities: identifying problems and patterns, thinking critically,choosing the appropriate method or technique to analyze the data, organiz-ing the data, summarizing the data, deriving meaning from the data, makingappropriate recommendations regarding the situation or problem, and dis-seminating the data appropriately. These skills can be developed throughexposure to case studies and practical exercises (Peterson, 1997, pp. 31-32).

The SARA model, which consists of scanning, analysis, response, andassessment, is perhaps the most widely used model by police departmentsinvolved in COPS. In the SARA model, scanning means looking for pat-terns or persistent problems in the community and focusing problem-solving efforts on things that happen more than once. Analysis means fullyunderstanding the targeted problem, which necessitates a full analysis toestablish facts, not guesses, on which to base long-term solutions. Responsemeans the implementation of long-term solutions tailored to the established

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facts. Newport News, Virginia, police officers were trained in the SARAmodel. Case studies and practical exercises were part of the training todevelop analytical skills. Officers were encouraged to use the SARA modelin their daily tasks. The National Institute of Justice and the Police Execu-tive Research Forum evaluation of the program revealed a significant reduc-tion in robberies and burglaries as well as thefts from cars. In performing thescanning process, which consists of looking for patterns or persistent prob-lems in the community, models should be developed to guide and facilitatethe officer in determining relationships between reported crimes and coor-dinating and identifying sources of information. The model should focus theproblem-solving effort on things that occur more than once or occasionally.In the analysis phase, models should facilitate the identification of the prob-lem in a shorter period of time and increase the understanding of the targetedproblem. Effective models would also guide and direct the police officer inthe response to the problem, in addition to establishing effective criteria forthe evaluation and assessment of the response. Models that provide bothquantitative and qualitative measures in the assessment process are mosteffective. Dowling (1999) calls for law enforcement to provide training thatgoes beyond SARA and includes conducting public meetings and facilita-tion methods for building a consensus.

CONCLUSION

Despite the movement toward community-oriented policing and problem-solving policing, many law enforcement training academies (based on oursample of 44% response rate) have not modified their curricula to impart theKSAOCs necessary for its successful implementation. The problem-solvingstrategies of community-oriented policing call for the utilization of exten-sive cognitive and reasoning aptitudes and effective interpersonal skills andjudgment. These characteristics do not appear to be given a high priority inmost training curricula. Many police officers are still being selected andtrained in a task-oriented environment with little emphasis on the cognitiveand reasoning requirements of the job. After graduating from the trainingacademy and completing their probationary period under the supervision offield training officers (FTOS), inexperienced police officers are then thrustinto an environment that requires them to use skills and knowledge notdeveloped in basic training. It is proposed that task-oriented training be sup-plemented with training in problem-solving, decision-making, and inter-personal skills to prepare recruits for their role as community-oriented policeofficers.

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Police organizations are being redefined to mesh more concurrently withnew missions and services. Today, COPS officers are expected to plan andorganize their own work. Their responsibilities today are more flexible andcontingent on changing organizational and job conditions. The requirementfor flexibility and speed of response to change is likely to continue. Policeofficers must deal with people when they are threatening and vulnerable,angry and frightened, desperate and violent. Public attitudes toward thepolice and the law in general are influenced by the way police officers per-form their duties. To fulfill their responsibilities of maintaining public orderand enforcing the law, police officers have been vested with great authority.Operating under very general rules, they use their own discretion to stop cit-izens, inquire about their business, and detain them for further questioning.This authority and discretion will continue to expand through community-oriented policing efforts. It is in every police department’s best interest todevelop the problem-solving, critical thinking, and interpersonal skills oftheir police officers.

There appears to be a lack of congruency between the curriculum taughtin many law enforcement training academies and the job responsibilities ofCOPS officers. The U.S. Department of Justice, many local and state lawenforcement agencies, the communities in which COPS programs havebeen implemented, elected political figures, and academic researchers havethrown their support behind the COPS philosophy and programs. Text-books used in criminal justice or criminology classes at universities haveCOPS in their titles. Two examples are Community-Oriented Policing: ASystematic Approach to Policing (Oliver, 1998) and Community Policing &Problem Solving: Strategies & Practices (Peak & Glensor, 1996). Why,then, are training academy curricula not changing? Future research needs tofocus on the reasons and possible obstacles to revising and modifying lawenforcement training curricula.

REFERENCES

Alpert, G. P., & Dunham, R. G. (1997). Policing in urban American (3rd ed.). ProspectHeights, IL: Waveland.

Bayley, D. H., & Bittner, E. (1984). Learning the skills of policing. Law and ContemporaryProblems, 47(4), 35-59.

Becar, M. N. (1998). Handbook reciprocity requirements for law enforcement officers.Hilliard, OH: International Association of Directors of Law Enforcement Standards andTraining (IADLEST).

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Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Cognitive and affective domains.New York: David McKay.

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David Bradford graduated from Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville,Illinois, with a master’s degree in public administration. He has been a policeofficer since 1979 and is currently the chiefofpolice of Glen Carbon, Illinois.He is a charter member of the Madison County Child Abuse Task Force andserves on the Madison County Juvenile Justice Council. He is a diplomat ofthe American Board of Law Enforcement Experts and a member of the Amer-ican College of Forensic Examiners. Previous publications include an articleon police officer background investigations in Public Personnel ManagementVol. 27, No. 4, Winter 1998.

Joan E. Pynes is the director of the Public Administration Program at theUniversity of South Florida. She is the author of Human Resources Manage-ment for Public and Nonprofit Organizations (1997) published byJossey-Bass, Local Government Labor Relations: A Guide for Public Ad-ministrators (1993) published by Quorum Books, and many other articles onpublic and nonprofit human resources management.

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