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 DOI: 10.1177/0017896910396218 2011 70: 225 originally published online 24 February 2011Health Education Journal

Jude Till, Lesley Ferkins and Phil Handcockwhole school involvement

Physical activity based professional development for teachers : The importance of  

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396218 HEJ70210.1177/0017896910396218Till et al.Health Education Journal

Corresponding author:Jude Till, Unitec Department of Sport, Private Bag 92025, Auckland, New ZealandEmail: jtill@unitec.ac.nz

Physical activity based professional development for teachers: The importance of whole school involvement

Jude Tilla, Lesley Ferkinsb, and Phil Handcockc

aUnitec Department of Sport, Auckland, New ZealandbDeakin University, School of Marketing and Management, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria 3125 AustraliacUniversity of Otago, School of Physical Education, Dunedin, New Zealand

AbstractObjective: This study sought to investigate teachers’ perceptions of a physical activity-related professional development intervention.Design: Interview-based qualitative approach founded on the interpretive paradigm.Setting: Purposive selection of one high-rated independent, and one low-rated public primary school from Auckland, New Zealand.Method: A qualitative approach was used, incorporating a questionnaire used for purposive sampling and a total of eighteen semi-structured interviews with six teachers from two primary schools.Results: Participants highly valued the inclusion of all teachers in onsite professional development and felt supported by a strong, positive organizational culture.Conclusion: Participant teachers believed physical activity played an important role within the school setting, and recognized their role in the provision of opportunities for their students. However, they did not necessarily feel confident and competent to facilitate opportunities. A specific professional development intervention was introduced as one form of support to address this need. Teachers valued first-hand experience of professional development and reported particular enjoyment if they participated alongside their colleagues.

Keywordsphysical activity, primary schools, professional development, teachers

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Conceptual framework

Physical activity and health

Levels of physical inactivity in children and related healthy lifestyle concerns are of international interest1–3. International standards recommend 1 hour a day of physical activity for children aged five to twelve particularly1,4,5. Within the New Zealand context, government agencies in education, health, and sport and recreation are concerned that primary school aged children are not suffi-ciently physically active6. These agencies have affirmed that physical activity (PA) is a priority and have also called for one hour of moderate intensity PA per day for children7.

PA includes sport, work, active recreation, physical education, exercise, active transport and play8,9. It has been recognized that the establishment of healthy behaviours in youth, such as regular PA, can assist in prevention of chronic disease later in life10,11. Physically active children may experience enhanced bone health and improved psychosocial well-being, while inactivity is associated with increased risk of obesity, hypertension, insulin resistance and impaired lipid and lipoprotein function5.

Primary schools and teaching

It is only in recent times that schools have been identified as a logical site for implementing initia-tives to address some of the current issues surrounding children’s PA habits and levels of inactiv-ity12. As such, there is a paucity of research evaluating school-based PA programmes13,14. Salmon, Ball, and Crawford et al15 advised that development of high quality and well evaluated school-based research programmes is essential due to the global escalation of childhood obesity. Evaluations of school based research and piloting of new PA programmes have focused on student acquisition of PA related knowledge, or actual changes in activity levels, rather than on teachers’ perceptions of these interventions16. The current study proposes a possible remedy with school based research and interventions relating specifically to PA.

The focus of the present study was the New Zealand primary school environment where teach-ers are primarily responsible for facilitating all subject areas with their students, aged 5–12. Requirements for PA provision may however be unrealistic if teachers are not confident and/or competent to implement a range of opportunities that will enthuse and inspire children. Morgan and Hansen17 argued that rather than assuming teachers hold negative attitudes towards a subject, that they may simply lack confidence. Teachers, therefore need to be adequately equipped to pro-vide children with quality, sustainable physical activity opportunities18. This support may be in the form of professional development19.

Professional development

In their study of physical education in primary schools, Morgan and Hansen17 proposed that inves-tigation of teacher perceptions may lead to an increased understanding of teacher behaviour. Apart from this recent study, there appears to be a gap in knowledge concerning teachers’ perceptions of professional development interventions. A significant amount of literature has evaluated profes-sional development opportunities per se18,20,21, however, few have addressed what participants have thought of these initiatives.

Professional development is the process through which new or different skills and knowledge are gained and work performance is improved22. It is intentional, on-going and systematic23 and the teachers themselves become learners. In implementing professional development the characteristics of adult learning are of paramount importance. Knowles’24 emphasis was on the independence of

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adults based on their life experience. Adults are motivated by the relevance of learning material to their own life situations and experience; by discovering and deciding their own learning needs; and by taking responsibility for their learning. Self-efficacy, a related concept, implies that if an individ-ual feels confident within a specific setting, then they are more likely to engage in that activity25.

Professional development is recognized as useful in times of change to assist with knowledge and skill building, particularly if teachers collaborate, share ideas and feel supported22. However, an existing organizational culture can impact on the likelihood of collaboration and response to leadership strategies for implementing change19,26,27.

School culture

Culture can be defined as the set of key values, beliefs, and understanding shared by a group of people, and subsequently sets the behavioural norms and standards28. Organizational culture can reflect how a school is managed and how individuals function within that environment including how teachers work as colleagues27. A school’s culture can be manifested in the practices, commu-nication, language common to the school, and availability of physical resources19. Given that teachers do not operate in socio-cultural vacuums, it would seem that school culture and the devel-opment of teachers are inherently linked. These links were expressively explored in the present study. A whole-school approach has been found to be desirable in building a sustainable PA cul-ture13. This approach may be necessary to meet the one hour per day recommendation with com-mitment and enthusiasm so that PA becomes embedded in the school culture29.

Objective

The objective of the current study was to explore teachers’ perceptions of a PA based professional development intervention. In particular, the present article explores the importance of whole-school involvement, one of the themes that emerged from a wider study. Organizational culture theories are employed to analyse and discuss findings in relation to this emergent theme.

Methods

The interpretive paradigm from which qualitative research methods are primarily derived informed the present study30. In essence, the interpretive paradigm is holistic and uses an inductive approach to systematically analyse people’s interests, intentions and behaviours30. According to Sparkes31 multiple realities exist and an individual’s mind plays a central role in constructing their own real-ity. The research aim and ontological assumptions made that individuals perceive the world differ-ently, which could affect programme design and delivery, led to selection of a qualitative approach.

Participants

As depth of information, rather than breadth was of interest, purposive sampling32 was used to assist with the selection of two schools, drawn from a pool of over 200 in west and central Auckland30. Variables included enrolment size, rating of school (a decile rating scaled system was used to determine level of government funding), staff size, resources, staff perception of current PA knowledge, skills and programmes, and involvement with other initiatives. Beachview, an inde-pendent high-rated school with 100 pupils was selected. A second school, Forestview, was invited to participate. Forestview school is a public low-rated school with 250 pupils.

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All 22 teachers (aged between 21–65 years) from the selected Auckland primary schools, elected to participate in the study. They completed a short scaled-response questionnaire, used primarily for the purpose of selecting research participants30,33. Questions related specifically to prioritization of school PA, confidence and competence when facilitating PA, level of involvement within the school and personal activity behaviours. Teachers indicated their strength of feeling using a five-point Likert scale and could optionally add comment to their responses.

Purposive sampling of a representative group of six teachers, three from each school, occurred on analysis of questionnaire responses. Variation in the sample was primarily found through teach-ers’ prioritization of and perceived ability to facilitate PA.

Choice of intervention programme: Active tools

A variety of professional development programme models, both international and national, were compared and contrasted by the researchers to assist with the selection of an intervention pro-gramme. On discussion with the principals of both schools, the New Zealand Active Tools pro-gramme was selected as it offered a different approach and was perceived to be able to meet the teachers’ needs for professional development. Both principals requested a programme that would address how to implement physical activity and provide actual activity examples for use by the teachers without the need for an abundance of resources. The Active Tools programme offered this approach and was therefore selected. The philosophy of Active Tools is one of an inclusive whole-school approach that encourages all teachers in a school to experience professional development first-hand and to experience and modify activities to suit their individual needs34.

Active Tools, designed in response to requests from teachers for assistance with PA facilitation, has been developed over the past five years to align with government initiatives and nationwide PA programmes35. Active Tools is focused on activating the whole school environment through incor-porating the exploration of physical activity concepts and practical activities (tools) within a work-shop setting34. Alignment has been achieved through the provision of activities and pedagogical ‘tools’ that incorporate both current curricular and extra-curricular elements for teachers to indi-vidualize for their school settings34. These ‘tools’ assist teachers to work towards meeting PA guidelines34. For the current study, all participants experienced an Active Tools intervention that encompassed the introduction of the programme approach and practical age and resource relevant activities. The philosophical foundation of this programme includes the exploration of the four E’s; Education, Everywhere, Everyone, Environment36.

Content is focused on incorporating a variety of methods and opportunities for teachers to inject activity into the school day, through both formal and informal opportunities. Workshops begin with a power point presentation focused on the philosophies and concepts of Active Tools, exploration of active opportunities in and around a school environment and the initiation of an individualized school development plan. Practical activities positioned within themes follow the power point and occur for the remainder of the workshop. Examples include ‘Action Starters’ and ‘Action Skills’. While the researchers were familiar with Active Tools, they had no involvement in the programme’s design or development.

Data collection and analysis

The primary data collection technique used was semi-structured interviews conducted over three phases.

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Three semi-structured interviews with six participants were completed30,33: Phase One inter-views occurred prior to the intervention; Phase Two interviews were conducted within ten days post-intervention; and Phase Three interviews occurred four months post-intervention. Interviews focused on individual perceptions of PA, requirements for effective professional development and the Active Tools programme itself. Engagement of the same participants for each phase allowed tracking of any differences in attitude and resulting professional practice37.

Data were analysed using an inductive approach32. Constant comparative methods enabled interview data to be compared with related literature and school documents30. From there, com-monalities could then be identified to cull for meaning framed by the focus of inquiry.

Results and discussion

‘It was good to have everyone on board’, was noted by a Forestview participant, who felt that it was good to have all teachers participating in the professional development intervention. Central to this emergent theme, a number of participants commented on the concept of whole school involvement. Manifestations of whole school involvement include organizational culture, collabo-ration and leadership. Hoye et al proposed that within sport and PA contexts, an organization’s culture can be inflexible and resistant to change; is shaped by an organization’s circumstances and history; is learned and shared by members; and is reflected in common understandings, values and beliefs which can be hard to identify28. Schein proposed that culture refers to those elements of an organization that are most stable and least malleable and can only be partially influenced by leader behaviour26.

Pre-intervention

Participants were aware of the proposed participation of the whole teaching staff, but as neither school had experience with this approach, they did not seem to focus on this aspect pre-interven-tion. One teacher did comment: ‘I’m quite excited about this in-service next Friday for the whole school; all the teachers will be enthused about it’. A Beachview teacher who was not very positive about her school culture felt:

It’s such a different school; it’s an independent school, independent in the way people think and do things. So, I could say we should all get out and do things but people are very free spirited here. There are no syndicates. There’s no teams to get out there and do things with, but they are too busy doing maths or writing or something. I feel on my own a lot.

Immediately post-intervention

Participants unanimously agreed that inclusion of the entire teaching staff was relevant and neces-sary. Participants described a need for teachers to work together in relation to PA. A Beachview teacher mentioned:

I think if you are going to change the physical activity culture in a school, it’s very important to get the whole staff on board. It means that we can all change our ideas quite quickly. It was good to have everyone on board, we are all talking the same language, we don’t have to induct anybody into the way we are thinking.

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The Beachview teacher who was negative about her school culture prior to the intervention felt the inclusion of the whole teaching staff was: ‘Very good, high, excellent’ as the experience pro-vided the opportunity for the development of collegial relationships. A Forestview teacher stated:

I think it’s good that everyone has the opportunity to experience the different activities and pick out the ones that suit them for their level. You are doing it practically, rather than getting second hand messages. It makes you more aware if all of you are doing it.

Additionally, a third teacher, also from Forestview, saw benefits in whole staff participation and felt the staff as a whole had benefited from new knowledge of ‘…different activities and lots of ideas’.

One manifestation of organizational culture is the concept of collaboration. Professional devel-opment can be useful; particularly if teachers have input and work collaboratively to ensure it achieves desired outcomes18,21. A Forestview teacher stated: ‘To be an effective teacher you need to put the kids first and work together as a team. Then you will find it will be effective. If you do it alone, you are not sure it will be effective’.

Another teacher from Beachview felt a collaborative approach was needed for implementation of activities learned during professional development: ‘I think it’s a team effort. You need to be with a team of people where you can all take ownership for introducing one activity learnt in pro-fessional development and being forced out of your comfort zone’.

Four months post-intervention

Teachers from Beachview school identified that they functioned with mostly segregated modes of operation. However, they also reported a strengthened and more collaborative culture was possible after experiencing professional development alongside each other at their school site. One teacher felt: ‘…we will be working together more and more, and that’s what we want people to do – to work collaboratively. It’s best for the children in the long run’.

A teacher from Forestview reflected ‘…the staff would like more. There were no complaints from the feedback I got, they enjoyed their time together’. Another Beachview teacher reported: ‘It [Active Tools] was fantastic, feedback from the staff was that it was really good to have new ideas that we could share’. A final comment made by a Forestview teacher summarized the importance these participants placed on collaboration: ‘I think I personally appreciate being at this school because of the togetherness, there is no segregation, we just feel that we are one’.

Schein identified that there are assumptions at the core of every culture about the proper way for individuals to relate to each other for group safety, comfort and productivity26. These assumptions deal with the environment the group creates for itself and must solve the problems of (a) power, influence and hierarchy, and (b) intimacy, love, and peer relationships26. Schein also described the characteristics of role relationships, which have been used to illuminate this concept of collabora-tion within the context of organizational culture.

While personally experiencing professional development was identified as important, partici-pants also noted that attendance alongside their colleagues was vital to support their experience. This resulted in participants feeling supported to implement activities, with the knowledge that others understood and had similar experience.

The importance and impact of leaders in their school were consistently mentioned. In general, these participants valued the role of school managers, and felt they influenced professional

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development opportunities and school culture as a whole. One Forestview teacher stated: ‘We all just go with the flow and support each other, the leadership in our school helps with this, we all get along’. Smith believed that school leaders needed to provide a strong sense of direction to shape the culture of a school27. Schein goes further by proposing the only thing of real importance that leaders do is to create and manage culture26. A teacher from Forestview provided support:

Providing professional development is up to each individual school and what management decides. It’s good here, but I think teachers would probably feel backed into a corner if they were told you have to do this and that and where there are certain targets to reach. It’s about focusing on the needs of our kids.

Leadership is required to meet the needs of the teachers and pupils within a school in times of change27. ‘We have had a lot of change in our school, good leaders and managers could help us to cope and adapt’ (Beachview participant). However, if principals and school managers are to imple-ment sustainable changes that are accepted and actioned by staff, they may need to provide support systems for them. Support may be in the form of staff mentoring programmes, prioritization during staff meetings, allocation of budget and approval of co-curricular physical activities. One teacher in particular, perceived that teachers should take the lead from management’s decisions regarding PA and professional development ‘…it comes down to the principal of the school. If they make provisions, sell it to the staff and provide support for the staff to progress’.

The lead teacher of PA and physical education at Forestview school embraced his leadership responsibilities: ‘I support teachers [who deliver] physical activity by explaining things and introduc-ing ideas’. He felt an effective leader ‘…has to be capable of motivating colleagues. They have to be enthusiastic, and be able to express appreciation and encourage professional growth and expertise’.

Synthesis of findings and discussion

The opportunity for the whole teaching staff to participate together in a professional development intervention was both unique and new to both schools. While the staff culture at both schools dif-fered significantly, teachers reported the value of sharing the experience with their colleagues. In particular teachers who had expressed lower levels of perceived confidence and competence pre-intervention, reported benefits from this collegial and collaborative approach.

Although models representing elements of organizational culture exist27, the researcher were not able to directly apply any of these to accurately represent findings from the current study. Therefore, a new model focused on enhancing PA (Figure 1) was created to represent the founda-tions contributing to effective organizational culture in relation to this study. This model is based on participant perceptions and analysis of these findings.

The foundational elements of collaboration and leadership are viewed by participants as con-tributors to a successful and strong organizational culture. However, existing organizational culture also impacts on an individual’s willingness to collaborate and accept leadership. Therefore the double arrows within Figure 1 indicate that these two elements can also be influenced by the orga-nizational culture in place. Smith27 captured this concept by stating that: ‘Any leader should con-sult, work for a negotiated solution and involve colleagues who will, because they have been part of the decision-making process, feel that they have a sense of ownership’. Lastly, a PA ‘top’, with a double-headed arrow has been placed on the model to reflect findings from this study in relation to the impact that existing organizational culture may have on PA and teachers feeling supported to deliver this content.

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Teachers from the present study reported that first-hand participation in Active Tools was pref-erable to a representative teacher attending offsite professional development and ‘reporting back’ on return to the school. Additionally, they highly valued participation alongside their colleagues, providing the opportunity for staff to work together, discuss their experiences and explore any potential integration of workshop material into existing programmes. Participants valued having input, feeling supported by those in leadership positions, and exploring the use of content and the potential for subsequent development of collegial relationships. These concepts are reflective of these teachers’ requirements for effective professional development, which in turn may address perceived levels of competence and confidence in relation to PA.

Limitations, implications and recommendations

The outcomes of this research were limited by the choice of research participants and the interven-tion programme. These included costs of teacher release for the intervention programme and the decision by principals to introduce the professional development during term time, therefore limit-ing staff availability for additional programme experience. It is acknowledged that further expo-sure to the Active Tools programme may be required to create significant change to a whole school physical activity culture. The researchers offered additional experiential opportunities to both schools; however, timeframes and scheduled projects related to other curriculum areas precluded this from happening. The researchers chose, instead, to prioritize a longer time period between the second and third interviews, enabling further investigation into the inclusion and sustainability of programme content. Although Active Tools provided just one professional development option, some of the findings may be pertinent to similar projects and applicable to other school settings.

Although extensive literature exists in relation to professional development and the health ben-efits of physical activity in particular, there was a paucity of research in relation to teachers’ per-ceptions of professional development for PA. Importantly, there seemed to be a dearth of research relating to the teaching of PA in New Zealand primary schools. As previously identified, teachers play a key role in both the education and leadership of PA experiences for children15,29. Findings from the current research highlighted teachers’ approval of professional development as one option for assisting them to feel more knowledgeable about facilitating activities and therefore more

Physicalactivity

Organizational culture

LeadershipC

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bora

tion

Figure 1. Pillars of effective organizational culture model

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skilled and effective in their roles. ‘I think it’s very important for people to be very current in their practice and it’s evident when they are not, hugely, and it has a huge effect on the children. I almost think it’s neglect to not be current’ (Beachview participant).

Participants in this study with perceived lower levels of confidence particularly, valued collegial support and guidance from those in leadership positions. This concept of collegiality is closely linked with organizational culture, a well-researched area26–28. Although the present study specifi-cally sought to reveal thoughts in relation to PA and professional development, participants often reported strengths and issues related to their whole school environment. These participants high-lighted the concepts of collaboration and leadership as foundations of an effective organizational culture that may enhance the delivery of PA. Schools and other organizations seeking to enhance existing organizational culture may wish to consider these foundations.

The notion of whole school involvement as a significant contributor toward teachers viewing professional development positively has practical implications. More specifically, there are impli-cations for lead agencies charged with the leadership of PA and health related concerns for chil-dren. The significance of the present study is that it provides a tangible starting point for lead agencies and practitioners. To the researcher’s knowledge, it is the first to investigate teachers’ perceptions in relation to professional development for PA in New Zealand.

Future researchers, programme designers and schools can draw on the learning from this study in relation to exploring the benefits of whole staff involvement in professional development to assist with developing collegial relationships, and teachers’ preferences for learning structures and experi-ences. Undoubtedly of most significance is the potential for the children attending primary schools to benefit. This may be in terms of enhanced PA opportunities through improved quality and quantity of programmes, enhanced staff and school culture, and input encouraged from staff and students.

Conclusion

Physical activity has been identified as a priority by relevant lead agencies in New Zealand. This priority fits well in terms of the international arena, where stakeholders address various health issues with an emphasis on prevention. Focusing on children is beneficial in terms of creating lifelong active behaviours. Teachers, therefore, hold a vital role in this process. To retain teachers, it is important for them to feel supported to prioritize PA and provide quality programmes. Participants in this research anticipated increased support and development of collegial relation-ships if teaching staff participated in professional development together. Whole-school involve-ment and organizational culture appear to strongly impact on the uptake and sustainability of professional development experiences relating to PA. It is recommended that future research con-ducted in this area considers teachers’ views and desires, as they are the delivery mechanism for reaching and influencing our children to develop a lifelong orientation towards PA.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

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