This article was downloaded by: [University of Toronto Libraries]On: 11 July 2014, At: 12:04Publisher: Taylor & FrancisInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Critical Reviews in Food Science and NutritionPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/bfsn20

Nutraceutical and Functional Scenario of Wheat StrawImran Pasha a , Farhan Saeed a , Khalid Waqas a , Faqir Muhammad Anjum a & MuhammadUmair Arshad aa National Institute of Food Science and Technology , University of Agriculture , Faisalabad ,PakistanAccepted author version posted online: 04 Sep 2012.Published online: 05 Dec 2012.

To cite this article: Imran Pasha , Farhan Saeed , Khalid Waqas , Faqir Muhammad Anjum & Muhammad Umair Arshad (2013)Nutraceutical and Functional Scenario of Wheat Straw, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 53:3, 287-295, DOI:10.1080/10408398.2010.528080

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2010.528080

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) containedin the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make norepresentations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of theContent. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, andare not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon andshould be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable forany losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoeveror howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use ofthe Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematicreproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in anyform to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 53:287–295 (2013)Copyright C©© Taylor and Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1040-8398 / 1549-7852 onlineDOI: 10.1080/10408398.2010.528080

Nutraceutical and FunctionalScenario of Wheat Straw

IMRAN PASHA, FARHAN SAEED, KHALID WAQAS,FAQIR MUHAMMAD ANJUM, and MUHAMMAD UMAIR ARSHADNational Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

In the era of nutrition, much focus has been remunerated to functional and nutraceutical foodstuffs. The health endorsingpotential of such provisions is attributed to affluent phytochemistry. These dynamic constituents have functional possessionsthat are imperative for cereal industry. The functional and nutraceutical significance of variety of foods is often accreditedto their bioactive molecules. Numerous components have been considered but wheat straw and its diverse components areof prime consideration. In this comprehensive dissertation, efforts are directed to elaborate the functional and nutraceuticalimportance of wheat straw. Wheat straw is lignocellulosic materials including cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. It hold var-ious bioactive compounds such as policosanols, phytosterols, phenolics, and triterpenoids, having enormous nutraceuticalproperties like anti-allergenic, anti-artherogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-thrombotic, cardio-protective and vasodilatory effects, antiviral, and anticancer. These compounds are protecting against various ailments likehypercholesterolemia, intermittent claudication, benign prostatic hyperplasia and cardiovascular diseases. Additionally,wheat straw has demonstrated successfully, low cost, renewable, versatile, widely distributed, easily available source for theproduction of biogas, bioethanol, and biohydrogen in biorefineries to enhance the overall effectiveness of biomass consump-tion in protected and eco-friendly environment. Furthermore, its role in enhancing the quality and extending the shelf life ofbakery products through reducing the progression of staling and retrogradation is limelight of the article.

Keywords Wheat, wheat straw, policosanol, phytosterol, nutraceutical, phenolic acids

INTRODUCTION

Plants are vital for human beings so as to assemble the es-sential requirements of nutrients. In the domain of nutrition,nemerous efforts were accomplished in the period of yore toram the vitality and dietary regime linkages. Though, the ex-traction of bioactive components and their impact on humanmetabolism demands systematic research investigations to ob-tain persuasive and meticulous acquaintance for patrons (Rolleret al., 2007; Lairon, 2009). Cereals are staple foods for humannutrition and their assimilation into a wide range of products is ofenormous economic worth. The prime components of the grainare starch and proteins with non starch polysaccharides derivedfrom the cell walls (Saulnier et al., 2007; Leon et al., 2010).These components have major effects on the usage of cerealgrain (milling, baking, and animal feed) owing to their viscos-ity in aqueous solution. During processing, immense quantitiesof by-products are generated. Cereals, e.g., wheat, rice, maize

Address correspondence to Farhan Saeed, Ph.D., Scholar National Instituteof Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pak-istan. E-mail: far1552@yahoo.com

(corn), oat, barley, and others like groundnut, soybean, and sugarcane, generate considerable amount of derivatives such as wheatstraw, rice husk, cereal chaff, wheat husk, peanut hull, soybeanhulls, hazelnut shells, sugar beet pulp, e-oiled soya, carbon fromwood, and fallen leaf, etc. (Gupta et al., 2006, 2007; Han et al.,2008). These by-products constitute a major part of the totalannual production of biomass residues and are crucial sourceof fuel, energy, animal feed, industrial raw material, and bioac-tive ingredients both for domestic as well as industrial purposes(Atchison, 1997; Tsang et al., 2007; Dang et al., 2009).

Among cereals, wheat is a major part of most diets of thePakistani populace and ubiquitous grain crop in consequence ofits agronomic adaptability, ease of storage, nutritional goodnessand the ability of its flour to produce various products. In agricul-ture, it imparts 13.1% to the value added and 2.8% in the grossdomestic product (GDP). In agriculture, it imparts 13.1% to thevalue added and 2.8% in the GDP. Size of farming of wheatin world is 607 million metric tons (FAOSTAT, 2007), whilein Pakistan, it is provisionally projected at 23.4 million tonswhich is increasing annually (GOP, 2009–10). During wheatprocessing, enormous quantity of wheat straw is produced as aby-product.

287

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f T

oron

to L

ibra

ries

] at

12:

05 1

1 Ju

ly 2

014

288 I. PASHA ET AL.

Wheat straw consists of 60% of the crop. One hectare ofwheat produces more than 4.8 tons of straw (Saha et al., 2005).Straw is the above-ground fractions (normally cut at a heightof around 20 cm) after removal of the grain (Theander, 1985).In the United States, it is estimated that over 90 million metrictons wheat straw is produced per annum (FAO, 2003). Recently,wheat straw is used as livestock comforter or low-grade animalfeed endowing with minimal return. At this time, only about3.2% of the economic return on wheat is from straw (Hoskinsonet al., 2001).

Wheat straw is renewable, usually dispersed, accessiblenearby, moldable, anisotropic, hydroscopic, eco-friendly,multipurpose, nonabrasive, permeable, viscoelastic, recyclable,burnable, and imprudent (Rowell and Spelter 2003). It islignocellulosic materials including approximately 35–40%cellulose, 30–35% hemicellulose, and 10–15% lignin (Harperand Lynch, 1981; McKendry, 2002). Wheat straw also containsboth lipophilic and hydrophilic compounds which may bereleased or interfere during pulping and pretreatment offeedstock before hydrolysis of carbohydrate polymers to theirmonomeric sugars before microbial fermentation (Sun and Sun,2001; Sun et al., 2003). Lipophilic extracts from wheat strawcontains free fatty acids (25.8–48.4%), waxes (9.4–27.0%),sterols (4.1–8.0%), triglycerides (3.3–11.0%), sterol esters(2.6–5.1%), minor amounts of diglycerides (0.3–0.5%), andresin acid (0.5–3.1%) (Sun et al., 2003). Wheat straw is vitalsource of bioactive compounds for instance; policosanols(PC), phytosterols (PS), phenolic compounds, and triterpenoids(Sun and Sun, 2001; Irmak and Dunford, 2005). Recoveryof these high value bioactive compounds during or beforebioconversion of wheat straw to ethanol improves the feasibilityof the conversion process (Dunford and Edwards, 2010). Wheatstraw is valuable to build up composite products like sorbents,geotextiles, structural composites, filters, molded products,nonstructural composites, packaging and permutations withother resources (Rogers et al., 2007) (Table 1).

Table 1 Biochemical composition of wheat straw

Component Content (%) Investigators

Cellulose 35–40 Harper and Lynch (1981), McKendry(2002), Sun and Tomkinson (2000)

Hemicellulose 30–35 Harper and Lynch (1981), McKendry(2002), Sun and Tomkinson (2000)

Lignin 10–15 Harper and Lynch (1981), McKendry(2002), Sun and Tomkinson (2000)

Policosanols 0.3 Irmak et al. (2005), Nurhan and Edwards(2010)

Phytosterols 1.2 Irmak et al. (2005), Nurhan and Edwards(2010)

Phenolic Compounds(p-Coumaric acid,Ferulic acid)

2.13 1.35 Galleti et al. (1988), Benoit et al. (2005),Kaparaju et al. (2009)

Triterpenoids Traces Irmak et al. (2005), Nurhan and Edwards(2010)

Ash 5.9 Sun and Tomkinson (2000),Nurhan andEdwards (2010)

BIOACTIVE COMPONENTS AND THEIRPERSPECTIVES

Policosanol

Currently, surplus 25 countries throughout the Caribbean andSouth America grant the approval of original PC as supple-ment for cholesterol-lowering drug. Genotype and environmenthas a major effect on PC content in wheat straw (Christopheret al., 2010; Dunford and Edwards, 2010). Wheat straw con-tains momentous amount of PC (137–274 mg/kg) (Irmak andDunford, 2005; Dunford and Edwards, 2010). It is long chainaliphatic alcohol, consists of octacosanol (CH3-CH2 (26)-CH2-OH), triacontanol and hexacosanol. Other alcohols, namelytetracosanol, heptacosanol, nonacosanol, dotriacontanol, andtetratriacontanol, are minor components (Arruzazabala et al.,2000). PC has immense nutraceutical value as it is persuasiveantioxidants, endorse proper arterial endothelial cell function,restrain platelet aggregation and thrombosis, and act as effectualtreatment for sporadic claudication. Clinical research shows thatPC works as FDA-approved drugs in lowering cholesterol. Sideeffects are virtually nonexistent (Noa et al., 2001).

PC educes cholesterol-lowering effects by inhibiting endoge-nous cholesterol biosynthesis via enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase activity. Although fibrob-lasts containing either 14C-acetate or 14C-mevalonate werenurtured with PC at amount of 0.5 µg/mL, 5.0 µg/mL, and50 µg/mL, the incorporation of 14C from acetate into choles-terol was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner (Menendezet al., 1994, 2001). Acetate and mevalonate are two biochemicalintermediates found within the endogenous cholesterol biosyn-thesis pathway. Acetate is transformed to mevalonate by 3-hydroxy3-methyl-glutaryl CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase. It hasbeen recommended that PC might reduce the synthesis of HMG-CoA reductase or enhance its degradation (Menendez et al.,2001). Menendez et al. (2001) intended that PC diminishesthe action of HMG-CoA reductase by disquieting the physico-chemical attributes of definite cellular organelle membranes.PC alters their analogous acids into the endoplasmic reticulum(ER) and influences peroxisome (Hargrove et al., 2004) as per-oxisome and ER hold the highest levels of HMG-CoA reductase(Olivier and Krisans, 2000). Moreover, dietary fatty acids affectHMG-CoA reductase activity by changing the membrane flu-idity of cellular organelles (Davis and Poznansky, 1987). Eventhough proof has yet to be published that PC acids are incorpo-rated into the membranes of the ER and peroxisome, devastateHMG-CoA reductase activity.

Symptom of abnormal lipoprotein in plasma is the indica-tion of hypercholesterolemia. Castano et al. (2002) observedthe effects of PC supplementation on patients of hypercholes-terolemia. PC holds ability to manage significant reduction intotal cholesterol (TC) and low density lipoprotein cholesterol(LDL-C) levels ranging from 12.8 to 23% and 11.3 to 31.2%,respectively (Mas et al., 1999; Castano et al., 2001, 2003, 2005;Mirkin et al., 2001). The people, who opt to utilize PC for

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f T

oron

to L

ibra

ries

] at

12:

05 1

1 Ju

ly 2

014

NUTRACEUTICAL AND FUNCTIONAL SCENARIO OF WHEAT STRAW 289

eradicating hypercholesterolemia, are educated to commencetreatment at 5 mg/day. If unproductive, the therapy dose shouldbe gradually augmented to an utmost of 20 mg/day (ThorneRe-search, 2004). Cholesterol reductions are dose-dependent andpersistent across a sort of population including postmenopausalwomen (Castano et al., 2001; Mirkin et al., 2001) and patientwith coronary heart disease diabetes (Torres et al., 1995), hyper-tension (Castano et al., 2003) and multiple coronary risk factors(Mas et al., 1999).

Intermittent Claudication is related with a significant increasein mortality owing to the continuation of underlying cardiacdisease. Intermittent Claudication is a condition linked withperipheral vascular disease. Due to the narrowing of arteriesand reduced blood flow, patients experience pain in the lowerextremities during physical activity (Castano et al., 1999). PCsupplementations endow with treatment for patients diagnosedwith intermittent claudication via its defensive approach. Pa-tients suffer from pain in the lower extremities during physicalactivity attributable to the tapering of arteries and reduced bloodflow (Sun et al., 2003). Patients diagnosed with intermittent clau-dication in receipt of 20 mg/day of PC for 6 months are able to in-crease their walking distance before the onset of pain from 132.5to 205.7 m (Dunford and Edwards, 2010). In another study,patients receiving PC treatment are able to increase the walk-ing distance associated with the onset of intolerable pain suchthat the activity is stopped from 230 to 365 m (Castano et al.,1999).

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) can be controlled via PCsupplements by improving risk factors associated with arte-riosclerosis. First, the original PC supplement improves thefunctionality of the endothelial cells lining arterial walls. Mal-functioning or damaged endothelial cells cause the arterial wallto become irregular. This irregularity encourages the creation ofblood clots and/or atherosclerotic plaques by endorsing inflam-mation, platelet aggregation and the release of clotting factors(Guyton and Hall, 1996; Elkind, 2006). Platelets perform a vitalfunction in blood clot formation, which can lead to a reductionin blood flow and eventually a stroke or embolism. PC restrainsplatelet aggregation and may enhance the effect of other an-ticoagulant medications. PC combined with aspirin; boost upcoagulation time in humans (Arruzazabala et al., 1997).

Phytosterol

PS is plant-derived mixture structurally associated to mam-malian cell-derived cholesterol that occupy as essential ingre-dient of plant cell membrane (Lichtenstein and Deckelbaum,2002). Wheat straw contains 834–1,206 mg/kg PS (Irmakand Dunford, 2005). PS consists of campesterol, β-sitosterol,stigmasterol, and stigmastanol. β-Sitosterol is approximately60–76% of the total PS (Award and Fink, 2000; Dunford andEdwards, 2010). PS has analogous structure to that of cholesterolwith slight modification. PS are intricate to measure, usually re-quiring the vigilant selection of internal standards, isolations

and derivatizations for analysis (Plante et al., 2010). With therecent interest in the biological role of PS, a consistent ana-lytical protocol for the measurement of content and purity insamples is required. The high performance liquid chromatogra-phy (HPLC) technique with charged aerosol detection is easy toexecute, has fine linearity and sensitivity to determine copiousPS in plant extracts. PSs struggle with cholesterol for absorp-tion in intestine thus reduce serum cholesterol levels. PSs areprimarily solubilized in the intestine into a micelle form. Thesemicelles interrelate with border cells and are converted into en-terocytes. PSs are esterified within the enterocyte, assembledinto chylomicrons and secreted into the lymphatics. They areexcreted via the biliary system (Lichtenstein and Deckelbaum,2002).

PS is proficient in reducing the low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol level. Epidemiological and experimental researchhas proposed that PS gives safety from a variety of disorderswhich include common cancers like colon, prostate and breastcancer, in addition vascular and CVDs (Award and Fink, 2000;American Heart Association, 2006). CVD is a prime reason offatalities and a key reason of disability. In Australia, currentfacts show that nearly 47,000 Australians have been died fromCVD in 2007 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009). The ma-jor cause of CVD is atherosclerosis. Low-density lipoproteincholesterol (LDL-C) is the foremost atherogenic constituent ofplasma while high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) actsas anti-atherogenic component. Epidemiological research haspointed toward an incessant linear association among LDL-Clevels and coronary heart ailment proceedings (Zhang et al.,2003). Barzi et al. (2005) revealed that assimilating PS in thefood might be a dexterous technique of lowering total andLDL-C levels. Daily PS utilization is conformist to be among160–400 mg in varied populace (Ostlund et al., 2002). Offspring(other than those with family hypercholesterolaemia) and preg-nant or lactating women do not entail PS fortified foodstuff as itis inappropriate to lower their cholesterol absorption (AmericanHeart Association, 2006).

Currently, PS are magnetizing a lot of attention and aware-ness as a vital element coupled with the aptitude to providehealth benefits, both in foods and as isolated form (Dillard andGerman, 2000). The exploitation of PS and its hydrogenatedforms in functional food formulations as a cholesterol loweringagent has now been well accepted by the consumers (Denke,1995; Volpe et al., 2001).

Phenolic Compounds

The processing of plants results in the production ofresidues as by-products that are affluent sources of bioactivecompound including phenolic acids particularly (Kris-Ethertonet al., 2002). In plants, Phenolic acids are derived metabolitesthat are imitative of the pentose phosphate, Shikimic acidand phenylpropanoid pathways (Randhir et al., 2004). Thesecompounds posses an aromatic ring bearing one or more

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f T

oron

to L

ibra

ries

] at

12:

05 1

1 Ju

ly 2

014

290 I. PASHA ET AL.

hydroxyl groups and their structures range from that of a simplephenolic molecule to that of a complex high-molecular weightpolymer (Balasundram et al., 2006). Wheat straw containsvarious phenolic acids; some found in major quantity likep-coumaric acid (2.13 mg/g), and ferulic acid (1.35 mg/g)but some in minute quantity e.g., p-hydroxybenzoic acid,vanillic acid, vanillin, syringic acid (Galleti et al., 1988; Benoitet al., 2005; Kaparaju et al., 2009). Phenolic acids derivedfrom pretreatment of wheat straw are computed through GCequipped by FID. Compounds are first extracted from theliquid fraction at pH 2 by solid-phase extraction on polystyrenedivinylbenzene polymer columns (Klinke et al., 2002).

Phenolic acids reveal a wide range of physiological char-acteristics; for instance anti-allergenic, anti-thrombotic, anti-artherogenic, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant,cardioprotective, and vasodilatory effects (Middleton et al.,2000; Puupponen-Pimia et al., 2002; Manach et al., 2005). Phe-nolic acids are major determinant of antioxidant potential of pro-visions (Parr and Bolwell, 2000), and is consequently a naturalsource of antioxidants. Complexity in the phenolic compoundsprofile has to be resolved to obtain the optimum antioxidantefficiency (Balasundram et al., 2006).

Triterpenoids

Wheat straw comprises of aromatic hydrocarbons in measur-able quantity. At a burning temperature (300◦C), assorted bio-genic pentacyclic aromatic triterpenoids are determined, whileother aromatic compounds (e.g., 2-phenylnaphthalene) occur inminute quantity (Wiesenberg et al., 2009). Triterpenoids com-prises of a large group of compounds having broad range ofphysical attributes and biological behavior with their nomencla-ture being well depicted (Mahato and Sen, 1997). Triterpenoidsare cycloartane, cholestane, and both tetracyclic-derived struc-tures in wheat straw. With regard to toxicity, the phytotoxiceffects of triterpenoids in higher plants are not revealed. Merelytwo compounds, digitoxigenin and estrofantidin, are mentionedas having verified antimicrobial activity (Rice, 1984; Putnam,1985). Macias et al. (1995) favored allelopathic properties forsome oxidized triterpenoids owing to inhibitory activities at lowconcentrations.

Triterpenoids demonstrate immense nutraceutical perspec-tive as having antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, andanticancer activities (Prachayasittikul et al., 2010). Currently, itis supposed that inhabitants suffer from androgen-mediated dis-eases frequently such as prostate cancer, acne, hirsutism, benignprostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and androgenic alopecia (Wasserand Weis, 1999; Bartsch et al., 2002). Primarily, BPH is one ofthe most common disorders diagnosed in older men, and 40% inmen 50–60 years of age and 90% in those having 80–90 yearsof age. The major prostatic androgen is dihydrotestosterone(DHT), which is created via steroid hormone from its substratetestosterone (Russell and Wilson, 1994). Triterpenoids are con-sidered as a valuable module in the treatment of BPH. They

Table 2 Functional & nutraceutical effect of bioactive compounds of wheatstraw

Bioactive Functional andcompounds nutraceutical role References

Policosanol Intermittent claudication,hypercholesterolemia,promoters of endothelialfunction, inhibitors ofplatelet aggregation andthrombosis

Elkind (2006), Guyton andHall (1996)

Phytosterol Coronary heart disease,phytosterolemia,atherosclerosis

Berger et al. (2004), Katanet al. (2003), Bhattacharyyaand Connor (1974)

Triterpenoids Benign prostatic hyperplasia Liu et al. (2007)Phenolic acids Reduce oxidation process Gouni-Berthold and Berthold

(2002)

reduce DHT levels by blocking its conversion from testosterone(Liu et al., 2007).

At present time, no specific isolation method is availablefor triterpenoids because of less research work. The extractionprocedure usually depends upon the material to be isolated, con-ditions and available information during extraction. The mostgenerally used solvents are methanol mixtures, chloroform, ace-tone, dichloromethane, petroleum ether and ethanol. Usually aminute quantity of water (2–7%) is added if the material isdry because its presence enhances the yield of triterpenoids.Regarding the individual severance of tetracyclic triterpenoids,the most often used methods are adsorption CC (silica gel oralumina) or reversed phase (Sephadex LH 20), reverse phaseor argentation thin layer chromatography (TLC) and HPLC.HPLC is the most conventional technique as it domino ef-fect in lower losses, constructs fewer work of art and has agreater number of theoretical plates (higher resolution). Gaschromatography (GC) is generally used as an analytical tech-nique to assess the purity of isolated compounds (Horace andStephen, 1999), (Table 2).

Table 3 Molecular weight and structure of bioactive components of wheatstraw

Bioactive components MolecularSr. no. of wheat straw Structure weight

1 Phytosterolsa Ergosterol C 28 H 44 O 396.63b Stigmasterol C 29 H 48 O 412.67c Betasitosterol C 29 H 50 O 414.69d Campesterol C 28 H 48 O 400.66e Betasitostanol C 29 H 55 O 416.71

2 Policosanols C 28 H 58O 410.763 Triterpenoids C 30 H 52O 424.074 p-Coumeric acid C 9 H 8 O3 164.0473445 Ferulic acid C 10 H 10O4 194.057909

References: Benoit et al. (2005), Petrucci et al. (2002), Arruzazabala et al.(2000), and Guyton and Hall (1996).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f T

oron

to L

ibra

ries

] at

12:

05 1

1 Ju

ly 2

014

NUTRACEUTICAL AND FUNCTIONAL SCENARIO OF WHEAT STRAW 291

Fibrous Ligno-Cellulosic Materials

Cell wall of wheat straw typically consists of fibrous ligno-cellulosic material, which has some distinct characteristics(Sanadi, 2004; Maya and Thomas, 2008; Zhang, 2008). Fi-brous lingo-cellulosic materials are categorized into cellulose,lignin and hemicellulose (pentosans) (Lawther et al. 1995; Sunet al., 1998). In wheat straw, cellulose and hemicellulose are theprime components, and are not directly available for biocon-version owing to their intimate association with lignin (Binderet al., 1980; Fengel and Wegener, 1989).

Cellulose is one of the principal polymers due to its an-nual production and in its industrial purposes. It is a linearcrystalline polymer of (1-4)-β-D-glucose (Focher et al., 2001).Inside wheat straw, cellulose is documented as cellulose I al-lomorph with low crystallinity and the crystallinity of cellu-lose from different parts of the wheat straw has minute dif-ference. Cellulose chains in the epidermis of wheat straw ismeasured with their orientation along with the growth direc-tion of wheat straw, while those in parenchyma is observedwith almost no preferred orientation (Liu et al., 2005). Thereare two kinds of morphologies in the outer surface of wheatstraw, a fiber structure consisting of fibrils with diameter about5l m and one with a serration structure at the edge of thefiber. These serration structures connect the fibers together(Lu et al., 2004).

Lignin is a highly complex amorphous polymer of phenylpropane with some variation in the chemistry of the basicbuilding blocks between softwoods, hardwoods and agricul-tural plants. Lignin is non polysaccharidic in nature consistingof n-coumaryl, coniferyl and sinapyl alcohol units linked byalkyl, aryl, and combination of both (Iranmahboob et al., 2002).In plants, lignin has key significance on different aspects, i.e.,its function in plant development, involvement to mechanicalstrength and guard from degradation (Walker, 1975). Concern-ing nutritional worth, lignin has always been blamed as an im-portant barrier to polysaccharide utilization. Lignin must beremoved before extraction via hydrogen peroxide because it in-creases the purity of the yielded hemicellulose (Curling et al.,2005). Lignins are always associated with hemicellulose, notonly in intimate physical mixture but also fixed to the latter byactual covalent bonds (Cooper et al., 1999). Most lignins con-tain some phenolic compound (P-coumaric and ferulic acids),which enhance its significance (Palmqvist and Hahn-Hagerdal,2000).

Hemicellulose (pentosan) is the second most ordinarypolysaccharide available in nature (Saha, 2003). Hemicellulosediffer from cellulose by having a composition of varioussugar units (usually including L-arabinose, D-galactose, D-xylose, D-glucose, D-mannose, 4-O-methyl-D-glucuronic acid,D-glucuronic acid, and D-galacturonic acid), shorter molecularchains and by carrying side-groups, like acetate and methylate(Lundqvist et al., 2002). Enzymes and chemical reagentsseparate the hemicellulose fraction. Enzymatic hydrolysisof hemicellulose is a promising method, which requires

no pretreatment, reagents and subsequent neutralization(Hagglund, 2002). The structural characteristics of hemicellu-loses isolated from delignified wheat straw can be examinedby GC, Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FT-IR) andnuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) (Peng and Wu, 2010).Hemicellulose can be utilized to produce bioethanol, foodindustrial products, biopolymers, and other chemicals (bio-surfactants, adhesives, pharmaceuticals) (Kalman and Reczey,2007).

Hemicellulose primarily classified into arabinoxylans (AX)and arabinogalactans (AG), with a linear xylan backbone anda high degree of branching with single arabinose side residuesand, with a galactan backbone and a high degree of branchingwith arabinose side residues, respectively (Neukom andMarkwalder, 1978). They execute an imperative role in end-usequality of cereal based products through their interaction withwater and aptitude to cross link other arabinoxylans moleculesand proteins (Finnie et al., 2006; Du et al., 2009). Functionalproperties of these compounds are strongly associated with theirmolecular weights and degrees of branching in baked products(Ebringerova et al., 1994; Sasaki et al., 2004; Autio, 2006;Revanappa et al., 2009). They revealed considerably higherwater solubility that eventually leads to higher water absorptioncapacities, e.g., in wheat flour (Sasaki et al., 2007). They controldifferent parameter in bread making including bread volume;crumb firmness, gas retention and baking absorption. Theconcentration of arabinoxylans, which enhance the loaf volumeat utmost is dependent upon nature of flour used and molecularweight of arabinoxylans (Biliaderis et al., 1995; Delcour et al.,1999). Similarly, Wang et al., (2002) observed considerablereduction in the crumb firmness owing to addition of nonstarchpolysaccharides thus consequential in improvement of breadtexture.

Nutraceutical worth of arabinoxylans include controlling dia-betes mellitus, cardiovascular disorders, improving colon func-tion (Lu et al., 2000; Nino-Medina et al., 2009), and usuallyimproving body health (Lu et al., 2004). Improved glycaemiccontrol is importance in people with diabetes mellitus and itscomplications, e.g., CVDs. Consumption of AX fiber is alliedwith considerable reduction in blood glucose, insulin concen-trations, and fructosamine (Garcia et al., 2007). The methodby which AX-rich fiber reduces blood glucose is so far mys-terious (Lu et al., 2004); however, its high viscosity and sol-uble character might be possible rationalizations. Lu et al.,(2000) and Zunft et al., (2004) also sustained the hypothe-sis of slow gastric emptying for reducing the glucose absorp-tion from intestines. The nutraceutical prospective of arabi-noxylans and arabinogalactans is of principal importance forhealth care specialists. Though, they have dissimilar mode ofaction and should be used selectively e.g. arabinoxylan fordiabetes mellitus and arabinogalactan for enhancing immu-nity and fight against contagion. Furthermore, researcher con-centration is immediately required to analyze their combina-tions and results of such studies for the meticulousness of theconcerns.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f T

oron

to L

ibra

ries

] at

12:

05 1

1 Ju

ly 2

014

292 I. PASHA ET AL.

NONFOOD APPLICATIONS

Bioethanol, Biohydrogen, and Biogas Production

Recently, fossil fuels and energy shortage has provoked anovel curiosity in the utilization of agricultural wastes as feed-stock and the production of bioactive chemicals. Wheat strawhas demonstrated effectively for production of bioethanol biogasand biohydrogen in biorefinery to enhance the overall efficiencyof biomass utilization (Fan et al., 2006; Linde et al., 2007).Biorefining originated value added products via fractionation ofthe biomass with chemical and biotechnological methods. Thepurpose of most researches in the field of lignocellulose utiliza-tion is the production of ethanol (Kalman and Reczey, 2007).Initially, wheat straw releases cellulose rich fiber fraction andhemicellulose rich liquid fraction by hydrothermal treatment.Enzymatic hydrolysis and consequent fermentation of cellu-lose produces 0.41 g-ethanol/g-glucose, whereas fermentationof hemicellulose produce 178.0 mL-H2/g-sugars (Hjersted andHenson, 2006; Chu and Lee, 2007). Moreover, appraisal ofwheat straw to biofuel production shows that either use of wheatstraw for biogas production or multi-fuel production shows vig-orously most proficient progressions contrasted to production ofmono-fuel such as bioethanol. Hence, multiple biofuels produc-tion from wheat straw strengthens the effectiveness for materialand energy and composes more efficient process for biomassconsumption (Kaparaju et al., 2009). For economic and strate-gic reasons, several countries have already decided to produceethanol fuel from biomass during the 20th century and moreattention has been required to control environmental problemslike the acceleration of the global warming caused by the anthro-pogenic emission and also the danger of running out of fossilfuels in the next few decades and find out the best renewableenergy sources.

Removal of Dyes

The traditional techniques of dye removal from industrialeffluents include ion exchange, membrane technology, coag-ulation, oxidation or ozonation, flocculation, and adsorption(Chinwetkitvanich et al., 2000; Gholam et al., 2003; Lopezet al., 2004; Petzold et al., 2007) which are the most effec-tive and commonly used for the treatment of dye wastewaters,however, these methods have relatively high price, high operat-ing costs, and problems with regeneration of the used sorbents ifapplied at large scale. A number of findings have disclosed thatsome raw agricultural by-products have the potential of beingused as substitute sorbent for the removal of dyes from wastew-ater which include sawdust bagasse pith (Mall et al., 2006),rice hull (Guo et al., 2005), peanut hull (Gong et al., 2005),barley husk (Robinson et al., 2002), leaf (Bhattacharyya andSarma, 2003), and other agricultural wastes (Robinson et al.,2002; Gong et al., 2005). Generally, sorption capacity of rawagricultural by-products is very low and various chemical mod-

ifications are used to improve the sorption capacity of crudeagricultural byproducts (Girek et al., 2005; Gong et al., 2005;Petzold et al., 2007). Among them, wheat straw has achievedmore importance due to low cost, renewable, locally availablematerial. Modified wheat straw is prepared by the reaction ofwheat straw (WS) with epichlorohydrin and trimethylamine inthe presence of ethylenediamine and N,N-dimethylformamidefor the removal of Acid Red 73 and Reactive Red 24 (Orlandoet al., 2002), which show significant results. Previous discoveryshowed that modification of wheat straw is capable of removingboth phosphate and nitrate (Wang et al., 2007; Xu et al., 2009).

CONCLUSION

The vitality commending eventual of functional foods has en-dorsed to prosperous bioactive components. These componentsare crucial for appropriate physiological functionality of wholebody organs. Among these components, wheat straw holds po-tential to act as both functional as well as nutraceutical foods. Itis also used as venerable source of bioactive compounds such asPCs, PSs, phenolic compounds, and triterpenoids. PC is power-ful antioxidants, promote proper arterial endothelial cell func-tion, inhibit platelet aggregation and thrombosis, and serve aseffective treatments for intermittent claudication. CVDs can becontrolled via PC supplements by improving risk factors as-sociated with arteriosclerosis. PS is efficient in lowering low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol levels. Phenolic compounds hav-ing higher antioxidant activity are used to increase the shelflifeof various food products. Wheat straw is an important source offuel, energy, animal feed, industrial raw material and bioactiveingredients both for domestic as well as industrial purposes. Italso has role in developing composite products like geotextiles,filters, sorbents, structural composites, nonstructural compos-ites, molded products, packaging and combinations with othermaterials. Moreover, wheat straw has demonstrated successfullyfor production of bioethanol biogas and biohydrogen in biore-finery to enhance the overall proficiency of biomass relevance.

REFERENCES

American Heart Association, AHA. (2006). Stroke News 12/28/2000. Deathsfrom heart disease and stroke down, but not enough. Available fromhttp://216.185. 112.5/presenter. Jhtml? Identifier 2687. Accessed July 17,2010.

Arruzazabala, M. L., Noa, M., Menendez, R., Mas, R., Carbajal, D., Valdes,S., and Molina, V. (2000). Protective effect of policosanol on atheroscleroticlesions in rabbits with exogenous hypercholesterolemia. Braz. J. Med. Biol.Res. 33: 835–840.

Arruzazabala, M. L., Valdes, S., and Mas, R. (1997). Comparative study ofpolicosanol, and the combination therapy policosanol-aspirin on platelet ag-gregation in healthy volunteers. Pharmacol. Res. 36: 293–297.

Atchison, J. E. (1997). Data on non-wood plant fibers. In: Pulp and PaperManufacture, pp. 157–169, Vol. 1: Properties of Fibrous Raw Materials andTheir Preparation for Pulping, Kocurek, M. J. and Stevens, C. F. B., Eds.,CPPA, Montreal, Canada.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f T

oron

to L

ibra

ries

] at

12:

05 1

1 Ju

ly 2

014

NUTRACEUTICAL AND FUNCTIONAL SCENARIO OF WHEAT STRAW 293

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2009). Causes of Death (3303.0). March 2009.Autio, K. (2006). Effects of cell wall components on the functionality of wheat

gluten. Biotechnol. Adv. 24(6): 633–635.Award, A. B., and Fink, C. S. (2000). Phytosterols as anticancer dietary com-

ponents: Evidence and mechanism of action. J. Nutr. 130: 2127–2130.Balasundram, N., Ai, T. Y., Sambanthamurthi, R., Sundram, K., and Samman,

S. (2006). Antioxidant properties of palm fruit extracts. Asia Pac. J. Clin.Nutr. 4(4): 319–324.

Bartsch, G., Rittmaster, R. S., and Klocker, H. (2002). Dihydrotestosterone andthe concept of 5a-reductase inhibition in human benign prostatic hyperplasia.World J. Uro. 19: 413–425.

Barzi, F., Patel, A., and Woodward, M. (2005). A comparison of lipid vari-ables as predictors of cardiovascular disease in the Asia Pacific region. Ann.Epidemiol. 15: 405–413.

Benoit, I., Navarro, D., Marnet, N., Rakotomanomana, N., and Johnson, I. T.(2005). Dietary fiber: Physiological effects on absorption. In: Encyclopediaof Human Nutrition. Second edition, pp. 572–578. Caballero, B., Allen, L.and Prentice, A., Eds., Elsevier Ltd., Oxford.

Berger, A., Jones, P. J., and Abumweis, S. S. (2004). Plant sterols: Factorsaffecting their efficacy and safety as functional food ingredients. Lipids HealthDis. 3: 5.

Bhattacharyya, A. K., and Connor, W. E. (1974). Beta-sitosterolemia and xan-thomatosis a newly described lipid storage disease in two sisters. J. Clin.Invest. 53: 1033–1043.

Bhattacharyya, K. G., and Sarma, A. (2003). Adsorption characteristics of thedye, brilliant green, on neem leaf powder. Dyes Pigments. 57: 211–222.

Biliaderis, C. G., Izydorczyk, M. S., and Rattan, O. (1995). Effect of arabinoxy-lans on bread-making quality of wheat flours. Food Chem. 5: 165–171.

Binder, A., Pelloni, L., and Fiechter, A. (1980). Delignification of straw withozone to enhance biodegradability. Eur. J. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 11:1–5.

Castano, G., Mas, R., and Fernandez, J. C. (2002). Effects of policosanol onolder patients with hypertension and type II hypercholesterolaemia. Drugs R.D. 3: 159–172.

Castano, G., Mas, R., and Fernandez, L. (2001). Effects of policosanol 20 versus40 mg/day in the treatment of patients with type II hypercholesterolemia: a6-month double-blind study. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Res. 21: 43–57.

Castano, G., Mas, R., and Roca, J. (1999). A double-blind, placebo-controlledstudy of the effects of policosanol in patients with intermittent claudication.Angiology 50: 123–130.

Castano, G., Mas, R., Fernandez, L., Illnait, J., Mendoza, S., Gamez, R., Fer-nandez, J., and Mesa, M. (2005). A comparison of the effects of D-003 andpolicosanol (5 and 10 mg/day) in patients with type II hypercholesterolemia:A randomized, double-blinded study. Drugs Exp. Clin. Res. 31: 31–44.

Castano, G., Mas, R., Fernandez, L., Illnait, J., Mesa, M., Alvarez, E., andLezcay, M. (2003). Comparison of the efficacy and tolerability of policosanolwith atorvastatin in elderly patients with type II hypercholesterolaemia. DrugsAging. 20(2): 153–163.

Chinwetkitvanich, S., Tuntoolvest, M., and Panswad, T. (2000). Anaerobic de-colorization of reactive dye bath effluents by a two-stage UASB system withtapioca as a cosubstrate. Water Res. 34: 222–232.

Christopher, P. F. M., Peter, J. H. J., Amira, N. K., and Michael, N. A. E. (2010).Policosanols as Nutraceuticals: Fact or Fiction. Crit. Rev. Food. Sci. 50(3):259–267.

Chu, B., and Lee, H. (2007). Genetic improvement of Saccharomyces cerevisiaefor xylose fermentation. Biotechnol. Adv. 25(5): 425–441.

Curling, S., Hill, C., and Fowler, P. (2005). Timber residue as a source forhemicellulose process chemicals. School of Agriculture and Forest Sciences,University of Wales, Bangor, UK.

Dang, V. B. H., Doan, H. D., Dang-Vuc, T., and Lohi, A. (2009). Equilibriumand kinetics of biosorption of cadmium(II) and copper(II) ions by wheatstraw. Bioresour. Technol. 100: 211–219.

Davis, P. J., and Poznansky, M. J. (1987). Modulation of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase by changes in microsomal cholesterol contentor phospholipid composition. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 84(1): 118–121.

Delcour, J. A., Van-Win, H., and Grobet, P. J. (1999). Distribution and structuralvariation of arabinoxylans in common wheat mill streams. J. Agric. FoodChem. 47: 271–275.

Denke, M. A. 1995. Lack of efficacy of low-dose sitostanol therapy as an adjunctto a cholesterol-lowering diet in men with moderate hypercholesterolemia.Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 61: 392–396.

Dillard, C. J., and German, J. B. (2000). Phytochemicals: nutraceuticals andhuman health. J. Sci. Food Agric. 80: 1744–1756.

Du, C., Campbell, G. M., Misailidisa, N., Mateos-Salvadora, F., Sadhukhanb,J., Mustafab, M., and Weightman, R. M. (2009). Evaluating the feasi-bility of commercial arabinoxylan production in the context of a wheatbiorefinery principally producing ethanol. Part 1. Experimental studiesof arabinoxylan extraction from wheat bran. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 87:1232–1238.

Dunford, N. T., and Edwards, J. (2010). Nutritional bioactive components ofwheat straw as affected by genotype and environment. Bioresour. Technol.101: 422–425.

Ebringerova, A., Hromadkova, Z., and Berth, G. (1994). Structural and molecu-lar properties of a water-soluble arabinoxylan-protein complex isolated fromrye bran. Carbohydr. Res. 264: 97–109.

Elkind, M. S. (2006). Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and stroke. Neurologist12(3): 140–148.

Fan, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhang, S., Hou, H., and Ren, B. (2006). Efficient conversionof wheat straw wastes into biohydrogen gas by cow dung compost. Bioresour.Technol. 97: 500–505.

FAO. (2003). Food and agricultural organization. FAOSTAT. Database. Avail-able from http://apps.fao.org. Accessed January 3, 2008.

FAO, (2007). Food and agricultural organization. FAOSTAT. Database. Avail-able from http:// /faostat.fao.org/. Accessed January 3, 2008.

Fengel, D., and Wegener, G. (1989). Wood Chemistry, Ultrastructure, Reactions.Walter de Gruyter, Berlin.

Finnie, S. M., Bettge, A. D., and Morris, C. F. (2006). Influence of cultivarand environment on water-soluble and water-insoluble Arabinoxylans in softwheat. Cereal Chem. 83(6): 617–623.

Focher, B., Palma, M. T., Canetti, M., Torri, G., Cosentino, C., and Gastaldi, G.(2001). Structural differences between non-wood plant celluloses: Evidencefrom solid state NMR, vibrational spectroscopy and X-ray diffractometry.Ind. Crops Prod. 13: 193–208.

Galleti, G. C., Piccaglia, R., Chiavari, G., Concialini, V., and Buta, J. G.(1988). HPLC characterization of phenolics in lignocellulosic materials.Chromatographia. 26: 191–196.

Garcia, A., Otto, B., Reich, S. C., Weickert, M. O., Steiniger, J., Machowetz,A., Rudovich, N. N., Mohlig, M., Katz, N., Speth, M., Meuser, F., Doerfer,J., Zunft, H. J. F., Pfeiffer, A. H. F., and Koebnick, C. (2007). Arabinoxylanconsumption decreases postprandial serum glucose, serum insulin and plasmatotal ghrelin response in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. Eur. J. Clin.Nutr. 61: 334–341.

Gholam, M., Nasseri, S., Alizadehfard, M. R., and Mesdaghinia, A. (2003).Textile dye removal by membrane technology and biological oxidation. WaterQual. Res. J. Can. 38: 379–391.

Girek, T., Kozlowski, C. A., Koziol, J. J., Walkowiak, W. I., and Korus. (2005).Polymerisation of beta-cyclodextrin with succinic anhydride. Synthesis, char-acterization, and ion flotation of transition metals. Carbohydr. Polym. 59:211–215.

Gong, R. M., Ding, Y., Li, M., Yang, C., Liu, H. J., and Sun, Y. Z. (2005).Utilization of powdered peanut hull as biosorbent for removal of anionicdyes from aqueous solution. Dyes Pigments. 64: 187–192.

GOP (Government of Pakistan). (2008–09). Economic Survey of Pakistan. Eco-nomic Affairs Division, Ministry of Finance, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Gouni-Berthold, I., and Berthold, H. K. (2002). Policosanol: clinical pharma-cology and therapeutic significance of a new lipid-lowering agent. Am. HeartJ. 143(2): 356–365.

Guo, Y., Zhao, J., Zhang, H., Yang, S., Qi, J., and Wang, Z. (2005). Use ofrice husk based porous carbon for adsorption of rhodamine B from aqueoussolutions. Dyes Pigments. 66: 123–128.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f T

oron

to L

ibra

ries

] at

12:

05 1

1 Ju

ly 2

014

294 I. PASHA ET AL.

Gupta, V. K., Jain, R., and Varshney, S. (2007). Removals of React fix goldenyellow 3 RFN from aqueous solution using wheat husk-An agricultural waste.J. Hazard. Mater. 142: 443–448.

Gupta, V. K., Mittal, A., Krishnan, L., and Mittal, J. (2006). Adsorption treatmentand recovery of the hazardous dye, Brilliant Blue FCF, over bottom ash andde-oiled soya. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 293: 16–26.

Guyton, A. C., and Hall, J. E. (1996). Hemostasis and blood coagulation. In:(Ed. Derek S. Wheeler, Thomas P. Shanley) Textbook of Medical Physiology,pp. 463–473. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.

Hagglund, P. (2002). Mannan-hydrolysis by hemicellulases. (Enzymepolysac-charide interaction of a modular-mannanase). PhD thesis, Department ofBiochemistry Lund University, Sweden.

Han, R. P., Ding, D. D., Xu, Y. F., Zou, W. H., Wang, Y. F., and Li, Y. F. (2008).Use of rice husk for the adsorption of congo red from aqueous solution incolumn mode. Bioresour. Technol. 99: 2938–2946.

Hargrove, J. L., Greenspan, P., and Hartle, D. K. (2004). Nutritional significanceand metabolism of very long chain fatty alcohols and acids from dietarywaxes. Exp. Biol. Med. 229(3): 215–226.

Harper, S. H., and Lynch, J. M. (1981). The chemical components and decom-position of wheat straw leaves, internodes and nodes. J. Sci. Food Agric. 32:1057–1062.

Hjersted, J. L., and Henson, M. A. (2006). Optimization of fed-batch Saccha-romyces cerevisiae fermentation using dynamic flux balance models. Biotech-nol. Prog. 22: 1239–1248.

Horace, G. C., and Stephen, J. C. (1999). Biologically Active Natural Products:Agrochemicals. Boca Raton, London, New York, Washington, DC. London:Springer-Verlag.

Hoskinson, R. L., Hess, J. R., Foust, T. D., McKean, W. T., and Lewis, M. S.(2001). Fractionation of higher value crop residue components for conversioninto bioenergy and industrial products. In: Proceedings of the ASAE AnnualInternational Meeting, Sacramento, CA, USA.

Iranmahboob, J., Nadim, F., and Monemi, S. (2002). Optimizing acidhydrolysis:A critical step for production of ethanol from mixed wood chips. BiomassBioenergy. 22: 401–404.

Irmak, S., and Dunford, N. T. (2005). Policosanol contents and compositions ofwheat varieties. J. Agric. Food. Chem. 53: 5583–5586.

Kalman, G., and Reczey, K. (2007). Possible ways of bio-refining and utilizingthe residual lignocelluloses of corn growing and processing. Period. Polytech.Chem. 51/2: 29–36.

Kaparaju, P., Serrano, M., Thomsen, A. B., Kongjan, P., and Angelidaki, I.(2009). Bioethanol, biohydrogen and biogas production from wheat straw ina biorefinery concept. Bioresour. Technol. 100: 2562–2568.

Katan, M. B., Grundy, S. M., Jones, P., Law, M., Miettinen, T., and Paoletti, R.(2003). Efficacy and safety of plant stanols and sterols in the management ofblood cholesterol levels. Mayo. Clin. Proc. 78: 965–978.

Khan, K., and Shewry, P. R. (2009). Carbohydrates. In: Wheat Chemistry andTechnology, pp. 319–336. Fourth edition. Minnesota, AACC: St. Paul, MN,USA.

Klinke, H. B., Ahring, B. K., Schmidt, A. S., and Thomsen, A. B. (2002).Bioresour. Technol. 82: 15–26.

Kris-Etherton, P. M., Hecker, K. D., Bonanome, A., Coval, S. M., Binkoski, A.E., Hilpert, K., Griel, A. E., and Etherton, T. D. (2002). Bioactive compoundsin foods: their role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer.Am. J. Med. 113: 71–88.

Lairon, D. (2009). Nutritional quality and safety of organic food. A re-view. Agronomy for sustainable development. DOI: 101051/agro/200919,www.agronomyjournal.org

Lawther, J. M., Sun, R. C., and Banks, W. B. (1995). Extraction, fractionation,and characterization of structural polysaccharides from wheat straw. J. Agric.Food Chem. 43: 667–675.

Leon, E., Piston, F., Aouni, R., Shewry, P. R., Cristina, M., Rosell, C. M.,Martin, A., and Barro, F. (2010). Pasting properties of transgenic lines of acommercial bread wheat expressing combinations of HMW glutenin subunitgenes. J. Cereal Sci. 51: 344–349.

Lichtenstein, A. H., and Deckelbaum, R. J. (2002). Stanol/sterol ester-containingfoods and blood cholesterol levels. A statement for healthcare professionals

from the Nutrition Committee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Ac-tivity, and Metabolism of the Amican Heart Association. Circulation 103:1177–1179.

Linde, M., Jakobsson, E., Galbe, M., and Zacchi, G. (2007). Steam pretreat-ment of dilute H2SO4-impregnated wheat straw and SSF with low yeastand enzyme loadings for bioethanol production. Biomass Bioenergy. 32:326–332.

Liu, J., Shimizu, K., Konishi, F., Noda, K., Kumamoto, S., Kurashiki, K., andKondo, R. (2007). Anti-androgenic activities of the triterpenoids fraction ofGanoderma lucidum. Food Chem. 100: 1691–1696.

Liu, R., Yu, H., and Huang, Y. (2005). Structure and morphology of cellulosein wheat straw. Cellulose 12(1): 25–34.

Lopez, A., Benbelkacem, H., Pic, J. S., and Debellefontaine, H. (2004). Oxi-dation pathways for ozonation of azo dyes in a semi-batch reactor: a kineticparameters approach. Environ. Technol. 25: 311–321.

Lu, Z. X., Walker, K. Z., Muir, J. G., and O’Dea, K. (2004). Arabinoxylan fiberimproves metabolic control in people with type II diabetes. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr.58: 621–628.

Lu, Z. X., Walker, K. Z., Muir, J. G., Mascara, T., and O’Dea, K. (2000).Arabinoxylan fiber, a by product of wheat flour processing reduces the post-prandial glucose response in normoglycemic subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 71:1123–1128.

Lundqvist, J., Teleman, A., Junel, L., Zacchi, G., Dahlman, O., Tjerneld, F., andStalbrand, H. (2002). Isolation and characterization of galactoglucomannanfrom spruce (Picea abies). Carbohydr. Polym. 48(1): 29–39.

Macias, F. A., Simonet, A. M., and Galindo, J. C. G. (1995). Natural products asallelochemicals. Bioactive steroids and triterpenes from Melilotus messanen-sis and their allelopathic potential. In: Proceedings of the 22nd Ann. MeetingPlant Growth Reg. Soc. Am., Greene, D., Ed., Minneapolis, p. 53.

Mahato, S. B., and Sen, S. (1997). Advances in triterpenoid research. Phytochem.44: 1185–1236.

Mall, I. D., Srivastava, V. C., and Agarwal, N. K. (2006). Removal of Orange-Gand methyl violet dyes by adsorption onto bagasse fly ash-kinetic study andequilibrium isotherm analyses. Dyes Pigments. 69: 210–223.

Manach, C., Mazur, A., and Scalbert, A. (2005). Polyphenols and prevention ofcardiovascular diseases. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 16: 2305–2425.

Mas, R., Castano, G., Illnait, J., Fernandez, L., Fernandez, J., Alemsan, C., Pon-tigas, V., and Lescay, M. (1999). Effects of policosanol in patients with type IIhypercholesterolemia and additional coronary risk factors. Clin. Pharmacol.Ther. 65: 439–447.

Maya, J. J., and Thomas, S. (2008). Biofibers biocomposites. Carbohyd. Polym.71: 343–364.

McKendry, P. (2002). Energy production from biomass (part 1): overview ofbiomass. Bioresour. Technol. 83: 37–46.

Menendez, R., Amor, A. M., Rodeiro, I., Gonzalez, R. M., Gonzalez, P. C., Al-fonso, J. L., and Mas, R. (2001). Policosanol modulates HMG-CoA reductaseactivity in cultured fibroblasts. Arch. Med. Res. 32: 8–12.

Menendez, R., Fernandez, S. I., Del, R. A., Gonzalez, R. M., Fraga, V., Amor, A.M., and Mas, R. M. (1994). Policosanol inhibits cholesterol biosynthesis andenhances low density lipoprotein processing in cultured human fibroblasts.Biol. Res. 27: 199–203.

Middleton, E., Kandaswami, C., and Theoharides, T. C. (2000). The effects ofplant flavonoids on mammalian cells: Implications for inflammation, heartdisease, and cancer. Pharmacol. Rev. 52: 673–751.

Mirkin, A., Mas, R., Martinto, M., Boccanera, R., Robertis, A., Poudes,R., Fuster, A., Lastreto, E., Yanez, M., Irico, G., McCook, B., andFarre, A. (2001). Efficacy and tolerability of policosanol in hypercholes-terolemic postmenopausal women. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Res. 21(1):31–41.

Neukom, H., and Markwalder, H. U. (1978). Oxidative gelation of wheat flourpentosans: A new way of cross linking polymers. Cereal Foods World. 23:374–376.

Nino-Medina, G., Carvajal-Millan, E., Lizardi, J., Rascon-Chu, A., Marquez-Escalante, J. A., Gardea, A., Martinez-Lopez, A. L., and Guerrero, V. (2009).Maize processing waste water arabinoxylans: Gelling capability and cross-linking content. Food Chem. 115: 1286–1290.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f T

oron

to L

ibra

ries

] at

12:

05 1

1 Ju

ly 2

014

NUTRACEUTICAL AND FUNCTIONAL SCENARIO OF WHEAT STRAW 295

Noa, M., Mas, R., and Mesa, R. (2001).A comparative study of policosanol vs.lovastatin on intimal thickening in rabbit cuffed carotid artery. Pharmacol.Res. 43: 31–37.

Olivier, L. M., and Krisans, S. K. (2000). Peroxisomal protein targeting andidentification of peroxisomal targeting signals in cholesterol biosyntheticenzymes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1529(1–3): 89–102.

Orlando, U. S., Baes, A. U., and Nishijima, W. (2002). Preparation of agricul-tural residue anion exchangers and its nitrate maximum exchange capacity.Chemosphere 48: 1041–1046.

Ostlund, R. E., Racette, S. B., and Stenson, W. F. (2002). Inhibition of choles-terol absorption by pytosterol-replete wheat germ compared with phytosterol-depleted wheat germ. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77(6): 1385–1589.

Palmqvist, E., and Hahn-Hagerdal, B. (2000). Fermentation of lignocellulosichydrolysates. II. Inhibitors and mechanisms of inhibition. Bioresour. Technol.74: 25–33.

Parr, A. J., and Bolwell, G. P. (2000). Phenols in plant and in man. The potentialfor possible nutritional enhancement of the diet by modifying the phenolscontent or profile. J. Sci. Food Agric. 80: 985–1012.

Petrucci, R.S., William, S., Harwood, F., and Herring, G. (2002). “3”. Gen-eral Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications. Prentice-Hall. ASINB000ZI5Z2K.

Petzold, G., Schwarz, S., Mende, M., and Jaeger, W. (2007). Dye flocculationusing polyampholytes and polyelectrolyte-surfactant nanoparticles. J. Appl.Polym. Sci. 104: 1342–1349.

Plante, M., Crafts, C., Bailey, B., Gamache, P., Waraska, J., and Acworth, I.(2010). Simple and Direct Analysis of Phytosterols by Reversed-Phase HPLCand Charged Aerosol Detection. ESA-A Dionex Company, Chelmsford, MA,USA.

Prachayasittikul, S., Saraban1, P., Cherdtrakulkiat, R., Ruchirawat, S., andPrachayasittikul, V. (2010). New Bioactive triterpenoids and antimalarialactivity of diospyros rubra lec. EXCLI J. 9: 1–10.

Putnam, A. R. 1985. Weed allelopathy. In: Weed Physiology, pp. 131–155.Vol. I: Reproduction and Ecophysiology. Duke, S. O., Ed., CRC Press, BocaRaton, FL.

Puupponen-Pimia, R., Aura, A.M., Oksman-Caldentey, K. M., Myllaerinen, P.,Saarela, M., Maila-Sandholm, T., and Poutanen, K. (2002). Development offunctional ingredients for gut health. Trends Food. Sci. Technol. 13: 3–11.

Randhir, R., Lin, Y. T., and Shetty, K. (2004). Phenolics, their antioxidantand antimicrobial activity in dark germinated fenugreek sprouts in re-sponse to peptide and phytochemical elicitors. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 13:295–307.

Revanappa, S. B., Nandini, C. D., and Salimath, P. V. (2010). Structural charac-terization of pentosans from hemicellulose B of wheat varieties with varyingchapatti making quality. Food Chem. 119: 27–33.

Rice, E. L. (1984). Allelopathy, Academic Press, Inc., New York.Robinson, T., Chandran, P., and Nigam, P. (2002). Removal of dyes from a

synthetic textile dye effluent by biosorption on apple pomace and wheatstraw. Water Res. 36: 2824–2830.

Rogers, P. L., Jeon, Y. J., Lee, K. J., and Lawford, H. G. (2007). Zymomonas mo-bilis for fuel ethanol and higher value products. Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotech-nol. 108: 263–288.

Roller, M., Clune, Y., Collins, K., Rechkemmer, G., and Watzl, B. (2007).Consumption of prebiotic inulin enriched with oligofructose in combinationwith the probiotics Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Bifidobacterium lactis hasminor effects on selected immune parameters in polypectomised and coloncancer patients. Br. J. Nutr. 97: 676–684.

Rowell, R. M., and Spelter, H. (2003). Novel uses for wheat by-products. In:Proceedings of the International Wheat Quality Conference, pp. 417–423.Manhattan, K. S. and Manhattan, K. S., eds., Grain Industry Alliance.

Russell, D. W., and Wilson, J. D. (1994). Steroid 5a-reductase: two genes/twoenzymes. Ann. Rev. Clin. Biochem. 63: 25–61.

Saha, B. C., Iten, L. B., Cotta, M. A., and Wu, Y. V. (2005). Diluteacidpretreat-ment, enzymatic saccharification and fermentation of wheat straw to ethanol.Process Biochem. 40: 3693–3700.

Saha, B. D. (2003). Hemicellulose bioconversion (2003). J. Ind. Microbiol.Biotechnol. 30: 279–291.

Sanadi, A. R. (2004). Natural fibers as fillers/reinforcements in thermoplas-tics. In: Introduction to Low Environmental Impact Polymers, pp. 105–140.Tucker, N. and Johnson, M., Eds., Rapra Tech. Ltd., UK.

Sasaki, T., Kaoru, K., and Takeshi, Y. (2004). Effect of water-soluble and insol-uble nonstarch polysaccharides isolated from wheat flour on the rheologicalproperties of wheat starch gel. Carbohydr. Polymer. 57:451–458.

Sasaki, T., Yasui, T., Kiribuchi-Otobe, C., Yanagisawa, T., Fujita, M., and Ko-hyama, K. (2007). Rheological properties of starch gels from wheat mutantswith reduce amylose content. Cereal Chem. 84: 102–107.

Sun, R. C., and Sun, X. F., (2001). Identification and quantitation of lipophilicextractives from wheat straw. Ind. Crops Prod. 14: 51–64.

Sun, R. C., Salisbury, D., and Tomkinson, J. (2003). Chemical composition oflipophilic extractives released during the hot water treatment of wheat straw.Bioresour. Technol. 88: 95–101.

Sun, R., Lawther, J. M., and Banks, W. B. (1998). Isolation and characterizationof hemicellulose B and cellulose from pressure refined wheat straw. Ind.Crops Prod. 7: 121–128.

Theander, O. (1985). Review of straw carbohydrate research. Prog. Biotechnol.1: 217.

ThorneResearch. (2004). Monograph. Policosanol. Altern. Med. Rev. 9(3):312–317.

Torres, O., Agramonte, A. J., Illnait, J., Mas Ferreiro, R., Fernandez, L., andFernandez, J. C. (1995). Treatment of hypercholesterolemia in NIDDM withpolicosanol. Diabetes Care. 18(3): 393–397.

Tsang, D. C. W., Hu, J., Liu, M. Y., Zhang, W. H., Lai, K. C. K., and Lo, I. M.C. (2007) Activated carbon produced from waste wood pallets: Adsorptionof three classes of dyes. Water Air Soil Pollut. 184: 141–155.

Volpe, R., Niittynen, L., Korpela, R., Sirtori, C., Bucci, A., Fraone, N., andPazzucconi, F. (2001). Effects of yoghurt enriched with plant sterols onserum lipids in patients with moderate hypercholesterolaemia. Br. J. Nutr. 86:233–239.

Walker, J. R. L. (1975). The Biology of Plant Phenolics, pp. 1–57. AcademicPress, London, Arnold.

Wang, M., HAm, R. J., Vliet, T. V., and Oudgenoeg, G. (2002). Interaction ofwater extractable pentosans with gluten protein: effect on dough propertiesand gluten quality. J. Cereal Sci. 36: 25–37.

Wang, Y., Gao, B.Y., Yue, W. W., and Yue, Q. Y. (2007). Adsorption kinetics ofnitrate from aqueous solutions onto modified wheat residue. Colloids Surf.308: 1–5.

Wasser, S. P., and Weis, A. L. (1999). Therapeutic effects of substances occur-ring in higher Basidiomycetes mushrooms: a modern perspective. Crit. Rev.Immunol. 19: 65–96.

Wiesenberg, G. L. B., Lehndorff, E., and Schwark, L. (2009). Thermal degra-dation of rye and maize straw: Lipid pattern changes as a function of temper-ature. Org. Geochem. 40: 167–174.

Xu, X., Gao, B. Y., Wang, W. Y., Yue, Q. Y., Wang, Y., and Ni, S. Q. (2009).Adsorption of phosphate from aqueous solutions onto modified wheat residue:characteristics, kinetic and column studies. Colloids Surf. 70: 46–52.

Zhang, X., Patel, A., and Horibe, H. (2003). Cholesterol, coronary heart disease,and stroke in the Asia Pacific region. Int. J. Epidemiol. 32:563–572.

Zhang, Y. (2008). Reviving the carbohydrate economy via multi-product ligno-cellulose biorefineries. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 35: 367–375.

Zunft, H. J., Lueder, W., Koebnick, C., and Imhof, D. (2004). Reduction ofpostprandial glucose and insulin response in serum of healthy subjects byan arabinoxylan concentrate isolated from wheat starch plant process water.Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 13: 147–150.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f T

oron

to L

ibra

ries

] at

12:

05 1

1 Ju

ly 2

014