north & west strategic study main report 2002-2020.pdf

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232The Core Development Issue:

Reversing Rural Decline and

Loss of Population

2.1 Introduction 24

2.2 Population Trends 24

2.2.1 Summary Of General Trends In The County And

The North and West Cork Area 24

2.2.2 Age And Spatial Issues 26

2.2.3 Outward Migration Of Young Adults 26

2.2.4 Abandonment, Dereliction And Holiday Homes 27

2.3 Future Population Trends 28

2.4 Conclusion 29

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24 2 The Core Development Issue:

Reversing Rural Decline and Loss of

Population

2.1 Introduction

The most characteristic feature of anydeclining rural area world-wide is the lossof young people and women from thearea, with a consequently ageingpopulation and declining economiccapacity. In many parts of Europe thisprocess has ended in eventualabandonment and desertification.

Parts of North and West Cork andsome islands have already effectively losttheir population. In other areas,compound social exclusion and apopulation of elderly age profile may besustained over a long period withouttotal abandonment.

Many trends are impacting on thequality of rural living. The key onesappear to be an ageing population;migration of the young; increasedcommuting to urban areas foremployment, with associated pressureson transport infrastructure andenvironmental quality; growing relativeaffluence of urban living, loss of servicesdelivered locally, such as pubs, schools,post offices, health care, etc.

Rural decline and loss of populationare inextricably related. The main reasonsfor outward migration amongst theyoung people have been found to be lackof education and employmentopportunities, challenge of a differentenvironment, opportunities for a vibrantand varied social life and, increasingly,access to independent housing awayfrom family.In this chapter key features of thepopulation trends experienced and inprospect in North and West Cork aredescribed and some of the mainimplications are discussed. In effect, thepre-requisite challenges to development– a reversal of current demographictrends – are described. This is a necessaryprecursor to achieving the goals andaspirations of communities in North andWest Cork, see Chapter 3 below.

2.2 Population Trends

2.2.1 Summary of General Trends inthe County and the North andWest Cork Area

Some of the most peripheral parts ofNorth and West Cork are undergoing apersistent negative cycle of populationdecline and loss of services. Other parts,particularly in the coastal zone, areexperiencing the challenge of anexpanding population. There was anincrease of approximately 10,000 peoplein the county as a whole between 1981and 1996. This took place almost entirelyin the urban areas within the immediateinfluence of Cork City. There issubstantial evidence that populationgrowth has intensified from 1996 to thepresent, particularly in those areas whichexperienced growth between 1991-1996.At present, North and West Cork isattracting its share of inward migrationof all kinds, including, for example returnmigrants, asylum seekers and peopleretiring from other European states.

Areas in County Cork growingstrongly between 1991 and 1996 includedFarran, Tower, Killumney, Fountainstownand Carrigtwohill. Carrigaline’spopulation grew by just over 3,500. Thisgrowth can be considered to beessentially sub-urban in character, with acommuter population mainly dependenton Cork City for its services andemployment. The population of Kinsalegrew by 500 and Macroom by 100. InMacroom, population growth has beenbased both on increased employment

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As a result of adverse populationdynamics, North and West County Corkhas an older and ageing populationcompared with the County as a whole ornationally. In particular, there has been asignificant decline in the proportion ofthe population aged 20-29 years,especially so in the case of females. Aresult is that the active population is

within the town and its attractiveness asa place to live. Outside the city, somecoastal towns showed relatively highgrowth, notably Kinsale, Clonakilty,Timoleague, Bantry, Durrus andSkibbereen.

Other parts of the county, includingextensive areas in North and West Cork,experienced a decline in population. Duringthis period, the population of the Northand West Cork Area as a whole fell by over500, in spite of a natural increase inpopulation. The electoral district of Kanturkunderwent a decline in population of – 4.4per cent and Millstreet of – 2.8 per cent: thisdegree of loss if it were to continue over the20 year period would have very seriousimplications for these areas.Map 2.1 below illustrates the long-termpopulation trends that have beenexperienced in the county from 1981 – 1996.

The Core Development Issue:


Population

Age Dependency Ratio

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Population

smaller in North and West County Cork.Thus, nationally 24.6 per cent of thepopulation is aged 50+ compared with29.7 per cent in North and West CountyCork. Another result is a higher agedependency ratio1. This stands at 0.84compared with 0.79 for County Cork and0.80 nationally. A consequence of theserelatively high age dependency ratios,when added to the fact that females aremore likely to leave the Area in their 20sis that the proportion of females of child-bearing age is reduced. This will have animpact on fertility in the region and willadversely affect the future growth andstructure of the population2.

2.2.2 Age and Spatial Issues

The trend to a larger ageing population,living in isolated, scattered housing anddependent totally on car use for evenbasic shopping and social contactpresents a serious challenge for thefuture. Rural isolation and lack of publictransport are the two principaldisadvantages of rural dwelling reportedby older people.

Comparative household data fromthe Census shows an imbalance ofyounger population settled in newerhousing in the environs of Cork City,Fermoy and Mallow. Older persons livingalone are represented disproportionatelyin the older housing stock at theperiphery of the county (Map 2.2).

The attractiveness of West Cork,including the West Cork towns, alongwith relatively cheaper land values incomparison with urban areas, has also ledto a limited amount of commuter livingand inward migration for retirement.Retirement brings new population andspending power into the Area, but canaccentuate an already elderly age profile.Where large retirement populationsemerge, heavy demands on medical andother support facilities may be expected.Public transport in these areas is anessential service. It should also beremembered that active retired people

can also make a very importantcontribution to community activity andquality of life in any area. Furthermore, itshould be noted that these areas haveexperienced, also, inward migration fromactive persons, seeking employment andthe attractions of the local life-style.

2.2.3 Outward Migration of YoungAdults

Trends between the 1991 and 1996censuses were for a dramatic loss fromthe 20-24 age group (5,853 in County Cork– 22 per cent of the total age cohort). Thistrend was acute in many rural areas, withsome rural communities losing the entirecohort.

Educational, social and economicopportunities exert a powerful attractionon the mobile young single age group.Housing opportunities are also animportant factor and the lack of suitableindependent housing for young peopleplaces rural areas at a seriousimpediment to holding their youngpopulations.

A general pattern has emerged inIreland of migration from the youngerage group from rural to urban areas, witha more limited amount of inwardmigration into rural areas by families andindividuals in their 30s and 40s. Increasedparticipation in third level education andincreased economic and socialopportunities in cities is tending toincreasingly drain rural areas of theiryoung population. Young people andwomen in particular have moved tolarger urban areas. A tradition ofinheritance of land or businesses by sonscontributes to the pattern ofdisproportionate loss of females. In theNorth and West Cork Area, there isevidence of significant numbers of oldersingle men living alone in more remoteareas.

1 Defined as the ratio of the population aged 19 and younger or older than 65 to those aged 20 to 65

2 Potential fertility is defined here as the number of females aged 20 - 44 per 1,000 population.

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Dereliction ocurrs in certain parts of theNorth and West Cork Area, and appears tobe most concentrated in the areas, whichare most remote from major urbandevelopment. These show dispropor-tionate disadvantage even within theArea. Removal of dereliction, preferablythrough refurbishment, is a stronglyexpressed community priority.

2.2.4 Abandonment, Dereliction andHoliday Homes

In the North West of the County, and insome other parts of the North and WestCork Area, abandonment of housesresults from the continuing problem ofrural decline. North West Cork, at presentrates of decline, is in danger of losing anumber of primary schools and otherservices with desertification of someareas in terms of human habitation.The islands also have a legacy ofabandonment and consequentdereliction, coupled now with pressurefor holiday home development. In NorthWest Cork, which has experienced veryhigh levels of population loss, a ruralresettlement programme has encouragedsome inward movement to ruralcommunities.



Population

The attractiveness of

West Cork, including the

West Cork towns, along

with relatively cheaper

land values in

comparison with urban

areas, has also led to a

limited amount of

commuter living and

inward migration for

retirement.

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Population

2.3 Future Population Trends

Population projections for North andWest Cork have been made for the years2001 and 2011, based on explicitassumptions for fertility and migration3.A summary is contained in Table 2.1.

The main point of these projections isthat they show positive growth in theNorth and West Cork Area under all eightscenarios. However, the growth is lessthan is projected at the national level.They also indicate considerable sensitivityof the population of the Area todevelopments at national level.

Growth varies considerably betweendifferent areas and even with the mostoptimistic projection (M1F1) there aremany DEDs that continue to experiencedecline. With the least optimisticprojection (M2F3), 52 out of the 181 DEDslose population in the period 1996-2001.

Population growth also variesbetween and across the Area. However, allregions show positive growth under allassumptions. This contrasts with theexperience, particularly in the Westregion in recent years. This outcome isdue to the positive impact of nationalgrowth and the assumption that thetrends that have been observed in recentyears will diminish over time.

There are a number of otherimportant issues emerging. The firstrelates to the projection that the Coastalregion will experience growth of over 20per cent up to 2011. This has importantimplications for housing andinfrastructure in the Area. In addition,the CSO assumptions may beconservative regarding developments atthe national level given the strongeconomic prospects and the considerabletightening of the labour market4 .

North and West Cork Ireland

2001 2011 2001 2011

M1F1 1.08 0.97 1.13 1.13M1F3 1.07 0.66 1.12 1.12M2F1 0.95 0.68 1.00 1.00M2F3 0.93 0.37 0.98 0.98

Table 2.1: Population Projections to 2001 and 2011

(average annual % growth)

3 The fertility rates and migration rates are taken

from the CSO Population and Labour Force Projection

2001-2031 (CSO, 1999). National migration is taken to

be an indicator of the impact of economic

performance on population while fertility reflects the

impact of changing cultural norms. While there may

be some divergence between the national and local

level over some specific time, it is reasonable to

assume the similar overall trends will assert

themselves. The CSO assumptions are:

Fertility:

f F1: TFR to increase from its 1998 level to 2.0 by

2001 and remain constant thereafter;

f F3: TFR to remain at its 1998 level to 2001,

decrease to 1.5 by 2011 and remain

constant thereafter.

Migration:

f M1: Immigration continuing but diminishing

+20,000 per annum in 1996/2001

+15,000 per annum in 2001/2006

+10,000 per annum in 2006/2011

f M2: Immigration diminishing

+15,000 per annum in 1996/2001

+5,000 per annum in 2001/2006

zero net migration in 2006/2011

4 With a resumption in these circumstances migration could be higher and labour force participation rates could increase faster.

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2.4 Conclusion

Inward migration should be an essential

element of a future strategy for North

and West Cork. It is necessary to

replenish population numbers, as some

outward migration is natural. It would

bring also with it new skills, knowledge

and ideas. Challenges of social

integration arise for both new and

receiving populations. In addition,

retention of a higher proportion of the

natural population increase is also

needed.

If North and West Cork is to escape

from the syndrome of decline, which is

strongly entrenched in some areas, the

primary focus of strategic action should

be to make the Area an attractive place

for young adults to live in. Making North

and West Cork attractive to a young

population is not a strategy that ignores

or dismisses the needs and potential of

the older population.

Decentralisation and ruralresettlement are two forms of action,which directly redress spatial imbalancein population. The former is employment-induced migration and the latter relies on

Projections for the West and East show aquite different picture. Although itremains positive over the whole period,the rate of growth has fallen for thelonger period under the less optimisticassumptions. This means that there is afall in the period 2001 to 2011 under theseassumptions. This means a return to thetrend of recent years, although it wasassumed that the underlying trendweakens over time. In other words, theseprojections indicate that unless there is acontinuing strong performance atnational level or a sharp change in thelocal trend, these regions will continue tolose population in the future.Furthermore, given the age analysisabove, this loss is most likely to continueto occur in the 20 to 30 age group.



Population

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Population

availability of affordable housing andquality of life. Both of these measureshave had some success in the recent pastand are likely to be important forsecuring the future of the Area.

Communities in parts of the Areathat are suffering from very high levels ofemigration, threatening the viability ofcommunities, have been involved in ruralresettlement projects. These projectsinvolve relocation of people from urbanareas into the locality.

In some inland parts of West Cork,the availability of relatively cheap landand houses in a pristine ruralenvironment has been attractive topeople seeking an “alternative” life style.This new population as with othermigrants increases local expenditure anduse of local services. It also brings in skillsand commitment to living on the land,but in areas such as Dunmanway, withfew employment opportunities, can leadto unemployment and poor socialintegration. These young populationsrepresent an opportunity for rural areasbut need attention and support fromlocal community groups anddevelopment agencies to assistintegration.

In both community appraisal and inthe Future Search, participantsconsidered the integration of newresidents of all backgrounds into thereceiving local communities as a priorityissue. Given that the consolidation of thepopulation of the Area is dependent oninward migration as the birth rate fallsand emigration persists, the success ofcommunities in drawing in newresidents, is critical to their vision of abalanced, harmonious and cohesivesociety.

Inward migration

should be an essential

element of a future

strategy for North and

West Cork. It is

necessary to replenish

population numbers, as

some outward

migration is natural. It

would bring also with

it new skills, knowledge

and ideas.

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313Recognising the Goals and Aspirations

of Those Living in North and West Cork

3.1 Introduction 32

3.2 The Results of Community Consultation 32

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32 3 Recognising the Goals and Aspirations of

Those Living in North and West Cork

3.1 Introduction

There are many challenges for ruraldevelopment in North and West Corkidentified in this Plan and in the study onwhich it is based. Therefore, a clear visionis required of the kind of society towardswhich strategic actions should aim.

In this chapter, the goals andaspirations, which emerged from theprocess of community consultation,which was undertaken as part of theformulation of this Plan are set out anddescribed. The methodology of theconsultation process itself is described indetail in North and West Cork StrategicStudy 2001-2020. The outcome of theprocess is summarised in the statementbelow, which is drawn from carefulidentification of the top priority goalsindicated through community appraisaland Future Search, undertaken as part ofthe formulation of this Plan.

3.2 The Results of CommunityConsultation

Themes identified in the Future Searchprocess of stakeholder participation,broadly confirm the objectives andconstraints on development identified byformal economic analysis of statisticalmaterial.

Thus, Table 3.1 summarises highestpriority trends perceived by participantsto affect their future.

“How we will live in 2021”

“We shall be an inclusive Area with a

high level of community involvement:

we shall make many local decisions for

ourselves. We will have good working

partnerships with public bodies. We will

manage our environment in a

sustainable way. Our Area will provide a

good quality life for young and old, with

a thriving, mixed local economy and

strong links to the land and sea.

Our Area will have developed its own

well-balanced network of distinctive,

growing towns and villages in

prosperous rural areas, with good

quality housing linked by excellent

public transport networks.

We shall have a culture of learning

and skills, with a wide range of local

training and education.

We shall preserve and enjoy our heritage

and customs and celebrate the growing

diversity of our population. We will have

a strong communications network

within our own area, across the region

and world-wide.”

Table 3.1: Highest Priority Trends affecting our future

Trend Number of Dots

Roads, Infrastructure, Sewerage and Water 85Lack of Organic Farms 38Cultural Identity/Diversity 36Holiday Homes 30River Destruction 29Village Renewal 27Clean Water 26Maintain Hospitals 25Lack of Leisure Facilities 25Technology Growth in Rural Areas 21 Transport and Access 21Celtic Tiger 21Housing 13Places for Elderly to Meet 12

Note: This chart was generated by a group "mind map"- a brainstorming session by

the whole Future Search Conference: the number of dots represent "votes"

according to each persons top priorities.

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333

These revolve around improved transport,the creation of self-reliant communitieswith sustainable environments and inwhich there is inclusive participation andcommunity partnership.

“Bridging gaps” – the forging of newlinks and synergies – was identified asthe primary “cross-cutting theme” of theNorth and West Cork Future Search. Onthe basis of the research carried out forthis study and the views of the publicand development agencies gatheredthroughout the study process,infrastructure development, includingimprovement of the transport andcommunications network emerged as amain priority of the strategicdevelopment framework. Othercommunications issues, particularly thepotential of new modes oftelecommunications and IT as acommunications tool, were also rankedas a high priority by communities andagencies in the Area.

The people and agencies of Northand West Cork have identified balancedspatial development as another prioritygoal for North and West Cork. Thecommunities of the Area wish to build upthe viability of their villages and towns tosupport social and economicsustainability. It is also a priority goal tomaintain local heritage and traditions,including the built and natural heritageof each part of the Area. “Bringing thebest of the past into the future”, withsuccessful integration of new residents,has been identified as a priority by thepopulation of the Area.

Local culture emerged as animportant component of social cohesionof the Area. Local distinctiveness,traditions and pastimes contribute to thesense of identity of the people of Northand West Cork. Pride of place and localuniqueness can be determining factors in

As may be seen, very high priority isattached to physical infrastructuredeficits, preserving environmental quality,improving social services andparticipating in technology developmentand the wider development of the Irisheconomy. Turning to stakeholders’ visionof the future, (Table 3.2) summarises thethemes, which emerge.

Recognising the Goals and Aspirations of


1.

Transport (See also

Chapter 8)

f Publictransport- lesscars

f More light railtransport

f Fuel cellsinstead of fossilfuels

f More self-sustainingcommunities -hence lesstravelling

f Access toIslands

2.

Creation of

self-reliant

communities

f Adequateinfrastructurein place

f Vibrant culturalactivities locally

f Active localcommunities

f Lessdependence oncities/localtowns

3.

Environment

f Sustainablemanagementof localresources

f Environmentf Economics

/enterprisef Tourism

4.

Quality of life

f Drug free,crime freesociety

f Elderly peopleshould feel safe

f Morepartnership

f Localcommunitieshaving a verysignificant say

Table 3.2: 2020 Vision: North and West Cork Future Search, (Nov 2000)

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34 3 Recognising the Goals and Aspirations of


the success of any area.Therefore, if the vision of the future,reflected in outcome of communityconsultation is to be attained a numberof goals must be achieved, (Table 1.6)namely:

N. Self-Reliant, Inclusive Communities,

with a High Level of Community

Involvement and Local Decision-

Making.

O. Sustainable Management of the

Environment - Land and Sea

P. Good Quality, Well - located Housing

Q. Varied, Quality Employment -

Maintaining Livelihoods on the Land

and at Sea

R. Improved Infrastructure - Sustainable

Public Transport Options

S. Thriving, Balanced Growth of Towns,

Rural Areas and their Villages

T. No Need for Emigration - Maintaining

the Populations And Cultures of all

Areas.

U. Wider Local Training and Education

Opportunities

V. Good Facilities for Young People

W. Preserving our Local Heritage and

Customs for the Future

X. A “High Tech” Society

Y. Wise Development of Coastal

Resources

Z. Rapid Responses

All of these Goals are deemed “highpriority”, but are listed in order of thestakeholder priorities identified throughcommunity appraisal.

With the attainment of these goalsthe possibility would be created forvibrant sustainable communities with arange in age, income and occupationalgroups that would be able to fulfil theeconomic, social and cultural potential ofpeople living in them and in a mannerthat overcomes marginalisation andisolation.

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354Sustainability: The Need to Incorporate

Environmental, Heritage and Cultural

Dimensions in Future Strategy

4.1 Introduction 36

4.2 The Environment 37

4.2.1 Pressures On Water 37

4.2.2 Coastal Zone Management 38

4.2.3 Waste 39

4.2.4 Air Pollution 40

4.3 Heritage and Culture 40

4.3.1 Cultural Appraisal 40

4.3.2 The Irish Language In County Cork 42

4.3.3 Conclusions On Local Culture 44

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36 4 Sustainability:

The Need to Incorporate Environmental, Heritage

and Cultural Dimensions in Future Strategy

4.1 Introduction

The results of consultation andparticipative work with communities andthe public in North and West Cork, showsa general consensus that theenvironment, natural amenity sites,scenic areas, wildlife, nature etc., themany terms used to describe theenvironment around us, forms one of themain assets of rural County Cork5.

However, there is some concern thatcertain main waterways are polluted tosome extent and many areas areidentified as being under some kind ofpressure from either agriculture, forestryor development. Fish stocks, both inlandand off-shore, are perceived to be indecline. The biggest issue arising was theneed for an upgrading of the watersupply and the sewage treatment worksthroughout the north and west of thecounty, including for example, provisionof sewage treatment to best practicestandards in the coastal towns.

The need has been identified for aspecific rural waste managementstrategy. There were numerous requestsfor recycling facilities and for steps toachieve waste reduction to be put inplace. Habitat destruction and the

consequent loss of biodiversity is seen asa threat, as is the dominance ofmonocultural sitka forestry in some areas.The reduction in bird species in manyareas was also recorded. There also existsa very widespread demand for safe foods,identified as organic food and non-genetically engineered food. Support forthe development of renewable energysources was strong. The current windfarm developments are generally viewedas positive and listed on the asset side.There is considerable concern aboutforestry practices, including plantingclose to housing and schools, impacts offertiliser on watercourses and aerialspraying.

The communities of the Area wish tobuild up the viability of their villages andtowns to support social and economicsustainability. It is also a priority goal tomaintain local heritage and traditions,including the built and natural heritageof each part of the Area. “Bringing thebest of the past into the future”, withsuccessful integration of new residents,has been identified as a priority by thepopulation of the Area.

Local culture has emerged as animportant component of social cohesionof the Area. Local distinctiveness,traditions and pastimes contribute to thesense of identity of the people of Northand West Cork. Pride of place and localuniqueness can be determining factors inthe success of any area.

On the basis of these reflections ofcommunities’ values it is appropriate thatfuture strategy should contain anincreased appreciation of the uniquequalities –environmental, heritage andcultural - of each part of North and WestCork. This Chapter deals with the issuesarising under these headings.

The communities of the

Area wish to build up

the viability of their

villages and towns to

support social and

economic sustainability.

It is also a priority goal

to maintain local

heritage and traditions,

including the built and

natural heritage of each

part of the Area.

5 For details see, North and West Cork Strategic Study 2001 - 2020.

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374

West Cork Area approximately 30,000dwellings dispose of effluent throughprivate septic tanks. Treatment facilitiesfor towns and villages in some cases areminimal. Lakes are naturally subject toincreased nutrient levels over thousandsof years as their water is not exchangedas is the case with rivers. Human impactscan be as great in a ten-year period as theeffects of thousands of years of naturalsiltation and nutrient increase.

Agricultural and forestry practicecan impact heavily on water quality.Pressures from agriculture arise fromover 600,000 tonnes of slurry that ariseevery year from farm animals andanother 35,000 tonnes of effluent arisingfrom animal slaughtering and dairying(Fehily and Timoney, 2000). Use ofherbicides and fertilisers in farming andforestry is also a pressure on water asleaching from soils can occur. Highstocking rates can also lead to erosionwith effects on soils and watercourses.Leachate from septic tanks is also a factor.

Standards are set by the LocalGovernment (Water Pollution) Act 1977(Water Quality Standards for Phosphorus)Regulations, 1998, which demand thatpolluted watercourses must be improvedby the year 2007. The new WaterFramework Directive, which was adoptedon June 29th, 2000, is designed todevelop integrated and coherent waterpolicies on the basis of River BasinManagement Plans. It especiallyemphasises the need to establish a soundbasis for the collection and analysis of alarge amount of information on the stateof the aquatic environment to providethe essential information on which thecompetent authorities can developsensible and sustainable policies. TheseManagement Plans require an integratedinter-agency approach and publicparticipation.

Marine and estuarial waters areunder pressure from land and from sea-based activities. Over four fifths ofIreland’s municipal and industrialwastewater is discharged directly toestuarine and coastal waters (Bowman et

4.2 The Environment

4.2.1 Pressures on Water

Water resource management involvesensuring that a supply of clean drinkingwater is available. It is also important tolook broadly at the aquatic habitat, at theriver environment which is a product ofthe nature of lands through which itflows, its geology, flood plains, marginalbankside and instream vegetation andmost importantly surrounding land usepractices. Developments such asurbanisation, flood relief and drainage,landfill on floodplains, road construction,afforestation, intensifying farmingpractises are all causing major changes inthe ecology and hydrological patterns ofour rivers. These impacts can involvedestruction of instream habitats,interference and removal of fishspawning and nursery grounds, thedecrease in flow or increased rapidity andscouring. When waterways arediminished in this way a downward spiralin quality and amenity can occur.

Of the 384 river sections tested bythe EPA in County Cork 86 are consideredas unsatisfactory, i.e. requiringimprovements. Approximately 25 milliongallons (80%) of public water supplies aresourced from rivers and lakes. The rest ofdrinking water is sourced fromunderground aquifers. In the North and

Sustainability:

The Need to Incorporate Environmental, Heritage

and Cultural Dimensions in Future Strategy

“Bringing the best of

the past into the

future”, with successful

integration of new

residents, has been

identified as a priority

by the population of the

Area.

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The Need to Incorporate Environmental, Heritage and

Cultural Dimensions in Future Strategy

al 1996). They also receive river bornematerials carried down stream. Impactson seawater can include eutrophicationleading to deoxygenation, which mayinhibit migratory fish, as well asinterfering with other aquatic organisms.Microbiological contamination of bathingwaters and shellfish rearing areas canalso result. Marine dumping is aproblem: oil spills, dredging and sand andgravel extraction are all issues of concernin the Area.

4.2.2 Coastal Zone Management

Currently, the Irish Government ispreparing a National Coastal Zone Policyto deal with the recognised urgent needfor coherent action in this area, becauseof the rapidly increasing pressure on thecoast. Cork County Council has been thefirst local authority to support anintegrated coastal zone managementproposal in the Bantry Bay Charterlaunched in September 2000.

“Traditionally, planning tends toapply to either an area based approach orto focus on particular processes oractivities. Integrated coastal zonemanagement includes both these aspectsin a comprehensive approach toplanning; taking account of all processesand interests occurring within theparticular coastal zone” (Bantry BayCharter, 2000).

The Bantry Bay Charter currently isthe only project of integrated coastalzone management in Ireland and as suchwill be closely monitored as to successrate. The charter includes agreed positionpapers on 21 issues and their vision forthe future is quoted here to show thehigh ambition and innovative approachof the project.

“ …This vision sees the Bantry Baycoastal zone in the future as a flourishingplace where a high quality of life isenjoyed by all:

f where the natural environment of the

area is protected and improved

f where there is opportunities for all

residents and future generations to

live and work in the area

f where respect for the environment

and economic success go hand in

hand

f where there are opportunities for

recreation and fulfilment for

residents and visitors alike

f where people work together for

shared benefits and to resolve

differences as they build a better

future.“

The Charter agreement is based onconsensus. Participation was open to allthose with an interest in the Area.Including all interests has ensured thatthe agreed proposals are integrated andthat maximum gain is delivered for allthose participating. The Bantry BayCoastal Zone Charter is the agreedproduct of all stakeholders involved.

Other responses to the pressures onthe offshore region are more specific asfor example, the monitoring ofradioactive contamination carried out bythe Radiological Protection Institute ofIreland. Oil pollution is another threat

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394

were common themes of future visions.The wish to avoid generating waste, andto recycle, was frequently stated.

A number of factors are resulting inincreased waste generation:

f Increased consumption of all kinds of

goods - cars, clothing, food.

f “Throw away” culture of cheap,

replaceable goods - built in

obsolescence.

f Construction - building waste.

f Retail competition - packaging,

centralised production.

At present waste volume per capita is stillincreasing. There are seven landfill sitesin County Cork. All these are planned toclose in the next two years, beingreplaced by one landfill site, seventransfer stations or material recoveryfacilities and 16 civic amenity (recycling)sites. Whilst waste managementstandards are increasing, such sites willnevertheless create impacts. Costs ofwaste disposal are becoming serious forthose on low incomes. Rural dumpingwas reported in all parts of the Area andthere were many requests for a ruralwaste management programme.

with 5 main oil spills listed in the last 20years. The Irish Marine Emergency Serviceof the Department of the Marine was setup in 1991 and maintains a NationalMarine Emergency Plan which is co-ordinated with Harbour Authorities andoil companies.

The Marine Institute and BordIascaigh Mhara (BIM) and theDepartment of the Marine and NaturalResources are joined in a project tomanage the aquaculture activities withinour bays. Co-ordinated Local AquacultureManagement Systems (CLAMS) are beingdrawn up for the bays of southwest Corkinvolving all the producers within the bayand a group of consultees. The CLAMS forRoaringwater Bay is finished in its firstversion, and the CLAMS for DunmanusBay is underway. They are designed to beevolving documents which means thatthey develop into different versions astimes goes on. CLAMS produce:

f A concise description of the bay area

in terms of physical characteristics,

history, aquaculture operations,

future potential, problems etc.

f Integration of a series of codes of

practise for current aquaculture

operations and translation of those

national codes to the specific

circumstances of each bay or coastal

region.

f Expansion of the concept of Single

Bay Management (SBM) to species

other than Salmon.

f A development plan for aquaculture

in the bay.

4.2.3 Waste

A very high level of public concern existswith respect to waste: the challenge ofsolving waste problems emerges fromcommunity appraisal and from FutureSearch as a real opportunity for the Area.The approach emerging strongly fromFuture Search and the CommunityAppraisal is that waste should generallybe seen as a resource which needs a use.Waste reduction ( with a 20 year goal ofzero waste) and an end to the plastic bag

Sustainability:



A very high level of

public concern exists

with respect to waste.

The approach emerging

strongly from Future

Search and the

Community Appraisal is

that waste should

generally be seen as a

resource which needs a

use.

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4.2.4 Air pollution

The Framework Directive on Air QualityAssessment and Management providesthe framework for future legislation onair quality in Europe and requires aradical restructuring and expansion ofmonitoring networks in Ireland. Greateremphasis will have to be placed on datadissemination and the need to keep thepublic fully informed on the state of theair quality. These issues have beenaddressed by the first National Air QualityMonitoring Programme drawn up by theEPA.

Energy and Transport

The driving force behind the increase inenergy consumption is consumerbehaviour and increased demands. CorkCounty Council was the first localauthority in Ireland to establish a PublicEnergy Office and has been involved formore than twelve years in the RenewableEnergy Project in Mallow. The Council alsoruns a long-standing wind farm projectaimed at identifying areas suitable for

wind farms. There is also support forsmall-scale renewable energy projects.

For Ireland as a whole, the projectedincrease in greenhouse gases emissions by2012 in a ‘business as usual‘ scenario lies at30%, as opposed to our Kyoto target of 13%,figures that outline the very real challengefaced in the next years. The green paper onsustainable energy outlines how thegovernment proposes to meet this targetand a Draft National Greenhouse GasAbatement Strategy has been prepared bythe Department of the Environment andLocal Government. Key sectors in respect ofcarbon dioxide emissions are energy,transport, household and industry withthe biggest scope for reduction seen in theenergy sector.

4.3 Heritage and Culture

4.3.1 Cultural Appraisal

Due to the relatively slower move toindustrialisation and urbanisation, a richheritage of distinctive local traditions andpastimes has survived in North and West

Two factors, physical

isolation and the

instability that prevailed

in County Cork for many

centuries, contributed to

the very low population

levels in the county and

to the very late

predominance of rural

rather than urban

patterns of life.

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414

appraisal have contributed to both theCounty Strategy process and to thedevelopment of the strategic framework.The extensive survey material gatheredthrough the appraisal has been carefullytranscribed and reviewed in the Northand West Cork Strategic Study 2001-2020.A representative sample of material,which illustrates local culture in differentparts of the County, has beendisaggregated and compiled into a report.The report, entitled “Culture and Heritagein County Cork: a Community Appraisal”, ispublished in the appendices of the Northand West Cork Strategic Study 2001-2020and has been drawn on for the descriptionand analysis made here.

As part of the community appraisal,“annual calendars” of the importantevents held throughout the year wererecorded, illustrating the complex,seasonal, living culture of each differentpart of the county. Other tasks carriedout by communities taking part in thesurvey included listing qualities of “localuniqueness”, compiling timelines oflandmark local events in the past andpresent and mapping the location ofimportant local landmarks. This surveyforms an important resource for futureplanning purposes.

The cultural heritage of County Corkas recorded in community appraisal ispredominantly based on the sharedexperience of communities of smallfarmers and fishermen and of theinhabitants of small market towns andvillages. Up to the turn of the 20thcentury each local economy hadcraftsmen who made products such asshoes, nails, barrels, leather goods etc.Self-sufficiency in producing these goodswas made necessary by remoteness andslow transportation. These trades, nowlost, were mentioned in nearly everyvillage, town and rural area surveyed.

Across the county, pre-Christian andearly Christian religious practicescontinue including the care and visitationof holy wells and grottoes and thepreservation of mass bushes. Some

Cork to an extent unusual within modernEurope.

Two factors, physical isolation andthe instability that prevailed in CountyCork for many centuries, contributed tothe very low population levels in thecounty and to the very late predominanceof rural rather than urban patterns of life.From the thirteenth century up to thesixteenth century, County Cork wasdivided by a state of intermittent warbetween the hiberno-norman people whooccupied the best of the county’sagricultural land to the east of theCounty and the Gaelic clans, who withtheir pastoral and hunting activities heldthe mainly wooded uplands to the west6.In Cork, for much of the medieval period,west of Blarney was Gaelic territory, withonly nominal control by centralauthorities in London or Dublin.Macroom was the only Gaelic town in thecounty. This division between east andwest is still evident, with the westernparts of the county bounding Kerrymaintaining the Irish language to a fargreater extent than the east and withmany differences in local culture,patterns of habitation and agriculturalpractices.

As part of the community appraisal,information was gathered on bothcultural assets and cultural values bypeople working in groups, in their ownsurroundings. The findings of this

Sustainability:



6 The Development of Lordship in County Cork, 1300 - 1600, Kenneth Nicholl

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The Need to Incorporate Environmental, Heritage and Cultural


landmark events go back many centuries,including markets and fairs originallychartered up to 800 years ago. Gaelicsports, rural pastimes, music, songs, roadbowling, harness racing and stories havea legacy which goes back thousands ofyears.

The appraisal showed that religionremains one of the most significantelements of shared culture. Somereligious sites and customs in Cork dateback thousands of years. Agriculturalpractices such as ploughing andthreshing, horse-related and sportingactivities, skills and trades are alsoimportant locally. Coastal areas recordedregattas and other traditions andpractices associated with fishing andmarine trading. The role of public housesas a part of local culture is generallytaken for granted. Where it has occurred,the loss of the local pub is seen as aserious blow to the viability of acommunity.

As well as the more typical culturalelements such as set dancing, step

dancing, traditional music and gaelicsports, community appraisal has recordedroad bowling, regattas, sulky racing and amyriad of local events, fairs and festivalsin the Area. Some recent change was alsorecorded, including the loss of the dancehalls and the arrival of cinemas, discos,rock festivals and Disney on Ice.Traditional music and story tellingremain important, particularly in thewest and north west.

4.3.2 The Irish Language in CountyCork

There is a strong adherence to the Irishlanguage in County Cork both inside andoutside the Gaeltacht. Joseph Lee hasemphasised in his writings in the 1990sthat ownership of the national languageis a key issue of national identity and self-confidence (Ireland 1912-1985). The Frenchspoken by the Normans inhabiting Corkfrom the 12th century has disappearedwith the exception of some place names

Map 4.1: 1996 Census - Persons (over 3 years) speaking Irish daily

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County of which 11 are in the County. Anew one is planned for Blarney. There are27 Naionrai (Playschools) in the County.Ten of these are in the Gaeltacht, Cape orMuscrai. It is estimated from rolls thatthere is demand for another 40Gaelscoilleanna. With the developmentof the Gaelscoilleanna, the association ofthe Irish language with educationalexclusion is being broken, as theseschools attain high standards.Bilingualism and high educationalattainment are being demonstrated asable to go hand in hand.

The low levels of provision ofinformation and customer services in theIrish language places Irish speakers at adisadvantage. The use of the language bypublic bodies is both a matter ofleadership by example and an issue ofthe rights of Irish speakers to have accessto public services through their nativelanguage. The County Development Boardhas begun work on policy developmentfor public bodies and Cork County Councilis preparing a plan for use of thelanguage. Native speakers and those whochoose to learn need support for use ofIrish. It is a basic cultural right and is alsoboth directly and indirectly an economicresource: there is an unmet market foreducational aids and translation. Thestrategic framework therefore includes

and many surnames, as has the muchearlier language which existed in Irelandbefore Gaelic. The Irish language hasremained strong through centuries ofcultural pressures and has the potentialfor a healthy future in Cork.

Map 4.1 shows the distribution ofpeople speaking Irish daily throughoutthe County, recorded in the Census ofPopulation of 1996. With the exception ofthe Gaeltacht and Cape Clear the patternis somewhat surprising. The Corksuburbs emerge as the most extensivearea for use of Irish outside of theGaeltacht area. This pattern may wellresult from general populationmovements from Irish speaking areasinto new housing close to employmentcentres of Cork City and its suburbs. Itmay also reflect a general nationalincrease in the use of Irish recorded in the1996 Census and the youthful age groupin the Area. The emergence of people likeLouis de Paor, born in Bishopstown with“no sense of identity” and now a poet inthe Irish language, indicates that loss oflanguage is not a fixed state in Cork.

The growth of the Gaelscoilleanna isa strong positive indication of thepotential for a future for the Irishlanguage in County Cork. There are a totalof 19 Gaelscoilleanna (with approximately3,500 pupils in total) in Cork City and

Sustainability:

The Need to Incorporate Environmental, Heritage and Cultural


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measures for the support of thosechoosing to speak or to learn Irish.

4.3.3 Conclusions on Local Culture

In identifying priorities, the continuationof local customs and traditions is a highpriority goal of the majority ofcommunities. The attainment of thisgoal is seen as linked to the generaleconomic strength of the Area, and inparticular to the continuation of asignificant percentage of the populationworking on the land or sea. Cultural

distinctiveness is one of the greatstrengths of North and West Cork. Thepresent situation of cultural changepresents an opportunity not just forsuccessful preservation of unique culturaltraditions, but also as an occasion forwidening access to and breadth of arange of cultural activities.

The development of culturalresources and activity should not be seenas marginal within the StrategicFramework. It is a central theme,important to the social and economicwell-being of the Area.

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45

An Approach for Addressing Core Development

Issues and Achieving Community Goals:

A Strategic Model for Inclusive Sustainable

Development

5

5.1 Introduction 46

5.2 Rural Development: The Existing Development Paradigm 46

5.3 Essential Requirements of a Successful Model for sustainable

Economic Development of North and West County Cork 47

5.3.1 Raising The Productive Potential of The Economy 48

5.3.2 Optimising Spatial Development Patterns:

An Essential Requirement for Infrastructure Development 53

5.3.3 Increasing Rural Access and Provision of Public

Infrastructure and Resources 54

5.3.4 Incorporating Environmental Sustainability 55

5.3.5 Promoting Access to Social, Recreational and Cultural Facilities 56

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46 55.1 Introduction

The core development challenge facingNorth and West Cork is a reversal ofpopulation loss and decline in ruralliving. The trends and influences givingrise to this challenge are set out inChapter 2. Chapter 3 sets out the futuregoals and aspirations of thecommunities, as uncovered throughconsultations and appraisals bycommunities themselves as part of theprocess for drawing up this Plan. Inaddition, issues of environmental qualityand preserving unique and distinctivefeatures of the culture of North and WestCork, while expanding the range andquality of social and recreational servicesare of very high priority. These aredescribed in Chapter 4.

Many of the goals and aspirationsdescribed reflect the challenges posed bypopulation loss and rural decline and areconcerned with redressing the factorsgiving rise to these trends. In all, thesechapters establish the agenda and issuesthat need to be addressed by a StrategicDevelopment Plan for the area.

In this chapter an approach ormodel which incorporates the breath ofthis agenda, in a coherent and integratedway is described. Thus, the materialcontained in this chapter is the core ofthe Plan, encompassing all the headingsunder which actions are required and therationale for including them. Subsequentchapters of the Report contain proposalsand recommendations in relation toindividual components of the Plan.

5.2 Rural Development: The ExistingDevelopment Paradigm

In shaping a strategy to achieve theobjectives of development for North andWest Cork in the future it is importantthat an appropriate analytical model ofrural development should be articulatedand pursued. Historically, the agriculturalsector did play a more pivotal role in ruraldevelopment. The economic welfare ofmany provincial towns was shaped bythe cyclical fortunes of the agriculture

sector and economic activity of thesetowns was focussed on meeting demandarising from income generated inagriculture.

The success of industrial policy inattracting multinational companies tocertain towns and counties has criticallyaltered the productive capacity of theselocations and altered the composition ofemployment and sources of economicgrowth, which they experience. In effect,the dynamic underlying development hasaltered in favour of towns, which havebecome self-sustaining economic entities,rather than providers of goods andservices to agriculture based ruralcommunities. In this sense the impetusfor economic growth has shifted spatiallyto towns and cities and away from ruralhinterlands. In general, the employmentcreation associated with industrialexpansion has been associated withincreasing urbanisation, although thegreater availability of employment hasalso supported rural based living in thevicinity of these towns to some degree.

However, as a model for ruraldevelopment the process outlined aboveis deficient in a number of importantrespects.

f In the first place, industrial expansion

and foreign direct investment has

been very uneven geographically so

that many towns and counties have

not experienced any significant

stimulus from investment in new

industries or services. North and West

County Cork falls into this category. At

the same time, contraction in

numbers engaged and migration

from rural settlements have

accompanied weakness of income

growth in the agriculture sector.

Therefore, some counties, including

North and West Cork, have

experienced continuing high

dependence on agriculture – almost

50% of the labour force in North and

West County Cork is engaged in or

dependent on this sector – which has

An Approach for Addressing Core Development Issues and

Achieving Community Goals: A Strategic Model for Inclusive

Sustainable Development

There is no part of

Ireland more

disadvantaged in terms

of access to urban-based

facilities than west and

north west Cork and the

islands. North and West

Cork is at the periphery

of a region which is

itself peripheral within

Europe. This region (the

Republic of Ireland) is,

since the opening of the

Channel Tunnel, the

only significant

European economy not

linked by road and rail

to the European

mainland.

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475An Approach for Addressing Core Development Issues and



been static or contracting, without

experiencing any significant

offsetting impetus from investment

in non-agricultural activity.

f Secondly, where counties and towns

have experienced significant

investment in new industries and

international service provision the

impact on rural development is not

always assured. Inward investment

boosts the productive capacity and

spending power of those engaged in

new industries. Undoubtedly, this

contributes to sustaining rural

communities in the hinterland of

these investments. However, unless

there is accompanying improvement

in access to and development of

public infrastructure and services

across a broad spectrum - including,

transport, education, health, social

and recreational – the potential for

vibrant rural development will be

difficult to realise in full. In effect, the

achievement of rural development, in

the sense of vibrant, inclusive

communities with stable or

expanding populations requires

expansion of both productive

capacity and opportunities and

expansion of access to and

availability of consumption

opportunities.

f Thirdly, there have been ‘spill-over’

effects on some counties and their

rural communities, including parts of

West Cork, from congestion and lack

of access to Cork City. This has

resulted in significant increases in

housing demand and development,

especially in South West Cork, along

the coast. There is a positive economic

effect associated with this trend, in

terms of increased construction

activity and local employment

generation in this sector. In addition,

there is likely to be some longer

enduring effects through the ongoing

spending of these households in the

local area. However, this kind of

development also poses significant

challenges to rural development. Part

time residences can make it difficult

to establish roots and social contacts

within the local community or any

significant sense of being part of the

local community. Barriers to

integration become significant and

the result can be stratification and

the emergence of enclaves.

f Fourthly, without proactive policies

and effective measures it appears

that the current process of

adjustment and consolidation which

is occurring in the agriculture sector

could be more attenuated and

painful than need be the case. If so,

viable alternative opportunities may

be missed and the creation of a more

commercially viable farm sector could

be forestalled. In either event

sustainable rural development will

be more difficult to promote.

5.3 Essential Requirements of aSuccessful Model forSustainable EconomicDevelopment of North and WestCounty Cork

In essence a successful model must buildon the strengths of the existingparadigm, while addressing theshortcomings outlined above. However, itshould be stressed that the developmentof a strategy for a sub-region in a countrywhen it is without independent policyinstruments, as County Cork is, isinherently difficult.




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5.3.1Raising the Productive Potentialof the Economy

A number of factors directly influence theproductive capacity of North and WestCork, these include:

f The national economic context;

f The competitive position of the

regional economy; and

f The human resources available for

future growth.

These various aspects are examinedbelow in turn.

In addition, the availability of goodquality infrastructure and services(Section 5.3.3 below) plays a very

important role, both in fostering theproductive potential of the economy andin directly raising the welfare ofconsumers, who can avail of theseservices.

The National Economic Context

Looking out to the end of the decade, thelatest Medium Term Review of the ESRI,Table 5.1 views the Irish economy ashaving the potential to continue growingrapidly. However, the growth in potentialoutput, which averaged over 7 per centbetween 1995 and 2000, will probably fallto 5 per cent for the period to 2005. In thisbenchmark forecast it is assumed thatthe economy slows gently from theexceptional growth rate of the last fiveyears. This must be considered a relatively

Table 1: Benchmark Forecast, Growth in Major Aggregates

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 1995 - 2000- 2005 - 2010-

00 05 10 15

Per Cent Annual Average % Growth

GNP 9.9 6.0 5.4 4.4 4.0 4.0 4.4 4.3 8.4 4.8 4.3 2.8 ConsumptionDeflator 5.8 4.8 3.9 3.8 3.5 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.6 3.9 3.2 3.2 Employment,April 4.8 4.3 2.2 1.2 1.0 1.4 1.7 1.8 4.9 2.0 1.8 0.7 Real After Tax Non-AgriculturalWage 2.1 5.2 5.8 4.2 2.8 2.1 2.3 2.5 1.8 4.0 2.5 2.4

Per Cent of GNP 2000 2005 2010 2015Surplus -0.7 -0.9 -1.7 -1.5 -1.0 -0.8 -1.1 -1.4 -0.7 -0.8 -1.5 0.8 Debt-GNPRatio 42.1 34.5 29.0 24.3 20.9 18.3 15.7 13.2 42.1 18.3 6.8 -2.3

Per Cent of Labour Force (ILO basis) 2000 2005 2010 2015UnemploymentRate 4.3 3.8 3.6 4.3 5.3 5.8 5.7 5.5 4.3 5.8 4.0 4.1

Source: Medium Term Review 2001-2007. ESRI: Dublin 2001




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495

benign scenario as there is the very realpossibility that the US economy, will facean unpleasant adjustment process overthe next few years. If the economicdifficulties of the US continue into nextyear, other aspects of the externalenvironment will turn sour and analternative slowdown scenario, may turnout to be correct.

In this benchmark forecast, growthin GNP' over the period 2000 to 2005 isprojected at an average of 4.8 per cent ayear (compared to the annual growth inpotential output of around 5 per cent).The result will be some rise inunemployment, peaking in 2005 ataround 5.8 per cent of the labour force. Inthe subsequent five year period theeconomy could grow more rapidly thanpotential, averaging 5.3 per cent a year,returning the labour force to fullemployment.

The Competitive Position of the Regional

Economy

Uneven sector development and veryhigh dependence on agriculture is thekey competitive feature of the economyof North and West Cork.

Agriculture

Agriculture is particularly important inNorth and West County Cork, with over50 per cent of jobs depending eitherdirectly or indirectly on farming and itsassociated industries. Generally soils areconsidered to be good but there is

variation from among some of the best inthe country in the north and the coastalareas, to much poorer soils in the westernpart of the county. Annual rainfall alsovaries substantially being very hightowards the west and lower than thenational average in eastern areas. As aresult, the standard of agricultural activityand production is good in most areas andvery good in many.

The major trend in agriculture as inother parts of the county is its relativedecline in importance to the economy.Output continues to rise but employmentis falling steadily. Inheritance is also amajor problem in many parts of the Area.One result of this is that consolidation istaking place. This has immediate effects,but the most important changes will belonger-term as the proportion of thepopulation living on farms from whichthey derive their main income will fallconsiderably.

Teagasc’s longer term predictions foragriculture in Ireland suggest thatincreasingly there will be a dividebetween large scale intensive farming,which will provide the bulk of foodproduce, and a smaller, but significant,organic and other niche sector,amounting to perhaps 15% of the total.This sector would be far more labourintensive and would comprise smallerunits. The EU organic food market tripledin value between 1990 and 1997 to £2.8billion. The market is growing at a rate of22% per annum, compared with less than1% per annum for conventional food. Inkeeping with this trend, the age profile ofthose engaged in organic farming is verymuch younger than in the non-organicsector.

Fresh fruit and vegetables and dairyproducts are the most popular organicproducts, but the organic meat market isalso starting to grow. Sales of organicfood are projected to overtake sales ofconventional food in Denmark andAustria in the next 10-15 years.Community Appraisal has indicated thatthe local population places a high priorityon retaining a significant number of

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50 5

livelihoods based on the land and also awish to produce high quality, nongenetically-modified foods. Recentstudies by the Western DevelopmentCommission and East Cork AreaDevelopment suggest that there is goodpotential for organic production,particularly in those parts of the Areawhich have been managed as smallfarms.

Organic and part-time modes offarming are likely to be increasinglyimportant. Educational and trainingsupports for these types of farming areinadequate as Teagasc only supports full-time farmers. There is a need forexperienced, specialist organic farmingand marketing advice on the ground ifthe sector is to develop to its potential.

Industry

Three broad sectors of industrial activityare concentrated in County Cork. Theseare: Food and Drink; Chemicals andPlastics; and Computing, Electrical andCommunications equipment. In thisrespect, County Cork would appear to bea leading area for the sectors that havebeen credited with driving the Irisheconomic boom. The exception is thefood industry where the experience hasbeen quite different. This sector has had adifficult period throughout the countryand it is widely accepted that furtherconsolidation and rationalisation is likelyin future years.

This sector distribution, pointstowards the importance of IDA sponsoredfirms and their offshoots in the county,and this is indeed the case. Cork has acluster of computer manufacturing firmsand the strongest cluster of chemical andpharmaceutical firms in the country.However, neither of these is in the Area.Larger employers in the Area arepredominantly in the food sector, with asmall number of dairying co-operativesdominant within the sector. MunsterJoineries in north west Cork is anothervery large employer.

Employment in firms sponsored andsupported by national development

agencies accounted for 27.8 per cent oftotal employment in the study area in1996, compared to 18.6 per centnationally. However, while employment inagency sponsored firms nationally grewby 23.6 per cent in the years 1995-99, itgrew by only 4.1 per cent in the Area. Also,this employment is concentrated in asmall number of very large firms. TheArea suffered only 2.9 per cent of all lossesin agency firms in the period 1995-99 butacquired only 1.9 per cent of the new jobsthat were created. Total losses in theperiod 1995-99 in the Area were only 17.7per cent of the total in 1995 compared tonational losses equal to 29.6 per cent ofthe national total.

"Over 500 new jobs eligible forsupport in the micro enterprise sectorhave been assisted in North and WestCork during the period 1995-1999. Thissector continues to grow in importanceand is a consistent provider of new jobopportunities."

This data indicates a relatively stablepast population and high importance ofthese firms. However, the sectordistribution of Multi National Companies(MNCs) has changed considerably in thepast decade or so and Ireland is nowconsidered to have a much strongereconomy as a result. The same does notappear to be the case in North and WestCork with the firms that exist todayrather similar to those that were there inthe past. The problem is that if thesefirms did not stimulate economicdynamism and spin-offs in the past, theyare unlikely to do so in the future. Inaddition, as wages being paid in thecounty are not high by Irish standardsthey are not likely to provide the type ofboost to incomes that has been achievedin other areas. Evidence from CommunityAppraisal is that outside the immediatecommuting area of Cork City, wages in thecounty are average or low. A feature ofthe Area is the presence of small numberof large firms each of which employs ahigh proportion of the local labour force,creating an over-dependency on a singleemployer and reducing the potential for




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515

diversity of employment. These firms arenot in the high wage sectors which havebrought significant increases in localprosperity.

Furthermore, they are in someinstances in sectors currently affected bystrong trends to restructuring and loss ofemployment. Community Appraisalshowed a strong local priority in areassuch as Dunmanway, Macroom,Mitchelstown and Kanturk fordiversification of employment as amatter of urgency.

Tourism

The tourism sector in North and WestCork is particularly important. It providesthe most ready means of drawingmoneys earned outside the Area to bespent inside it, thereby correcting tosome extent the strong trend illustratedin community appraisal for localexpenditure to leak from the Area to CorkCity. It is also important in theopportunities it presents for the femaleworkforce and in particular the stronglygrowing self-employed female sector,who are themselves becomingemployers. The services sustained bytourism are generally also available tolocal people and can make the Area moreattractive and lively for the youngerpopulation. The positive impacts that canbe achieved through tourism are furtherdiscussed in Part 7, SustainableCommunities. The Interim Reportpresented a detailed review of currenttourism sector performance and trends.

However, the tourism sector withinthe county is very uneven, with some of itperforming well, while other parts havesuffered a worrying fall off in trade.Quality, location, access and marketingand value for money are the main criteriafor success.

In its Strategy for Growth Beyond2000, the Irish Tourism IndustryConfederation argues that a number ofunderlying issues must be tackled ifIreland is to achieve its full potential inthe global tourism industry:

f Relative competitiveness must be

maintained in a holiday experience

that maximises visitor satisfaction.

f The focus should be on increased

tourism revenue rather than visitor

numbers.

f Season extension is necessary in

order to accommodate growth

without causing congestion in key

tourist sites. There is potential for

such extension in the development of

short-stay city breaks, special interest

activities and events.

f Ensuring environmental appeal

through the development and

adoption of environmental and

traffic management policies.

f Balanced Regional Distribution in

order to spread the benefits of

tourism, minimise congestion at

tourist sites and increase plant

utilisation levels and profitability.

These objectives are relevant to thesituation of North and West Cork.

Fisheries

Opportunities exist in the South West forcontinuous expansion in the fishprocessing sector. The constraininginfluence would appear to be a generallack of investment capital. In theSkibbereen/Union Hall area processinghas grown dramatically since 1992. Theshellfish/aquaculture industry is thrivingin all areas of West Cork, as is furtherprocessing.




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52 5

Human Resources

There are two issues here. First, is theavailability of numbers of people foremployment. Second is the humancapital endowment of the labour force.

If it is assumed that participationrates remain as they are, then projectedpopulation growth (see Section 2.3)implies a growth in the labour force ofbetween 5,253 (M1F1 assumptions) and1,912 (M2F3 assumptions) up to 2011.

However, these projections, whichare based on population growth only,ignore the likely impact of a number ofother variables that would tend toincrease the rate of growth of the labourforce relative to the population. The firstis that an increase in economic activitywould alter the structure of thepopulation enabling the Area to retainsome of the people in the 20-30 agegroup who currently leave to find work oreducation elsewhere. Femaleparticipation is another important issue.The trend in Ireland is towards higherparticipation and the North and WestCork Area is well below the nationalaverage. The rate is likely to remainbelow the national average due to thestructure of the population and the effectof women assisting on farms.

If it were assumed that the 1996participation rate for females increases tothe 1996 national average by 2011, thenthis would imply an increase in thefemale labour force of between 3,128(M2F3) and 4,412 (M1F1). This would meanan overall increase in the labour force ofbetween 4,438 (13.2%) and 8,016 (23.9%)up to 2011. At a time when the economyis at full employment, this represents aconsiderable resource for the region.Educational attainment is a keydeterminant of the human capital that isavailable to an area for development.Typically, it tends to be lower in ruralareas than in cities and it has beenincreasing rapidly in Ireland. There are anumber of striking features in relation toeducational attainment in the Area. First,it is lower than in the county as a whole -it is weighted towards the ‘primary only’category. Second, the educationalattainment of males is lower thanfemales. This is particularly noticeable inthe more rural areas of the west andcoastal areas. Third, the west and northwest lags other parts of the Area in termsof the education of its residents.Taken together, however, these findingsindicate that there is a considerableeducation deficit in North and West Cork




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compared to other parts of County Cork.Community appraisal affirmed a strongwish for continuing education to be madereadily available, particularly in thoseareas, which recorded lower levels ofcompletion to Leaving Certificate. Stronginterest in acquiring basic computer andinternet skills were also evidentthroughout the Area in all age groups.The wish for continuing educationopportunities in the north and west wasalso strongly expressed.

To some extent, the low proportionof the populations of these areas withhigher educational attainment is a resultof the emigration of the educated youngpopulation out of these areas. The lack ofsuitable employment for graduates wasidentified by a number of communities asthe biggest long-term threat to theirfuture.

Conclusions

The productive potential of the North andWest Cork economy is weak. Measures toimprove this situation must be at theheart of any strategy for development ofthe Area. The approach and measures forovercoming present weaknesses andthreats are set out in Chapter 6.

5.3.2Optimising Spatial DevelopmentPatterns: An EssentialRequirement for InfrastructureDevelopment

Much of the NDP is about the provision ofpublic infrastructure and supportservices. These services raise theconsumption possibilities of communitieswho can access them. Without them, orwithout easy access to them, it will bedifficult to sustain vibrant ruralcommunities, as people will tend to opt tolive in larger urban settlements. However,it must be recognised also that wherethere are low-density settlement patternsthe cost of providing infrastructure andpublic services becomes very expensiveand threatens competitiveness. Therefore,securing optimal spatial development inrural settings is extremely important.

In principle, such development canbe the external impetus that gives rise tosustainable community development,where the new entrants, while workingoutside the Area, become embedded inthe local community for shopping,schooling, social and cultural activities,and general aspects of living. The newentrants benefit from structures already




The County

Development Plan (and

its associated planning

policies) is considered

to be an appropriate

instrument to develop

settlements, capable of

supporting community

development and more

effective provision of

public infrastructure

and services.

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54 5

in place and they in turn add to the localcommunity, enabling it, in turn tosupport a greater variety and range ofservices. However, this is most likelywhere new housing is attached to part ofan existing framework. Where newhousing is in isolated communities andone-off in nature the two-way flowdescribed above is unlikely to take place.New entrants see the local area as a base,but employment and consumptionpatterns are located elsewhere. Thus,while the rural population mightincrease, social exclusion can deepen.

The County Development Plan (andits associated planning policies) isconsidered to be an appropriateinstrument to develop settlements,capable of supporting communitydevelopment and more effectiveprovision of public infrastructure andservices.

With appropriate physical planningpolicies and regulations it should bepossible to take existing villages andsmall towns and encourage appropriatelyscaled housing development withrestrictions on one-off housing and low-density ribbon development. This wouldbring new entrants to an area in closercontact with each other and with thelocal community and make other ruraldevelopment objectives contained in theNDP possible e.g. social and affordablehousing, improved water supply andwaste management and environmentalconcerns. It could also provide the criticalmass needed for the provision of otherservices, e.g. public library facilities, sportscentres, improved shopping and perhapscreate some local markets.

The weakness of economic life invillages in rural areas in Ireland is strikingin comparison with some other EUcountries, for example, France orGermany. In these, villages and smalltowns are plentiful, deriving theireconomic impetus from the ruralcommunity, serving that community, andalso serving as a location for urbanemployment. It is possible that incomelevels in agriculture in Ireland were and

remain too low to support village andurban activity of this kind. However, theissue for rural development now is how tocreate this environment and to ensurethat new entrants benefit from the localcommunity and contribute to the localcommunity.

This aspect of rural development- viz.arresting rural depopulation, andreducing physical isolation is extremelyimportant and essential if economicallyviable communities are to be created.

A proposed strategy andrecommendations to give effect to it arecontained in detail in Chapter 7 below.

5.3.3Increasing Rural Access andProvision of PublicInfrastructure and Resources

Even accepting the need for an externalstimulus, North and West County Corkrequires a range of public infrastructure,support services, and improved access tothese, if rural communities are to thrive.

Rural Public Transport

This aspect of rural development is largelymissing from the NDP. The emphasis is onregional and local roads, and theimprovement in these as a means ofimproving access. Nationally, over onethird of the population has no access totransport or serious difficulty withtransport in rural areas. In rural areastransport is a mix of public and private. Inthe case of both the objective is tomaintain profitability. Without thisprivate companies would go to the wall,and in the case of Bus Eireann thesubvention from Government to CIE isinsufficient and is mostly eaten up by therail network. It is evident that thenegative externality associated withisolated rural living is not well recognised,as otherwise the amounts that could beprovided for Bus Eireann would be higher.Again one is struck by the availability ofpublic transport in isolated areas in otherEU countries, meeting the needs of thosewithout their own transport.




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555

There are ways this could be improved inIreland, for example, by granting publicservice contracts for scheduled servicesfor remote areas, with direct payments tooperators. It is not obvious thatGovernment yet recognises the need forpublic subsidies for public servicecontracts, as they tend to favour cross-subsidisation within the overall budgetconstraint imposed by the CIEsubvention. However public servicecontracts could attract private operators,and these have the potential to be moreflexible and more responsive to localneeds. This issue could be addressed inthe details of the Regional OperationalProgramme, as there is allowance forpilot rural transport services.

Development of Other Public

Infrastructure and Services Provision

Establishing appropriate physicalplanning policies and regulations andthe instigation of rural public transportservices are prerequisites for achievingcost effective and economically viableimprovements in provision and access tomany public infrastructure and services,like, water, sewerage, roads, educationand social and recreational facilities insupport of rural development. Inaddition, by overcoming isolation andcreating a level of critical mass the basiswould be established for sustaining localretail and other consumer and businessservices in rural communities.

Much of the NDP, is about theprovision of support services. An effectivestrategy for development requires thatthe local agencies and the local agents ofnational support services commit toparticipating in a rural developmentstrategy for the county. In many cases it isonly these agents and agencies whichcan access the funding contained in thevarious Operational Programmes andSub-Programmes. Accordingly, it is vitalthat these agencies should be involved inthe implementation of measures tosecure the maximum improvement inservices. Only in these circumstances canthe full potential for increasing access to

improved public services in support ofrural development be realised.

Chapter 8 contains an assessment ofinfrastructure and recommendations forimprovements.

5.3.4Incorporating EnvironmentalSustainability

In Chapter 4 the priority attached bycommunities to environmental qualitywas noted at the outset. Environmentalconcerns have become mainstream inCounty Cork and are no longer seen asthe preserve of fringe groups and experts.There is a local recognition that we arepart of the environment and dependenton its highly complex natural life supportsystems. This understanding provides asolid foundation in the Area from which




There are many unique

and distinctive cultural

characteristics which

form an integral part of

the people of North and

West Cork and which

are highly valued. In

addition, it is evident

that access to a variety

of social and

recreational services is a

key factor to retaining a

higher proportion of

young people in the

Area

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56 5

to address issues of sustainability in arealistic and effective manner.

An environmental profile of the Areawas presented, which highlighted anumber of areas of pressure. Clearly, anystrategy for development needs toincorporate environmental sustainabilityand improvement. As is discussed belowin Chapter 9, many actions and policyinitiatives are underway, which will havepositive environmental effects in theNorth and West Cork Area. These shouldbe incorporated within the presentproposed approach. In addition, certainadditional actions are recommended.

5.3.5Promoting Access to Social,Recreational and CulturalFacilities

The problems of poverty and socialexclusion in rural areas have distinctfeatures. Economic dependency, isolation,unequal opportunity and participationare compounded by the problems ofdistance from services and amenities.Furthermore, the absence of an adequatetransport service and affordable childcare services in many areas make itespecially difficult for women to avail oftraining and education or to enter thelabour force and retain employment.

The provision of improved publicservices and infrastructure and thecreation of improved employmentopportunities will greatly assist inreducing many aspects of socialexclusion and deprivation.

However, in addition, it is consideredthat measures to promote greater accessand availability of social, recreational andcultural facilities and services should beincorporated into a strategy for futuredevelopment. As discussed in Chapter 4,there are many unique and distinctivecultural characteristics which form anintegral part of the people of North andWest Cork and which are highly valued. Inaddition, it is evident that access to avariety of social and recreational servicesis a key factor to retaining a higherproportion of young people in the Area.Therefore, specific proposals arecontained in Chapter 10 below, in relationto this aspect, which is an integralelement in the overall development Plan.




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576Expanding the Productive Potential of the

Economy of North and West Cork

6.1 Introduction 58

6.2 A significant external Stimulus to Raise the Productive Capacity

of North and West County Cork 58

6.3 Facilitating Adjustment and Diversification of the Agriculture Sector 60

6.4 Raising Educational Attainment 61

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58

6.1Introduction

Analysis contained in Chapter 5concludes that the competitive positionof the economy of North and West Cork isweak. It is characterised by uneven sectordevelopment, with a very highdependence on agriculture. In addition,while potential labour force growthappears strong, there are constraints interms of human capital endowment,which limits the scope for growth in highvalue added economic activities. Finally,the absence of high quality physicalinfrastructure, especially in terms ofaccess and communications is a furtherimpediment to economiccompetitiveness and the potential forgrowth.

This Chapter sets out the strategicrequirements for strengthening thecompetitiveness of the economy of Northand West Cork and raising its productivepotential. An accompanying programmeof human resource development isproposed. Finally, a number of measuresto support and reinforce thedevelopments already underway in bothNorth and West Cork are proposed.

6.2A Significant External Stimulusto Raise the Productive Capacityof North and West County Cork

North and West County Cork requires anexternal stimulus to foster developmentand growth – whether considered in arural or urban context. In principle, thiscan come in a variety of ways. Forexample, there may be a resource basefor which demand changes, as with thedevelopment of tourism in what wereonce considered poor backward areas ofMediterranean Coastal Spain. The regioncould be found to be rich in naturalresources for which there is a market.Alternatively the region could be used asa physical location by overseas ornational companies, which see thelocation as desirable, because of theavailability of labour or perhaps theexistence of some external economies, aswith the location of pharmaceuticalcompanies in the Cork City area.Furthermore, decentralisation of publicservice provision and administration canhave the same effect. The region couldalso develop if individuals develop newproducts and services, and see the regionas one where they want to remain.

In summary, an external stimulus toraise productive capacity can be achievedthrough a number of channels, namely:

f Foreign Direct Investment

f Indigenous Industry

f Tourism and

f Decentralisation of Public Service

Provision and Administration.

6 Expanding the Productive Potential of

the Economy of North and West Cork

Expanding the Productive Potential of


This Chapter sets out

the strategic

requirements for

strengthening the

competitiveness of

the economy of

North and West Cork

and raising its

productive potential.

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596Expanding the Productive Potential of


A central thrust of the Plan should be to

pursue all of these potential avenues. In

relation to the first two, IDA Ireland and

Enterprise Ireland, respectively hold

direct responsibility. In terms of this

Plan, therefore, it is recommended that

the aim should be to secure the

commitment from these two

organisations to incorporate the

objectives for North and West Cork into

their operational targets. In addition, it is

considered important that both of these

organisations should be represented on

any Steering Group established to

monitor implementation and progress in

respect of the Plan.

As regards industrial development it

is recommended that this should be

focussed geographically in a number of

areas. Firstly, it is proposed that

Clonakilty should be designated as a

centre for technology industries. A

nucleus has been formed there already.

The objective should be to capitalise on

the initiatives that have been taken

there and reinforce them by ensuring

that there is adequate broadband

telecommunications infrastructure and

that other improvements to physical

infrastructure, such as improved access

are commenced.

It is recommended that a

development corridor should be

designated and promoted along the N20

from Cork to Limerick in the section

between Mallow and Charleville.

Appropriate zonings for industrial

development should be incorporated in

the Development Plan and necessary

infrastructure improvements in terms of

water and sewerage should be

commenced. Consideration should be

given to designating the area as a

Strategic Development Zone (SDZ) as

provided in the Planning and

Development Act 2000

Similarly, it is proposed that steps

along the line proposed above should be

undertaken to strengthen the Cork /

Macroom / Killarney route as a potential

development corridor. It is considered

that Macroom has the capacity to act as

a pivotal focus for industrial

development and for providing linkage

between the West and the North of the

Area. Therefore, it would be worthwhile

designating Macroom as an SDZ.



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60

As regards tourism the main potential isconsidered to lie in:f The potential for a coherent image

for the Area as a whole and for a

County plan for sustainable tourism

development.

f The potential for united marketing

(including internet presence) and for

co-ordinated development of the

product.

f Strong potential of walking routes.

f Eco-tourism potential.

f Strong potential to develop marine

tourism.

f North Cork’s presence in a high

quality tourism niche (Country

House, Heritage).

f Potential for cultural tourism and

education based tourism – ecology,

Irish language etc.

f The economic potential of arts and

culture.

It is recommended that:f Unified linked websites of tourism

information for Cork City and County

should be developed.

f Unified marketing should be

promoted.

f Initiatives to promote and develop

the likes of eco-tourism and cultural

and educational tourism should be

supported.

6.3.Facilitating Adjustment andDiversification of theAgriculture Sector

Although the economic character of ruralareas is no longer synonymous withagriculture, the sector, nevertheless,remains the single largest source ofemployment in North and West CountyCork and prospectively it will remain so.Therefore, the economic well being of thesector will have a major influence on thevibrancy of rural communities.

Amongst the main tasks are to ensure

that those farm enterprises, which are

commercially viable, should improve

their competitiveness and efficiencies of

production. In order to do this, it is likely

that scale will have to be increased,

possibly significantly. The sooner the

necessary process of consolidation to

secure the competitiveness of

commercially viable farm enterprises is

completed the better. The other principal

need is to ensure that the viability of

part time farming is maximised. In order

for this to happen there is need to

increase accessibility to off-farm sources

of employment and to provide necessary

training so that part time farmers can

take advantage of the many flexible

employment opportunities in the

technology and information age sectors.

The issue of farm diversification, into

such areas as horticulture, organic

production, and quality consumer food

also has a limited role in providing niche

opportunities, which can help to secure

farm income.

6



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6.4Raising Educational Attainment

The low level of educational attainmentin North and West Cork has been referredto earlier. While it is recognised that thismay reflect migration, as the mosteducated leave, it should be possible toimprove the educational level of existingpeople by programmes of continuingeducation and outreach programmes. Itmay be possible also to raise the age atwhich people leave school, and to widenthe range of courses available to people.Realistically, the stimulus for this cancome only from the providers ofeducational services.

Education is doubly important, as itnot only provides people with the abilityto absorb new information and to acceptchange; it also has direct consumptionbenefits. The NDP has a vast range ofprogrammes, so that a willingness topush programmes for local developmentis necessary. Hence the importance ofgetting agencies to commit to theconcept of local development and toconsider the range of potentialprogrammes available. The CountyDevelopment Board is the natural vehiclefor this, but there may be a need toinvolve private agencies, e.g. schools, localChambers of Commerce, ICA, Macra naFeirme in this process.

It is recommended that thesevarious organisations should undertakeinitiatives and provide supports across arange of areas including initiativeswhich:

f Develop and foster a culture of

learning and expertise;

f Improve access to education and

training and create lifelong learning

opportunities;

f Improve access to "second chance"

learning;

f Extend and vary literacy programmes

and make them available to

peripheral areas;

f Develop niche third level education

(international quality) including fine

arts – traditional culture – Irish

language and culture – and business

studies;

f Develop Higher Education and

research sector – ecology, fine arts,

the marine, organic agriculture,

business studies, Irish cultural

studies, Irish language, music, new

communications media;

f Encourage private third level

initiatives;

f Provide virtual access to Universities;

f Provide "non-standard", innovative

agricultural and farm training -

organic, permaculture, horticulture

etc.

f Make I.T. literacy available to a wide

population – e.g. internet access for

all through libraries and schools;

f Increase use and distribution of I.T. to

facilitate learning, and

communication;

f Make home and village-based

education through I.T. available to all;

and

f Promote flexible working and

educational arrangements;

f Improve the availability of Crèche

facilities and other supports for child-

care to support education;

f Increase in-service training

opportunities;

f Deliver training / education at work

places.

6

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62 Expanding the Productive Potential of


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637Achieving Sustainable Settlement Patterns:

An Essential Requirement of A Successful

Future Strategy

7.1 Introduction 64

7.2 Population and Household Projections for North and West Cork

in a Spatial Context 66

7.3 Settlement Strategy - Planning for Balanced and Sustainable Growth 69

7.4 Settlement Qualities 70

7.4.1 Town Development 72

7.4.2 Rural Housing - Villages 74

7.4.3 Urban Form And Housing Estate Development In Towns And Villages 75

7.4.4 Zoning Of Land And Land Release 76

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64 7 Achieving Sustainable Settlement Patterns:

An Essential Requirement of A Successful Future Strategy

7.1Introduction

North and West Cork is a predominantlyrural and agricultural area with smalltowns and villages and a dispersed, verylow-density population. The Areacomprises over two thirds of the totalarea of the county, but contains only 35per cent of its population. Almost half ofthe population of the Area lives in anarrow coastal belt. A very small numberof people live in towns and villages, witha corresponding very large proportion ofthe population of the Area residing inunserviced agricultural areas.

The average population density inCounty Cork is 39 persons per squarekilometre, (Map 7.1). The densities in theareas to the north and west of the ‘ringtowns’ decline to an average of 23persons per square kilometre. Thiscompares with the EU averagepopulation density of 115 persons persquare kilometre (most of which issituated in urban areas). The map belowindicates the variation in populationdensity across the county, as an averageacross each D.E.D. (C.S.O, 1996). In spite ofincreases in the population in manyparts of the county since 1996, thisgeneral pattern of densities continues toprevail. Extensive areas of sub-urbanisation are evident around CorkCity. The relative underdevelopment ofthe villages and towns of the county isalso an important feature.

Cork, Ireland’s biggest county, has notowns of more than 7,000 population,(Map 7.2). The largest town in the Northand West Cork Area is Mitchelstown, witha population of just over 3,000. Anumber of towns in the county showed adecline in population in the 1996 census:the towns of the north and west of thecounty were particularly effected but soalso were less isolated towns like Fermoyand Mitchelstown. Conversely, the areaaround Cork City experienced stronggrowth.

Town and village populations inCounty Cork make up 52 per cent of thecounty’s population. The North and WestCork Area towns make up less than 8 percent of the total county population.

Towns in the area with a populationabove 1,000 (categorised here as urban)are Buttevant (1070), Newmarket (1150),Millstreet (1226), Dunmanway (1427),Kanturk (1666), Skibbereen, (1926)Macroom (2574), Charleville (2667), Bantry(2936), Clonakilty (2950) andMitchelstown (3123) (1996 Census of

Population, CSO).The county has a large number of

smaller villages and "village nuclei" –small clusters of service functions such asschools, post offices or pubs, with verysmall numbers of adjacent houses. In aperiod when young populations arestrongly attracted to the employment andsocial advantages of larger urban areas,the weakness of the county’s urban fabricrepresents a threat to the futuresustainability of communities in the Area,whether rural or urban. Research hasconfirmed that proximity to a large urbanarea gives critical advantage tosurrounding rural areas in terms ofpopulation retention, as a result of accessto more varied employment opportunitiesand services. Whilst this "glow effect" wasfound in some parts of the area closerCork City, much of the Area, without thepresence of any substantial towns,experiences disadvantage in term ofaccess to a full range of urbanemployment and services, withconsequent loss of young population. Thisdisadvantage stems from the very weakurban structure of the Area. This Chapteris concerned with articulating objectivesand policies aimed at overcoming thissource of disadvantage. Such policies areessential to the effectiveness of many ofthe recommendations contained later inthis Report, regarding the improvement ofinfrastructure and services in North andWest Cork.

Achieving Sustainable Settlement Patterns:


The average population

density in County Cork

is 39 persons per square

kilometre. The densities

in the areas to the north

and west of the ‘ring

towns’ decline to an

average of 23 persons

per square kilometre.

This compares with the

EU average population

density of 115 persons

per square kilometre

(most of which is

situated in urban

areas).

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Map 7.1: Population Density County Cork

Map 7.2: Cork Towns Population

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7.2Population and HouseholdProjections for North and WestCork in a Spatial Context

Population and household projections, bygeographic area to the year 2020 aresummarised below in Table 7.1. Theseprojections do not constitute targets assuch. It is recommended that actionshould be taken by stakeholders,

including community bodies to stimulateadditional growth in towns and villagesover and above current trends. The Planaims at additional growth in some towns,such as Skibbereen, Macroom,Dunmanway, Kanturk and Mitchelstown.However, even the higher projected ratesof growth would not support thereasonably strong urban growthconsidered necessary to make servicesand local economies sustainable in some

Table 7.1: Projected Future Population and Household Formation Trends

Area Total 2021 - MIFI Additional Estimated 2021 (low) Estimated Estimated %

households (high) Estimated households % inc. in total estimated Increase in increase in

2001 households housing stock population Population population

(estimated) required

Bantry 2489 3819 1330 53% 10311 1849 22%Rural District

Castletown 1420 1890 470 33% 5346 985 23%Rural District

Clonakilty Rural 3752 5453 1701 45% 14723 2431 20%and Urban Districts

Dunmanway 2330 3314 984 42% 8949 1415 19%Rural District

Kanturk 4925 6429 1504 31% 17357 2290 15%Rural District

Macroom Urban 4686 7090 2404 51% 19144 3184 20%and Rural Districts

Mallow Rural District 5762 8252 2490 43% 22281 3443 18%(not including Mallow Town)

Millstreet 1957 2597 640 33% 7012 994 17%Rural District

Mitchelstown 2276 3143 867 38% 8487 1306 18%Rural District

Schull Rural District 1384 1768 384 28% 4773 829 21%

Skibbereen Rural and 4100 5507 1407 34% 14868 2390 19%Urban Districts

Total 35081 49262 14181 40% 133251 21116 19%

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parts of the Area. Moreover, withoutinward migration, which is assumed inthese projections, many more parts of theArea would lose population and alsohouseholds.

The substantial increase in theprojected number of houses that will beneeded in the Area is one of the mostimportant trends to be provided for inthe 20-year period of the strategy. Thefactors that will determine numbers ofhouseholds and the numbers of newhouses needed are far more complexthan those that determine population.

The need for more houses isgenerated by a wide number of factorsincluding:

f Household formation at a younger

average age.

f More single person households.

f Fewer inter-generational households.

f Separation of married people.

f The demand for second homes,

including a continuing demand for

holiday homes.

f Student accommodation, as third

level objectives come to fruition.

f Movement of people into the Area.

f Natural increase of population in the

age group which is at household

formation stage.

f The reduction of shared occupation

patterns such as lodging, shared

dwellings.

f Higher standards of housing:

obsolescence of substandard or very

small houses, relief from

overcrowding.

f Accumulated need: the need for good

homes for travelling people, for

homeless people and for people in

unsuitable or overcrowded

accommodation.

Demand, rather than need, forhousing is affected by the economy in sofar as increased spending power makes itpossible for more people to becomeheads of households. Young singlepeople, younger married people andolder people who might previously have

lived as a part of an extended family arenow able to rent or purchase a separatedwelling. Economic cycles of growth,stagnation and decline can lead to"bottlenecks" in supply as demand, whichhas accumulated in poor economicconditions, suddenly enters the marketwhen conditions improve. Over the longterm it is likely that these cycles maydelay, rather than prevent, entry to thehousing market.

The housing market is cyclical andperiodic economic stresses result in anaccumulation of unmet need. Greaterprosperity associated with increasedemployment opportunities is, as has beenseen dramatically in the past five years,the strongest driver of demand for newhousing, as it brings ownership withinreach of greater numbers of people andallows for a higher standard of housingoverall. By and large, demand for newhousing is concentrated closely aroundemployment centres. The exception iswhen the attractiveness of an area, suchas the coastal parts of West Cork,combines with the financial ability ofpeople to maintain a second residence forholiday or retirement purposes. Anotherattractant can be availability of low costland or housing, which some people arewilling or able to trade off againstdistance from employment and services.

Table 7.2 shows additional householdand population projections for 2021, basedon a scenario of likely natural increaseand inward migration associated withcontinued economic growth. Firstly, itshould be noted that without furtherinward migration many parts of the Areawould continue to lose population, withconsequent deterioration of services andcommunity life for those remaining.

The projections assume a strongerthan average natural increase andhousehold size, partly based on anassumption of a continuing andincreasing migration into the Area ofpeople in their early 30s as "ready made"families.

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Area 2001 2021 (high) Additional % inc. in 2021 Additional % inc. in

households housing stock (low) households housing

required stock

required

Clonakilty 844 1318 474 56% 1174 330 39%Urban

Macroom 789 1156 367 47% 1030 241 31%Urban

Skibbereen 740 874 134 18% 778 38 5%Urban

Bandon 4849 7502 2653 55% 6680 1831 38%Rural District

Bantry 2489 3819 1330 53% 3402 913 37%Rural District

Castletown 1420 1890 470 33% 1765 345 24%Rural District

Clonakilty 2908 4135 1227 42% 3680 772 27%Rural District

Dunmanway 2330 3314 984 42% 2950 620 27%Rural District

Kanturk 4925 6429 1504 31% 5716 791 16%Rural District

Macroom 3897 5934 2037 52% 5283 1386 36%Rural District

Mallow 5762 8252 2490 43% 7343 1581 27%Rural District

Millstreet 1957 2597 640 33% 2310 353 18%Rural District

Mitchelstown 2276 3143 867 38% 2797 521 23%Rural District

Skibbereen 3360 4633 1273 38% 4123 763 23%Rural District

Schull 1384 1768 384 28% 1574 190 14%Rural District

Total 39930 56764 16834 42% 50605 10675 27%

Table 7.2: Household Formation Projections Based on Alternative Trends

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7.3Settlement Strategy - Planningfor Balanced and SustainableGrowth

The settlement strategy proposed forNorth and West Cork is opportunity-based. It recognises the historic reasonsfor the low population levels in the Area,some of which are no longer relevant(political and military instability) andothers which are changing or can bechanged (e.g. over dependence on exportof unprocessed produce, poor access). Itendorses the view expressed in manycommunities that planned growth of thecounty’ s towns and villages can help tobring a sustainable future and quality oflife benefits. It also aims at supporting asustainable rural population in the widerrural context.

Planning for future populations inNorth and West Cork, both in terms oflocation and future numbers, whilsthaving regard to the probabilitiesindicated in population projections,should be decided on the basis ofstrategic goals and targets rather thansolely on the basis of populationprojections.

This strategic plan proposesintegrated access, economic,environmental and settlement-development measures that takentogether aim for sustainability and for ahigh quality of life. An increase inpopulation and changes in the geographicdistribution of households are material tosuccess in attaining these goals.Measures should:f Have regard to the cumulative, long-

term, social and environmental

impacts of housing location decisions

f Take into account that the location of

housing can help to shape and

promote local economic

opportunities

f Be based on principles of

environmental sustainability

f Recognise that complex issues affect

housing outcomes in rural areas

f Address the issues with practical

approaches which have been tested

and proved successful in Cork and

elsewhere

f Involve new processes of team-based

service delivery with community

participation and local decision-

making

f Involve a changed perception of rural

areas.

The key spatial developmentmeasures recommended are to supportand enable a significant increase in townand village populations across the Area,whilst stabilising and sustaining thepopulations based in agricultural areas, asfar as practicable.

It is proposed that a major

programme of town and village renewal

and development should be undertaken

and that a much greater proportion of

overall new housing should be located in

villages. Fiscal and other monetary

incentives have a key role to play in

achieving this outcome. So too do Local

Area Plans.

In order to achieve community goalsfor the economy, services and forpopulation profile, a significant increasein town populations is essential. Based ontoday’s projections and some distributiveshift in favour of towns, the scope forconsolidation and growth would appearinsufficient, without proactive policies. Iftowns are to achieve their goals andsecure this growth, they will need totarget additional population, based oninward migration and on successfuleconomic and environmental strategies.

Table 7.3 overleaf sets out threescenarios, one based on the studypopulation projections and existingsettlement patterns, the second based onthe same projections, but with a pro-active approach to town and villageregeneration and growth. The finalscenario, illustrated in the last threecolumns, sets out a possible targetedapproach to securing strong, viable townpopulations through seeking additionalgrowth over and above currentprojections.

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Through town and village development,

the overall rural population would be

sustained at around 67 per cent of total

population. The total population living

in towns, which is at present very small,

would double if the targets proposed

above were met.

Town development, as depicted inthis table, would involve determined andenergetic local efforts to revitalise andextend attractive urban centres, todevelop local third level education andtraining, to attract decentralised posts,develop e:business and to increasetourism-based livelihoods and otherinward investment. These measures areconsidered essential if a young, educatedpopulation is to remain living in the Areaand if local services and employment areto be sustained.

The full range of Economic, social and

planning measures proposed in this Plan

will need to be implemented in an

integrated fashion to realise the

potential benefits of this strategy.

Village development should be

promoted not only in existing villages

with populations of over 140, but also in

smaller settlements with development

potential.

The Area has many potential villagenuclei with schools, churches, publichouses and other facilities. Theselocations would benefit from additionalhousing: village developmentprogrammes should be initiated wherethere is local demand for housing with aview to land release for development. Inthese locations indicative village plansshould be prepared to provide for in-depth mixed development in characterwith the Area.

Some additional housing is allowedfor in agricultural areas, to allow for somenatural increase and to sustain localcommunities. There is also allowancemade for a period of transition in the first2-3 years of implementation, asinfrastructure and planning work isneeded to achieve a shift to village basedrural development.

7.4Settlement Qualities

From the extensive data collected fromcommunities regarding settlements andhousing, the following criteria are foundto be key issues:

f Communities should have a real say

in planning for their own areas.

f Communities want to work with the

Council to ensure suitable village

lands are released for housing.

f More village housing should be built -

both private and local authority.

f People in the Area are experiencing

real difficulties in obtaining housing:

access to affordable housing is

needed by all age groups.

f Growth of villages should be

controlled by phasing and should not

be out of scale.

f Densities should be suited to the

place.

f New development should be in

character with existing towns and

villages.

f A good social mix and balance of age

groups should be maintained in

villages.

f New people should be welcomed and

integrated.

f Infrastructure should be provided in

towns and villages and the Islands to

provide for additional housing.

f Coastal and other landscapes should

be carefully managed.

f Holiday home estates should not

generally be permitted in rural areas.

f Derelict and vacant buildings should

be refurbished and brought into use.

f Houses should be accessible, linked to

services by footpaths and lighting.

f Buildings should be energy-efficient

and eco-friendly.

f Parks and walks should be a part of

every settlement: open spaces should

be central and shared by all.

f Farming families should be able to

live on their own land when they

work on the farm.

f Traffic should be calmed.

Columns 1 and 2 of the

table show housing and

population as recorded

in the most recent

Census of Population

(1996). Column 3 shows

the projected total

additional population

for the Area to 2021.

Column 4 shows the

outcome if the

additional projected

population was

distributed between

town, village and

agricultural area–based

housing in the same

proportions as prevail

today. Column 5 shows a

possible outcome if

recommendations on

rural development are

carried out, with

increased land-release

and housing

opportunities being

achieved in towns and

villages. A suggested

target of 30 per cent of

all additional houses in

villages is suggested.

Column 6 shows the

projected total

population in 2021 of

the Area. The last three

columns ( 9 -11) show

additional population

and households targets

(over and above

projected increases) in

order for the growth

and consolidation of

towns recommended in

this report to be

achieved. This entails a

recommended 50 per

cent of additional

housing in towns.

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Table 7.3: Alternative Scenarios for Urban and Rural Development

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Study Population Households Additional Additional Additional Total Total Total Additional Planned Approximate

Area 1996 1996 Projected Projected Projected Population Projected Households targeted distribution Distribution

Population Households House-holds in 2021 Households 2021 with household of total of Population

(to 2021): (to 2021) with (projected) (to 2021) pro-active growth households (at 2.7 persons

by current pro-active using village in towns –achieving per household)

locational town current development and villages additional including

patterns and village locational growth additional

development patterns in towns targeted

and villages growth

URBAN Towns 22578 7814 2996 4793 10810 12607 3,500 16107 43489

23% 25% 25% 40% 25% 29% 70% 33% 33%

RURAL Villages 9817 3126 1198 3595 4324 6721 1,500 8221 22197

10% 10% 10% 10% 30% 10% 10% 16% 30% 17% 17%

Agricul 65772 20316 7789 3595 28105 23911 23911 64559-tural

Areas 67% 65% 65% 30% 65% 55% 50% 50%

Total 98167 31256 18583 11983 11983 116750 43239 43239 5,000 48239 130245

100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Total Rural 75589 23442 8987 7190 30632 32132 86756

Total

Rural% 77% 75% 75% 60% 71% 67% 67%

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f Rural houses should be well-designed

and sited.

f The old buildings and street patterns

should be followed for future

development.

f Heritage and landmark buildings

should be conserved.

f Design guidelines for development

are needed.

These criteria are compatible withsustainable development objectives. Thequestion arises as to what strategy willbest achieve these community goals andsecure sustainable communities.

Having regard to social, economicand environmental factors, the followingapproach to settlement patterns isrecommended:

f An active role for communities in the

development of their areas.

f Consolidation of populations in

agricultural areas: improvement of

rural housing stock.

f Growth and enhancement of rural

villages.

f Improvement of infrastructure and

public transport links.

f Growth and development of towns

with strong service sectors – locally set

growth targets.

f Pro-active integration of new

populations into existing

communities.

f Encouragement to maintain local

culture and traditions.

f Increased proportion of housing

development in towns and villages

rather than open countryside - the key

to reaching this goal is a shift of

resources into integrated, community-

led, development of villages and

continued enhancement of the urban

environment of towns.

f Restriction of holiday homes

development where it may prejudice

local access to housing through

inappropriate use of infrastructure or

land.

7.4.1Town Development

The advantages of expanding existingsettlements over new towns or disperseddwellings include the fact that

f some services already exist;

f new services will have ready-made

customers and existing facilities can

be more fully utilised; and

f the new population can become part

of a community with a sense of

history and local culture.

The existing towns within the Areaare important material and social assetsin spite of their small size. The towns,which have evolved mainly as marketcentres, are well located to serve theiragricultural hinterlands and to develop asself-sustaining settlements.

The location of new development,

housing, employment and services should

be facilitated and designed so as to

support the balanced growth of North

and West Cork’s towns. The settlementstrategy proposed rests on a policy-basedapproach along with pro-active measuresto promote well-designed town andvillage extensions and to improveconnecting routes between towns so as toencourage genuine synergistic and co-operative polycentric development. Thestrategy aims to cultivate niche strengthsof towns, building on their existingresources and activities, so thatcomplementarity will replace competitionand duplication of measures.

In North and West Cork, where it ishighly desirable for reasons of social andeconomic sustainability and for thesurvival of communities that towns andvillages should grow, it should also beremembered that falling household sizewill rapidly erode local urban populationsif more dwellings are not constructed. Inthe UK, which has a household unit sizeindicative of future trends expected here,the Department of Environment andTransportation has found thatsettlements of approximately 5,000

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households are necessary to make areasonable range of services, includingsecondary education, viable.

Map 7.3, Urban Spatial Strategy,indicates two groups of towns whichlend themselves to closely linked andcomplementary development. One groupis in North Cork and comprisesCharleville, Fermoy, Kanturk, Macroom,Mallow, Millstreet, Mitchelstown andNewmarket. For development purposesit is recommended that Kanturk,Millstreet and Newmarket should beviewed together in order to provide afocus for strategic development in theNorth West of the Area. The other groupis in the South and South-west andcomprises Bandon, Bantry,Castletownbere, Clonakilty, Dunmanway,and Skibereen.

These two groups of towns could becharacterised as ‘urban developmentnodes’, capable of (or with the potentialin the future of) carrying an important

range of services and employment so asto sustain their immediate populationand the rural-based population in theirhinterlands. A focused and co-ordinatedapproach to the development andenhancement of these towns will berequired.

Targets for growth of these towns

should be set in conjunction with residents

and the towns’ representative bodies. High

quality urban design has been prioritised

locally in appraisals and Development

Programmes should incorporate relevant

objectives in this regard.

The emphasis of the access strategy,

associated with the proposed settlement

pattern is on linking these towns with

good connecting roads and with public

transport and promoting the

development of small towns and villages

along these public transport corridors. It

is recommended that there should be an

emphasis on concentric rather than radial

routes, which would support

The location of new

development, housing,

employment and

services should be

facilitated and designed

so as to support the

balanced growth of

North and West Cork’s

towns.

Targets for growth of

these towns should be

set in conjunction with

residents and the

towns’ representative

bodies. High quality

urban design has been

prioritised locally in

appraisals and

Development

Programmes should

incorporate relevant

objectives in this

regard.

Map 7.3: Urban Spatial Strategy

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complementary and co-operative

development between towns and villages

and enhance the viability of local services.

The growth and consolidation ofthese settlements should not be seen asan end in itself but as a stepping stone tothe wider consolidation of the Area.Feasibility studies and action plans

should be put in place to ensure that

local objectives for balanced, high quality,

sustainable development are reached.

It is recommended that a target to

double the household numbers of each of

the above towns by 2020, on average, in a

planned, incremental fashion, should be

considered. (This will not involve adoubling of population, due to decreasinghousehold size). In order to achieve thesetargets they will have to obtainsubstantial outside economic impetusthrough measures includingdecentralisation of posts, inwardinvestment in industry, tourismdevelopment, educational or otherservices development. In the case of theNorth West towns, the feasibility of thisgrowth will be largely dependent onwinning additional supports to arrest thecurrent serious cycle of decline. Attainingthese targets is a challenge that willmean exceeding the higher growthprojections based on current trendsshown in the table above. With this levelof growth the intrinsic character of thetowns would not be changed, but thecapacity of both individual towns andlinked towns to hold a thriving complexof diverse services and employmentwould be enhanced.

Fewer than 2 in 7 new houses in the

Area in recent years have been located in

towns and villages. Without a serious

approach to control of dispersed

dwellings, an effective urban

development strategy for North and West

Cork is not achievable.

7.4.2Rural Housing - Villages

A central proposition is that the potentialfor village development in North andWest Cork offers the best opportunity forsustainable rural communities in thechanging economy. Villages can supportdiverse local economies and essentialservices, which also benefit thesurrounding agricultural areas. Theyprovide conditions where new residentscan integrate and contribute to the localeconomy. Through eco-labelling projects,village communities in partnership withthe local authority and other agenciescan minimise their environmentalimpacts. Village development canencompass a wide variety of housingforms and because of small settlementsize does not need to attain high urbanresidential densities.

The strategic actions recommendedfocus on proactive measures to increasethe accessibility, affordability, variety andquality of various types of housing invillages. The villages will act as ‘robustservice centres, supporting the social andeconomic success of the surroundingarea and providing an excellent quality oflife for their inhabitants.

This strategy involves a decisive shift

away from dispersed development to

more substantial and coherent rural

development in villages with schools,

shops, churches and other facilities

within walking distance. It is envisaged

that the majority of new permissions for

houses in rural areas should be village

based. The strategy is focused on theneed to increase the accessibility,affordability and quality of housing inrural areas (defined as all of the Areaexcept towns of 1,000 or moreinhabitants) and to enhance the socialmix, age balance and sustainability ofvillages. The key measure is a shift to the

integrated development of villages

offering rural living with an excellent,

sustainable, quality of life.

Table 7.3 (p81) illustrates theconsequences of a shift to higher levels of

A central proposition is

that the potential for

village development in

north and west Cork

offers the best

opportunity for

sustainable rural

communities in the

changing economy.

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house construction in villages in the Areaover a twenty-year period, compared withexisting trends. Thus, the outcome, ifprojected increases in households aredistributed on the basis of presenttrends, is shown i.e. the villagepopulation amounts to 10 per cent of thetotal, as at present (Column 7). Next aredistribution of prospective householdgrowth to towns (40 per cent comparedwith 25 per cent on the basis of currenttrends) and villages (30 per centcompared with 10 per cent at present) isconsidered (Column 5). In thesecircumstances, the proportion ofhouseholds living in towns and villagesin 2021 would be 29 per cent and 16 percent respectively (Column 8), comparedwith 25 per cent and 10 per cent on thebasis of current trends (Column 4).Finally, the effects of achieving additional

household growth of 5,000 over theperiod, distributed 70 per cent to townsand 30 per cent to villages is considered.With this incremental growth theproportion living in towns and villagesrises further to 33 per cent and 18 percent respectively (Column 10).

Without village development, manyparts of the Area would be likely todecline in population throughout thetwenty-year period. At the same time thecoastal belt would become seriouslyenvironmentally damaged due to thevery limited carrying capacity ofunserviced lands and the negativeeconomic and environmentalconsequences of large scale dispersedhousing.

The Area has a large number of well-distributed and established villages. Mostof these require infrastructureinvestment in the form of sanitaryservices, traffic safety measures andenvironmental improvements. Theseworks could be carried out throughcombined resources of the local authority,developers and local communities. Thereare also large numbers of very smallsettlements termed here as "villagenuclei": i.e. small settlementscharacterised by one or more servicessuch as post office, public house, bus stop,shop, school, church, clinic, creamery orcommunity hall, for example. Many ofthese settlements also have the potentialto beneficially accommodate anincreased residential component.Infrastructure investment is essential tosupport the development of thesesettlements into viable villagecommunities.

It is possible to identify, analytically,a hierarchy of settlement types – e.g.towns (some of which have the capacityto be urban development nodes), villagesand village nuclei – all of which terms areused above. However, in the dynamic andforward looking context of the Plan it isconsidered that it would be inappropriateto determine a priori and in a rigid andinflexible way which particularsettlements should be included in each ofthese categories. The dynamics of growthand development should be the mainfactor influencing this outcome.

7.4.3Urban Form and Housing EstateDevelopment in Towns andVillages

Communities taking part in communityappraisal expressed a wish that newdevelopment in towns and villagesshould conform to the urban character ofthe existing town. This means that itshould be based on new streetsintegrated into the existing street layout,with a good level of permeability i.e.linkage and freedom of movement. A

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wish for the creation of communal "townparks" as places where the wholecommunity can meet was also stronglyexpressed. Inwards-facing suburban typehousing estate layouts, with integral semiprivate " open spaces " of limited utilitywere considered inappropriate anddamaging socially and visually to thesettlements of the Area. Severalcommunities suggested that new publicspaces should be designed to link, and tobe shared by, new and establishedresidents. The people of the Areaidentified their built heritage and thestreet layout of their towns and villagesas an important aspect of local heritageand identity. They propose that newdevelopment should respect thischaracter and form. Within this approachheritage structures should besafeguarded and conserved.

Experience of urban and ruralregeneration in all parts of the world hasshown that a locally distinctive, highquality built environment, human in scaleand pedestrian friendly, lends itself to anenhanced quality of life and to thedevelopment of service employment of allkinds. Conservation of the built heritageof the Area, including stone-builtvernacular dwellings and agriculturalstructures, is important to quality of life.

The regeneration and extension ofvisually and experientially richarchitectural and landscape settings canitself promote economic developmentand is in itself an enhancement of qualityof life.

7.4.4Zoning of Land and Land Release

In the past, a practice of under-zoning hastended to be pursued in Ireland, with anarea of land reserved to precisely matchhousehold formation estimated on thebasis of past trends – which were oftentrends of decline. The rationale for tightlybudgeted zoning is that it may, in theory,encourage compact development whichcan be economically serviced and whichwill reach an early "critical mass", thus

providing early viability for new localservices including schools and shops.However, without public ownership orcontrol of lands, underzoning can lead tovirtual collapse of planned developmentas, if the zoned land is not releasedimmediately for development, the onlyoptions are for no development or forunplanned development. Furthermore,the construction of housing on zonedlands has not in every case been followedby provision of services where, forexample, adverse social or environmentalconditions made them non-viable. Zoningas a sole policy instrument, withoutsupporting investment and design input,has singularly failed to deliver a highquality planned environment.

Zoning provision has not always allowed

sufficiently for the reality that a number

of factors can prevent or delay use of

zoned lands for building purposes. The

need for a wide variety of housing types

and locational choice in small as well as

larger settlements has not been

sufficiently taken into account. The ready

availability of rural lands for one-off

housing has also undermined strategies

based on tight rationing of housing land.

The need for social mix and housing

choice within each settlement, no matter

how small, should be acknowledged and

allowed for.

The Area has a large

number of well-

distributed and

established villages.

Most of these require

infrastructure

investment in the form

of sanitary services,

traffic safety measures

and environmental

improvements.

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778Improving Access and Communications:

The Actions Required

8.1 Introduction 78

8.2 The Infrastructure Endowment 78

8.2.1 Roads Infrastructure 78

8.2.2 Public Transport Services 80

8.2.3 Information And Communications Technology ( ICT) 82

8.3 Recommended Actions 85

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78 88.1

Introduction

A safe and efficient public and privatetransport system, with a choice of modesof transport and integrated transportand development corridors, can addresscommunity goals across the studyspectrum of environment, communityand economy.

A good telecommunications networkis a primary requirement for futureimproved cohesiveness and increaseddevelopment potential for the Area andits communities.

Changes in the sources andconsumption of energy are also a centralissue for sustainable development.

The size of County Cork and theremoteness of its north and westboundaries from the main urban areapose a fundamental challenge. CountyCork, with its extensive, diverse territoryand peripheral location, is experiencedlocally as an isolated and fragmentedspace with poor access andcommunications. The quality of physicaland telecommunication linkages withregional, national and internationalnetworks varies, with South and WestCork in particular experiencing acutedisadvantage, North East Cork beingmuch better placed.

Internal linkages between thedifferent parts of the Area are weak:social and economic constraints andbarriers result. The road system is not somuch a network as a collection of radialroutes to Cork City. This weakens thecohesiveness of County Cork as a socialand economic entity.

The Area nevertheless contains someimportant infrastructure assets. Thispart of the report indicates aspects ofexisting infrastructure which can bewisely used to gain maximum economicand environmental advantage for theArea and points to key improvementsneeded.

8.2The Infrastructure Endowment

There is no part of Ireland moredisadvantaged in terms of access tourban-based facilities than west andnorth west Cork and the islands. Northand West Cork is at the periphery of aregion which is itself peripheral withinEurope. This region (the Republic ofIreland) is, since the opening of theChannel Tunnel, the only significantEuropean economy not linked by road andrail to the European mainland.

The Area includes the most extensive

area within Ireland which is 45 kilometres

or more distant from the nearest town of

5,000 or more population. The urban

structure of the Area, with no towns of

4,000+ population, is very weak:

consolidation and growth of key

settlements is virtually unachievable

without improved access.

8.2.1Roads Infrastructure

The west of County Cork is disadvantagedin terms of straight-line distance to thenearest city and town of 5,000 or overpopulation. The poor road structurewithin the west of the county exacerbatesthis disadvantage. This represents aserious disadvantage in terms of access toregional services. It presents a constraint

Improving Access and Communications:


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798

on the long term development of thesmall towns in the Area.

West Cork, an area larger than manyIrish counties, has no national primaryroads. Map 8.1 shows the maininfrastructure networks of County Cork.Whilst the Cork City area has a strongcomplex of infrastructure, the area southof the N22, which comprises the southernhalf of the county, has virtually no firstclass 20th century infrastructure with theexception of a fibre optictelecommunications line. Local surveyhas shown a strongly perceived need forthe Bandon-Dunmanway-Bantry regionalroute to be substantially improved.

The original Cork Land Use andTransportation Study in 1978 focused onthe functioning of the road networkwithin the Cork urban area, rather thanon the development of a regional

network. Consequently the LUTS viewedCork City as "a terminus of the nationalroad system" accessed by NationalPrimary routes and rail from the east andnorth. The by-passing of the City forthrough traffic was not a priority of theLUTS study. The function of the southernring road was viewed mainly as "a local

and City Centre distributor route rather

than as a major through route (LUTS

1978)."

The main road transport network inCounty Cork is a radial system providingaccess to and from Cork City. Concentriclinkages between County towns aregenerally poor, constraining the economicdevelopment potential of these smalltowns and increasing their vulnerabilityby isolating them. An example isDunmanway, where employment losseswould be locally less damaging if better



Map 8.1 Infrastructure

The main road

transport network in

County Cork is a

radial system

providing access to

and from Cork City.

Concentric linkages

between County

towns are generally

poor, constraining

the economic

development

potential of these

small towns and

increasing their

vulnerability by

isolating them.

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80 8

road and public transport links withMacroom and Skibbereen existed.

The constraints on the developmentof North and West Cork which resultfrom peripherality and from isolationfrom major transport networks present amain opportunity of the StrategicFramework. As the economy of the Corkurban area continues to "spill over" islikely to replace "siphoning out" as thepredominant relationship between ruraland urban Cork. Growth of the towns ofNorth and West Cork also offers thepotential for more balanced developmentbut depends to some considerable extentfor its sustainability on improved access.If rural Cork and Cork City are to fullybenefit from this shift then there mustbe proper access via a range of transportand communications modes.

8.2.2Public Transport Services

Public transport has been identified as akey requirement in community appraisal.Lack of public transport impactsparticularly seriously on elderly peopleand young people without cars. Publictransport in the Area in the main doesnot consist of regular, all day scheduledservices, but of a few routes with one ortwo services a day or even fewer. In the

south-west there are a number ofsummer-only tourist based bus services.Timetabling of existing services, both busand rail, was identified as a central issueas timetables rarely accommodated eithercommuter journeys or shopping/businesstrips. Because of the sparse and dispersedpopulation of the Area, it will be achallenge to build up the viability ofpublic transport routes.

Rail

The current context for the rail network inCounty Cork is one of substantialinvestment after an extended period ofshortage of funding. The DKM Review of

Transport Infrastructure Needs and CIE’splans indicate an investment of aminimum of £1.2 million is required overthe next seven years to bring the existingnetwork up to standard. Substantialworks were funded to main routesincluding Dublin to Cork under the lastNational Plan. The next phase ofinvestment concerns lines, which are atpresent less used and present issues ofviability.

The investment proposed is focusedmainly on areas in the immediatehinterland of Cork City. Rail infrastructurein the North and West Cork Area consistsof a section of the primary line fromDublin to Cork and a secondary linebranching from the primary line fromMallow via Killarney to Tralee. The Review

of Rail Safety in Ireland, commissioned bythe Department of Public Enterprise in1998, investigated the condition of routes



Lack of public

transport impacts

particularly seriously

on elderly people

and young people

without cars.

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818

throughout the State and found multipledeficiencies. The report concluded: "Risksare unacceptable and must be reducedirrespective of cost considerations." Thereview found inadequacies in signalling,including telecommunications and levelcrossings, permanent way, including trackcondition; bridges and other structuresand electrification. The condition of theTralee route was noted as poor.Upgrading of the entire network toContinuous Welded Rail (CWR) is deemedto be a priority. Bridges, fencing, levelcrossings and new rolling stock are also apriority. These works are necessary forsafety, but also present the opportunity forreduced journey times. Current plans forrail at national level are not ambitious andare mainly aimed at remedying existinggross deficiencies in the existing network.

Bus services

Bus Eireann has an extensive network ofroutes in the county. A number ofcommercial operators also provide busservices and there are special studentbuses to Waterford, Limerick and Dublin.Most routes are radial routes from and toCork City, with few concentric linksbetween towns and villages. Some areashave little or no public transport, puttingelderly and young populations and otherswithout private cars at an extremedisadvantage in accessing services of allkinds. South Cork between Butlerstownand Ballinspittle, the area between theBandon and Lee Valleys and North WestCork are such areas.

Timetabling is as big an issue as areroutes, as some services do not offersuitable commuter journeys or do notpermit people travelling to Cork City



Map 8.2 Proposed Road Improvements

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sufficient time to carry out tasks beforethe return journey. The National Parents’Council have made nationalrepresentations for a communitytransport system based on the school busservice. Older people and teenagers arethe social groups most dependent onexisting bus services.

Community appraisal indicated that inmany areas communities fear losing theirexisting bus services. Increased levels ofcar ownership erode the viability of theseservices. A safe, efficient and comfortablebus service is an essential for sustainablecommunities in North and West Cork. Anumber of Local Authorities and CountyDevelopment Boards are carrying out fullcomprehensive audits of public transportwithin their areas. Given the size ofCounty Cork and the social and economiccharacteristics of the County, an auditwould provide a sound basis for co-ordinated initiatives to increase andimprove public transport in the County.Standards of comfort, safety andconvenience, both in terms of the qualityand age of buses and the provision of welllocated bus shelters are also issues.

Privately operated taxi services are alsoimportant in rural areas and should beseen as important support to publictransport services. In parts of the Area,taxis are used to provide access to busservices to Cork City and otherdestinations. Taxis are an important"feeder system" in this respect as thedispersed character of development putsaccess to public transport routes out ofreach to a high proportion of residents inthe Area.

Air Services

Cork Airport, to the south of Cork City,presents an advantage to the coastal zoneand to West Cork. Aer Rianta is aninternational airport management group,which manages the airport at Cork.Capital expenditure of £30m over the lastten years included expenditure onrunway extension, overlay and wideningof runway. The extension of the runwaycould be achieved to cater for long-haul

flights. The terminal was extended in1994 to cater for 1.1m passengers perannum. Passenger numbers increasedfrom 1.5m in 1999 to approximately 1.7min 2000.

The current airport development plan(1999-2003) with £60m capital outlay isenvisaged to include:

f Redevelopment of the terminal to

increase capacity to 2.5m;

f Multi storey car park;

f Air bridges;

f Pier;

f Extension to apron.

It is a disadvantage to the airport thatits extensive hinterland to the west isvery sparsely populated. The presence ofthe airport is a major potential asset tothe Area, the benefits of which arereduced by the poor quality of theconnecting road network. It is noticeablethat in spite of the apparent proximity ofCork airport to the Area, there werenumerous community suggestions fordirect air access into their area(particularly the south west). This is inprobability a consequence of the poorroad access and lack of public transportconnections from South West Cork to theairport.

8.2.3Information and CommunicationsTechnology ( ICT)

The Irish Government is committed tothe development of an inclusiveInformation Society. Initiativesundertaken over recent years haveresulted in the provision of significantbroadband infrastructure and servicesand in international broadbandconnectivity. These initiatives have beendriven by recognition of the increasingimportance of the Information Society inpromoting economic and socialdevelopment and cohesion in the future.

The National Development Plan (NDP)2000 – 2006 recognises that the stock ofpublic infrastructure in an economy is a



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major determinant of its competitivenessand of society’s capacity to address someof its major social and environmentalneeds. This infrastructure includescommunications networks. Thedevelopment of communications and e-commerce infrastructure is a priority ofthe Plan because of the urgent need toexpand the capital stock in this area bothto sustain the level of activity and toenhance the potential of less developedareas.

It is critical that Ireland should not fallbehind in the provision of advancedcommunications and e-commercefacilities and in the provision of the basicinfrastructure capacity necessary tosupport the development of theInformation Society. There is evidencethat a competitive market alone will notensure the provision of advancedcommunications services and networksto the extent required to contribute tonational competitiveness and attractinward investment.

In order to leverage the benefits of theInformation Society and to exploit itspotential to contribute to economicdevelopment, the following objectives arebeing pursued in the NDP:

f The development of the Irish

communications sector so that it

ranks in the top decile of OECD

countries in terms of service range,

quality, availability and price; and

f The establishment of a legal,

regulatory and administrative

framework which will create a

favourable climate for the

development of electronic commerce

and digital industries.

These objectives are being pursuedthrough a range of Government ledactions. In the area of promoting thedevelopment of advancedcommunications infrastructure andservices priming funding can provide thestimulus to close the gap between thedevelopment of the information andcommunications sector in Ireland andthat of the world’s more advancedeconomies. To achieve this, a provision of£197 million has been made in the NDP topromote investment in advancedcommunications and e-commerceinfrastructure in areas where it is clearthe market will not deliver sufficientinvestment, and to support theacceleration of the Information Societyand e-commerce. This investment is beingprovided in the regional programmes.

Within the context of the NDP, theDepartment of Public Enterprise issupporting the provision of advancedcommunications and e-commerceinfrastructure and services in lessdeveloped areas of Ireland. This is with aview to securing a more balancedregional development and filling theservices and infrastructure gaps, whichthe market is failing to provide for or isunlikely to provide within reasonabletimescales. An additional importantobjective is to enhance social inclusion inthe Information Society and to increaseaccess to public services electronically.

At the time of writing, the need toimprove Ireland’s telecommunicationsnetwork, from the point of view of bothaccess and price, is becoming critical.Infrastructure and levels of internet useare now lagging seriously behind theU.S.A., U.K. and France. The necessaryinfrastructure is affordable high-speed,always on, Internet and data services. TheNorth and West Cork Area will need

It is critical that

Ireland should not

fall behind in the

provision of

advanced

communications and

e-commerce facilities

and in the provision

of the basic

infrastructure

capacity necessary to

support the

development of the

Information Society.



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affordable DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)and wireless local loop if it is to take fulladvantage of the potential clearly offeredby the Internet to rural and isolatedareas. ADSL (Asymmetric DigitalSubscriber Line) is a narrow bandtechnology which allows a standardcopper telephone wire to be upgraded totransmit and receive video and other dataat high speeds. ADSL would facilitate usessuch as home banking, high-speed"always on" internet and interactive

services in north and west Cork. It caneffectively squeeze broadband speeds outof an ordinary telephone line. CurrentlyEircom has monopoly control over thislocal network and is proposing a highcost structure. ADSL is also restricted bydistance from nearest telephoneexchange – it works best up to 2 milesand tolerably up to 4 miles distant. Localtelephone exchanges will requiremodification for an ADSL or equivalentservice.

It has been estimated that thedispersed population distribution inIreland will load an estimated 10-13 percent additional cost in providing theseservices.

Currently there is no broadbandtelecommunications service generallyavailable or being marketed to the publicin Ireland. By contrast, for example, about60 per cent of households in the UK haveaccess to such a service, through DSL

technology. This technology is capable ofbeing rolled out by Eircom. However, todate no such rollout has taken place.Liberalisation of telecommunications andother initiatives, including two earlierphases of assistance through structuralfunds have promoted competition andinvestment in telecommunications inIreland. Nevertheless, there are significanttime lags entailed in any rollout ofinfrastructure. In addition, it is likely thatstimulating competition requiresprovision from a greater number ofplayers. Thus, it may be some years yetbefore broadband telecommunicationsservices are widely available in Ireland, asthey are in other competing countries,such as the U.K., U.S.A. and manyEuropean countries.

Notwithstanding these delays, asignificant number of projects in theNorth and West Cork Area – ranging fromthe provision of broadband backboneinfrastructure, broadband accessinfrastructure and wireless local loop –have been proposed for co-fundingthrough the structural funds or arealready underway. It is critical for theRegion and the North and West Cork Areathat these or similar projects shouldproceed without delay. Wirelessbroadband access has been introduced toparts of Kerry and may have the bestpotential for more remote rural areas.

Currently there are 21 internet datacentres planned in Ireland of which only 3are outside Dublin (one of these is inCork). Cork is constrained further by ESBlimits – and the danger of unplannedpower cuts resulting from weakness ingenerating capacity. The lack of DSL –high speed "always on" internet access(digital subscriber line) is a seriousconstraint on both educational andcommercial use of internet facilities. SMEsand home-workers at the moment have tochoose between dial-up connections (50kbytes max), relatively slow ISDN lines (128kbytes) or costly leased lines. ADSL, atspeeds ranging from 256 kbytes to 2 Mbits



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would be the most cost efficient option forsmall firms and "home working".

Current delays in roll-out of ADSL andof broadband would pose a serious threatto the entry of the Area into the importantfuture economic areas which will dependon first class telephony. Developmentagencies should monitor progress andtake any appropriate action to supportprogress. In any event, a focus on access toand understanding of existing availableservices in the Area would be beneficial.SMEs can benefit from existing services ifthey can access clear, independent andtechnically expert advice on theirtelecommunications needs. Good, rapid,always-on internet access is essential if theArea is to capture the potential for remoteworking and indeed, if it is not to slide intoincreasing disadvantage in terms ofbusiness, educational and socialdevelopment. These comments apply afortiori, to the islands.

8.3 Recommended Actions

The following actions are required toimprove access to and within the Northand West Cork Area:1.

Recommendations to improve arterial

roads network:

f Provide the planned upgrading of the

N22 from Cork to Killarney,

incorporating a two-lane bypass of

Macroom as a first priority.

f Provide a quality standard improved

two-lane carriageway from Bandon

and Dunmanway to Bantry

(incorporating the Bandon Relief

Road).

f Provide a quality standard improved

two-lane carriageway from Bandon

to Clonakilty.

f Provide a quality standard, consistent

improved two-lane carriageway

between Tallow (West Waterford), via

Mallow (incorporating Northern

Relief Road) and Fermoy to Rathmore

(County Kerry).

f Continue the improvement of the N73

from Mallow to Mitchelstown.

2.

Recommendations to improve concentric

transport routes within the Area.

In addition to improving arterial radialroutes it is considered that the followingactions should be taken to improve theconcentric roads network.

f Provide a safe efficient route of

consistent design between

Skibbereen and Bantry.

f Provide a safe efficient route of

consistent design linking

Dunmanway with Millstreet via

Macroom (to be bypassed).

Priority should be attached to securingimprovements in the arterial routesahead of the proposed improvements inconcentric routes.

As a first step it is consideredimportant that the County Development

Plan should contain as an objective astatement of the recommendationsabove. This would allow planning policiesin relation to zoning and development tobe pursued within the context of anexplicit access development framework.For example, spatial planning shouldencourage the location of additionaldevelopment of villages and towns to oneside of national and regional roads. Inaddition, it would be extremely importantthat the proposed access improvementframework should be contained as a highpriority within the forthcoming County

Development Strategy, being formulatedby the County Development Board.

The Roads Programme of the CountyCouncil should be framed in the contextof the proposed objective above andshould set out the manner in which it isproposed to attain this objective.

Evidently, the recommendations aboveamount to a programme of considerablecapital expenditure. As such it will haveto compete with many other proposalsfor roads improvements that will bedecided by the National Roads Authority(NRA). In this regard it will be necessary toengage with the NRA to explain the key



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role which improved access has to play inthe strategic development of North andWest Cork.

3.

Recommendations for Improving Rural

Public Transport

As noted earlier (see Section 5.3.4) theNational Development Plan does notcontain significant budgetary provisionfor development of these services.Against this background the proposedapproach revolves around thedevelopment of Pilot projects.

To this end it is recommended that:

f In the light of results from current

initiatives, the establishment of A

Public Transport Development Task

Force comprising representatives of

Bus Eireann, private bus operators,

school bus operators, Iaranród

Eireann, local development agencies

and local communities should be

considered by the County Council.

f The objective of the task force could

be to:

- Review timetabling/schedules ofexisting public transport serviceswith a view to achieving greaterintegration and overall improvementof services; and

- Bring forward proposals for practicalpilot assistance for the promotion ofnew services, linking into the existingsystem.

f The County Development Plan should

support the development of public

transport systems by articulating

clear policies in relation to

development along public transport

corridors.

4.

Recommended Actions to Improve

Telecommunications Broadband

Infrastructure and Services

As noted earlier several initiatives areunderway by a number of providers,which have the capacity to improvebroadband infrastructure and services inthe Area. These are being supportedunder the National Development Plan. Inaddition, an initiative is beingundertaken to establish the currentstatus and adequacy of broadbandinfrastructure in the Area and torecommend the best course forredressing identified deficiencies.However, public information as regardsthese developments and theirimplications is poor.Therefore, it is recommended that:

f The County Development Board

should produce an information and

promotional booklet (in conjunction,

say with local Chambers of

Commerce and development

agencies such as IDA Ireland and

Enterprise Ireland and service

providers) which would set out:

- An inventory of investment inbroadband infrastructure andservices undertaken and approved forfinancial support under the NDP inthe North and West Cork Area;

- The impact of this investment interms of the services that areavailable currently, will be available inthe future, when they will beavailable and the cost at which theywill be available;

f A Broadband Telecommunications

Task Force comprising service

providers, user representatives and

local development agencies should

be established to monitor the roll out

of broadband infrastructure and

services and to monitor and evaluate

the competitiveness of service

availability compared with the rest of

the Country.



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879Improving Environmental Quality:


9.1 Introduction 88

9.2 Water: Current Responses to Pressures on Water 88

9.3 Waste: Current Responses to Waste 90

9.4 Recommended Further Actions 91

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Introduction

Environmental quality is a very highpriority of communities in North andWest Cork, as discussed earlier in Chapter3. Moreover, as shown in Chapter 4, thereare a number of aspects ofenvironmental quality, which areexperiencing pressure. In Chapter 5,environmental sustainability wasincorporated into the general approachof the strategy for development. Thischapter sets out actions that areunderway at present, which contribute tothis Plan (Sections 9.2 and 9.3). Additionalreinforcing measures are recommendedin Section 9.4.

9.2 Water: Current Responses toPressures on Water

Water quality is the top priorityenvironmental concern in the Area(Community appraisal, environmentalworkshop, 2000). Properly functioningaquatic eco-systems with intact self-purification processes are theappropriate goal. The most commonthreat to water quality in the Area iseutrophication and organic pollution,whereas toxic pollution, siltation and

acidification are less common but shouldnone the less be taken seriously.

Historically there has been a tendencyto treat rivers as a receptacle for effluentand as the occasion for flood nuisance.Community appraisal shows that mosttowns and villages now view their riversas a very important potential amenity.Many communities have developed orwould like to develop riverside walks.Improved access to riverside amenitieswill bring increased awareness of theneed to protect aquatic systems and is aworthwhile goal in its own right.

Responses are categorised here asconcerning water quality, watercourses,and fisheries, always, of course, keeping inmind that the three are interconnected.The European Water Framework Directivewas adopted on June 29th, 2000. It isdesigned to develop integrated andcoherent water policies on the basis ofRiver Basin Management Plans. Itespecially emphasises the need toestablish a sound basis for the collectionand analysis of a large amount ofinformation on the state of the aquaticenvironment to provide the essentialinformation on which the competentauthorities can develop sensible andsustainable policies.

Improving Environmental Quality:


Water quality is the

top priority

environmental

concern in the Area.

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899

As concerns water quality and watermonitoring in County Cork, the baselinedocument is the Cork County Council

Measures Report on the Local Government

(Water Pollution) Act 1977 (Water QualityStandards for Phosphorus) Regulations,1998 which incorporates all relevantlegislation up to 1999. The MeasuresReport sets out standards to be achievedby 2007 and 2013 and outlines a detailedlist of short, medium and long-termmeasures to be implemented.

Standards to be achieved by 2007 are:

f No deterioration of existing

satisfactory quality rated river/lake

monitoring locations to be allowed.

f All existing unsatisfactory parts of

rivers to be improved to reach targets

set out by the Phosphorus

Regulations.

f All existing unsatisfactory lakes to be

improved to reach targets set out in

the Phosphorus Regulations.

f Proposed new monitoring locations

where considered necessary.

For various reasons, it was felt that anextension of the Regulation for the moredifficult sites might be required for themaximum allowable period of six years,stretching the time to achieve the targetsto 2013. The main pressures are identifiedas agriculture; industrial discharges andurban wastewater discharges andmeasures are outlined in detail.

Other responses to the pressures on thewater quality include the following:

f The Geological Survey of Ireland, the

Department of Environment and

Local Government and the EPA have

jointly developed a methodology for

the preparation of Groundwater

Protection Schemes. North Cork is

successfully using such a scheme and

one for south Cork is in progress.

f Byelaws under the Local Government

(Water Pollution) (Amendment) Act

1990 in respect to the control of

fertiliser application in the Lee,

Gradogue and Funshion catchments,

came into force in 1999.

f The designation of nitrate sensitive

zones, where farmers will be obliged

to produce a Nutrient Management

Plan, which involves an assessment of

amounts of manure, slurry or

inorganic fertiliser that should be

applied.

Aquatic habitat protection does notrely entirely on water quality but also onthe physical nature of watercourses andtheir flood plains and on the rivers’hydrological regime. To date there existsno overall policy to identify, assess andaddress changes which are taking place.The Local Government Planning Bill, whileproviding for the adoption of manyhabitat regulations and other directives,does not address issues of waterwaysmanagement and protection.

As regards waterways in urban areas,the South Western Regional FisheriesBoard suggested in comments on theDraft Development Plan for Skibbereen toconsider a River Corridor Management



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90 9

Plan as an integral part of any urbandevelopment programme. It is consideredthat this would improve the aquatic andterrestrial habitats and thus benefit allwildlife species along these corridors andprovide an attractive linear feature foramenity use.

In 1980, the Fisheries Act instructedthat each fishery region prepare adevelopment plan based on a five yearspan. The plan developed by the SouthWestern Regional Fisheries Board states:" Our vision for the future is to deliversustainable development to ensure thatgrowth is achieved but not at theexpense of the viability of the fisheriesfor future generations. We recognise thatwe are only entitled to the share of theresource that is in excess of itsrequirement for self-maintenance. Ourgoal is to maximise that surplus and todistribute it by agreement with thelegitimate interests involved in thatresource" (South Western RegionalFisheries Board, 1998).

9.3Waste: Current Responses to Waste

The most relevant recent response towaste pressures is Cork County Council’sWaste Management Plan from 1999,which incorporates all current legislation.It is guided by the Department of theEnvironment and Local GovernmentPolicy statement of September 1998entitled "Changing our Ways". Itsdeclared aims are:

f A diversion of 50% of overall

household waste from landfill.

f A reduction, by a minimum of 65 %.

The islands experience waste in adifferent fashion to other parts of thecounty. There is a direct and obvious costof waste removal from the islands byboat. There is a much higher thangeneral consciousness of problems ofwaste and a willingness (as in manyother parts of the Area) to segregatewaste for recycling.

f A diversion of 50 per cent of overall

household waste from landfill.

f A reduction, by a minimum of 65 per

cent, of the bio-degradable wastes

consigned to landfill.

f Recycling of 35 per cent of Municipal

Solid Waste.

f Development of composting and

other feasible biological treatment

facilities capable of treating up to

300,000 tonnes of bio-degradable

waste per annum.

f 80% reduction of methane emissions

from landfill.

f Recycling of at least 85% of

Construction and Demolition Waste.

f Rationalisation of the country’s 100

landfills to approximately 20 state of

the art facilities.

These aims are mirrored in CountyCork’s own Waste Management Plan. Twoof the main principles of the plan are thereduction of waste and the feasibility of



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919

local recycling options. A number ofprojects are run to this effect. Compostingof biowaste is a major factor in reductionof waste and composting bins have beensold to a large number of householdsalready. 525 bins had been taken up in theCity by June 2000, 1073 in the north andsouth. No solid data were available forWest Cork. Collection of cardboard isconsidered on a small scale on trial.

Feasibility of small scale, regionalrecycling-plants is being investigated.Some kerbside collection, to involve the

Ameliorating action at landfill sites todeal with the pressures isunderdeveloped. Only Rossmore has aweighbridge and a tank for effluent.However, all present landfill sites are dueto close in the next two years and thenew landfill site will be equipped with aweigh-bridge and an effluent tank. Thenew waste disposal system proposes touse first stage collection points in thedifferent regions where composting andsome sorting will take place. Theremainder will be baled and trucked tothe second stage collection points wheremore detailed sorting will take place. It ishoped to only dispose to landfill a smallresidue.

9.4Recommended Further Actions

The following additional actions areproposed to protect and supportenvironmental quality within the Northand West Cork Area:

1.

Recommendations in relation to Waterand Coastal Zone Management

f Protect and improve water quality

from both commercial and domestic

sewage inputs by implementing

effective effluent treatment facilities

in line with the Urban Waste Water

Directive, which demands more

secondary and tertiary treatments to

effectively remove a large percentage

of nutrients from the waste water

stream.

f Maintain sustainable flow regimes

through control of water

abstractions.

f Maintain and improve all natural

water courses within towns as open

waterways, and include them as

features of any urban development.

f Incorporate the forthcoming River

Catchment Management Plan into

the County Development Plan.

f Adopt a groundwater protection

scheme for the whole county as the



Composting of

biowaste is a major

factor in reduction of

waste and

composting bins

have been sold to a

large number of

households already.

consumer in recycling and separation ofwaste will be pioneered in smaller townsaround Cork in the near future.

A pilot project is ongoing inCarrigaline where microchips in theindividual bin assure that thehouseholder pays per weight of generatedwaste rather than per bin or by volume.Black plastic used in farming is collectedby the FRS and sent to Scotland forrecycling.

The Green Flag project was startedthree years ago to raise environmentalawareness in schools on the topic ofwaste and its management. The flag hasbeen awarded to nine schools. To date ithas been mostly a city project. Lack ofresources, i.e. a serious staff shortage hasmade it difficult to reach the widercounty. However, there was a very goodresponse to a recent circular and theproject seems to go from strength tostrength.

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92 9 Improving Environmental Quality:


most effective way to protect

groundwater quality.

f Continue and strengthen efforts to

encourage farmers to apply Nutrient

Management Plans.

In relation to coastal zone management, itis recommended that:

f Management responsibilities

between the different bodies, namely

Cork County Council, the Department

of the Marine and Dúchas should be

co-ordinated more closely.

f The needs and environmental

obligations of different users, i.e. the

off shore fishermen, the on shore

fishermen, the fish farmers and

shellfish producers and the

recreational user of the coastal zone,

should be acknowledged and these

should be co-ordinated if the response

is to be coherent.

f A system of Marine Environment

Protection Schemes (MEPS) should be

implemented to encourage fishermen

and fish farmers to develop voluntary

environmentally sound techniques

aimed at promoting stock

improvements at local, national and

trans-national level. Such schemes

would be analogous to the Rural

Environmental Protection Schemes.

f A monitoring programme for all uses

of the coastal zone to establish base

line data on environmental changes

should be initiated.

2.

Recommendations in relation to waste.

f The Sludge Management Plan dealing

with over 700,000 tonnes of sludge

generated annually in the county

should be endorsed.

f New initiatives to increase the rate of

packaging recovery should be

promoted and supported.

3.

Recommendations in Relation to Energyand Transport

It is considered that environmental

quality could be further supported by the

following recommendations in relation

to energy and transport use:

f The work of the Renewable Energy

Project in Mallow should be further

supported with more resources and

more area coverage in line with

suggestions for sub regions as

mentioned under the waste, and

water sections in this report.

f Energy requirements should be

integrated into development plans,

i.e. a mandatory energy audit to

assess energy implications of various

projects.

f Major industrial proposals should be

assessed as to their requirements for

sustainable energy.

f Initiatives to support alternative fuels

and new technologies should be

promoted and supported.

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9310Improving Social, Recreational

and Cultural Infrastructure:


10.1 Introduction 94

10.2 A Changing Society with Changing Social, Recreational

and Cultural Preferences 94

10.2.1 Migration Trends And Social and Cultural Change 94

10.2.2 Culture, Recreation and Tourism 95

10.3 Recommendations for Action 96

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94 1010.1

Introduction

As discussed earlier in Chapter 5, theprovision of improved public services andinfrastructure and the creation ofimproved employment opportunities willgreatly assist in reducing many aspectsof social exclusion and deprivation.

However, in addition, it is consideredthat measures to promote greater accessand availability of social, recreational andcultural facilities and services should beincorporated into a strategy for futuredevelopment. As discussed in Chapter 4,there are many unique and distinctivecultural characteristics which form anintegral part of the people of North andWest Cork and which are highly valued. Inaddition, it is evident that access to avariety of social and recreational servicesis a key factor to retaining a higherproportion of young people in the Area.Therefore, specific proposals arecontained below, in relation to thisaspect, which is an integral element inthe overall development plan

10.2A Changing Society withChanging Social, Recreationaland Cultural Preferences

Urban-generated development pressures,retirement and holiday home develop-ment, the search for an alternative life-style, along with increased economicopportunities in many parts of the Area,are resulting in immigration to the Area.Simultaneously, profound culturalchanges are directly bearing on the Areathrough the print and electronic media.The young generation within the Area, inparticular, is experiencing theglobalisation of culture, with increasedawareness and sharing of the culturalheritage of different parts of the world,alongside the intense commercialisationof popular culture and increasinginternational dominance of U.S.A. culture.Local media including newspapers, radioand television are also importantinfluences.

The current cultural flux in Ireland asa whole, is bringing with it a heightened

awareness of the past, whilst theinevitability of cultural change isgenerally acknowledged. A very rapidtransition is taking place from local musicand pastimes to urban living dominatedby electronic media.

10.2.1Migration Trends and Social andCultural Change

The potential to integrate new immigrantpopulations successfully into existingcommunities is the critical opportunityfor the Area. Population statistics maskthe "turnover" of people in an area, asthey only show the total numbers ofpeople at any one day, not movements inand out of the Area which cancel eachother out. Migration Charts drawn in theCommunity Appraisal show that someparts of the Area are experiencingsubstantial movement of new people intotheir area whilst others are leaving.People from many different ethnic andreligious backgrounds have come to livein the Area in the last 10 years. Someimmigrants have a strong interest in localculture and inject new energy into localtraditions. Others are indifferent. Allbring in fresh and unfamiliar ways of life.

Over-rapid population expansion,irrespective of the origin of the newresidents, is identified by many people asa threat to cultural continuity andcohesiveness. This is because the natural

Improving Social, Recreational and Cultural Infrastructure:


The introduction of

new performing

spaces such as the

Briery Gap, Bruach

na Carraige at

Rockchapel and the

Schoolyard Theatre

opens up the

potential for wider

access to traditional,

classical and modern

performance arts

throughout the

County.

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9510

rate at which newcomers can beabsorbed into a community withoutsocial fragmentation can be exceeded.Communities also have recorded thepositive benefits of immigration andindicated that they needed to take aproactive approach to integration of newpeople into existing communities.

In some parts of the county,particularly in areas where a unique localculture of great value is under threat dueto emigration, and where the beneficialaspects of social and economic changeare not being experienced, attitudes tocultural change are mixed or evennegative. At the same time, there is agrowing movement across the county to"capture" local heritage through heritagecentre and museum development andthrough the conservation of historicbuildings and townscapes, as people areaware that the structures, artefacts andpractices belonging to their agriculturalpast are at risk of disappearing. In theface of rural decline, all participatingcommunities have also acknowledgedthe positive benefits of immigration tothe county and the cultural contributionthat new residents can make.

10.2.2Culture, Recreation and Tourism

Unique local cultures are stronglyattractive to visitors: awareness of thedemand for cultural and heritage tourismhas led to a more complex attitude tolocal culture. Now, this is seen both assomething inherently of, and for, the localcommunity but is also increasingly seenas a commodity which the communitycan "sell" to secure economic advantage.A question for communities is how toprovide some access to local culture forvisitors without presenting it in the formof a false and stereotypical performance.

Elite arts such as professional theatre,opera, ballet, orchestral music, have notgenerally been performed in the Countyoutside Cork City. The Liss Ard festival, runfrom 1997-9, successfully broughtinternational rock and performanceartists to West Cork. A classical musicfestival is also held successfully in Bantry.The introduction of new performingspaces such as the Briery Gap, Bruach naCarraige at Rockchapel and the SchoolyardTheatre opens up the potential for wideraccess to traditional, classical and modernperformance arts throughout the County.

These venues are important spaceswithin which contact between peoplefrom different traditions and art forms,whether within the county or globally, canaccess and share their cultural heritage.



A very rapid

transition is taking

place from local

music and pastimes

to urban living

dominated by

electronic media.

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10.3Recommendations for Action

In making recommendations in this areait is considered that certain guidingprinciples should be followed. Firstly,social, recreational and culturalpreferences are part of the set ofconsumer preferences. The market maybe relied upon to meet these preferencesin many instances. In thesecircumstances, the key focus of policyshould be to facilitate meeting thesevarious and changing preferences, ratherthan prescribing what those preferencesshould be. In addition public policyinterventions in this area are warranted:

f To remedy a market failure, i.e. the

body politic considers that certain

services should be available, although

the market finds it uneconomic to

provide these services;

f To curb negative externalities (i.e.

costs) such as where a market

provided service results in the

destruction or degradation of a

publicly owned asset, such as a piece

of cultural heritage.

Having regard to these principles anumber of initiatives are proposed inrelation to the provision of facilities foryoung people. The wider availability ofand greater accessibility to recreationalservices in urban as compared with ruralareas is identified as a factor in migrationto urban centres. Therefore, public policyinterventions are warranted as part of thestrategy to retain a higher proportion ofyoung people in rural areas.

As a first step and in order todetermine precise criteria for establishingsupports and indeed the character andnature of support, which would beprovided to initiatives in this area it isproposed that a forum should beconvened. This should comprise therelevant stakeholders such as the VEC,schools, youth services, youthorganisations, community groups, local

development agencies, Macra na Feirme,sports organisations and business andtourism sectors, under the chairmanshipof the County Council.

It is recommended that this forumshould consider an agenda regarding theprovision of facilities for young peoplecomprising such issues as:

f Support for new and existing youth

clubs.

f Support for active adventure sports

facilities through tourism

development.

f All-weather activities/sports facilities

f Improve and diversify sports

facilities/female participation in

sports.

f Ensure that indoor recreational

spaces are available to youths.

f Provide/encourage provision of

performance venues; facilitate

festivals.

f Seek to provide evening transport to

recreational/entertainment facilities.

f Support internet cafes and clubs.

Following its deliberation it isrecommended that a detailed action planshould be proposed as regards thefacilities that should be supported, thegeographical catchment to be coveredand the means and substance of supportthat would be provided.

As regards local heritage and customsit is recommended that the followingapproach to preservation anddevelopment should be pursued:

f Foster and celebrate all forms of local

culture.

f Promote high quality festivals

reflecting local and international

culture.

f Promote knowledge of local

traditions and pastimes.

f Protect the natural and built heritage

of the Area.

f Promote accreditation of traditional

skills.



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9711Development of Partnership and Wider

Community Participation:


11.1. Introduction 98

11.2. Effective Implementation of Strategy: Some general Issues for Consideration 98

11.3. Development of Partnership and Wider Community Participation 100

11.4 Proposed Implementation Hierarchy and Resources 100

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98 1111.1.

Introduction

This chapter is concerned with twoissues. First is implementation of theproposed strategy. Second is thedevelopment of partnership and widercommunity participation in relation tothe strategy.

11.2.Effective Implementation of theStrategy: Some General Issuesfor Consideration

In advance of attempting to implementor even decide on the specifics ofdevelopment policy for North and WestCork, there are a number of more generalissues that should be addressed. The firstis a reconsideration of the structure oflocal development areas as currentlyconstituted. Area rather than sectordevelopment has dominated policythinking and activity in Ireland since themid-1990s. An exception is that certainsector development operations that werewell development prior to this time havebeen maintained. However, the rationalbasis for some of the structures withinwhich this is implemented needreconsideration. There are at least twoaspects to this. The first relates to theboundaries of the areas. Many of the

development agencies have overlappingboundaries, for example Leader groupsand County Enterprise Boards. This is notnecessarily a source of dispute but canmean that efforts are not applied in theoptimal manner. After all, not all areas ofa particular region require equalattention. A second issue is that some ofthese areas have been identified on thebasis of pre-existing area definitions. Agood example is the coincidence – bydefinition – of county and CEBboundaries. For example, much of thenatural hinterland of Mitchelstown orCharleville is not in Cork. There is no priorreason to expect that county boundariesthat are usually located by historicalaccident identify cohesive areas fordevelopment. This problem is alsorelevant in the case of many Leader areasalthough the problem does not seem tobe as bad in Cork as in many othercounties.

The second issue is that therelationship between formulating policyand implementing programmes on anarea basis and sector programmes iscomplex and may not be fully thoughtthrough. Again activity appears to takeplace within lines of demarcation thatmay have been laid down on a fairly adhoc basis. In advocating an area-basedapproach to development, NESC (1994)7noted that the advantages of thisapproach arise from its use incombination with other organisationalcharacteristics. The NESC was emphaticthat the area-based approach should notbe allowed to exclude the use of sectorbased approaches. This is a difficultbalance to achieve and in many instancesit may be impossible to identify anagency’s terms of reference with respectto one of these variables withoutundermining its rationality in terms ofthe other. However, this difficulty doesnot mean that the issue should beavoided.

A third and related issue refers to theunit at which policy is implemented.Local knowledge is essential for local

Development of Partnership and Wider



7 NESC (1994) New Approaches to Rural Development. Dublin: National Economic and Social Council.

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9911

development, particularly where theinitiative is area based. Views expressedto the consultants indicated that muchgreater knowledge on local expenditurepatterns and economic activity than ispresently available is required. Forexample, the presence of localemployment is not a problem for an areaif residents can travel to work and spenda reasonable proportion of their incomein the local area. However, many areasfear the influence of the Cork Citysuburbs as an economic drain onrevenue. As one contact expressed it,local businesses do see each other astheir major competitors. Their maincompetitors are the unknown businesseswell away in Cork City. Even where localemployment opportunities are available,this threat to the ability to capture thevalue generated in the Area is thegreatest problem. However, in theabsence of detailed information it isimpossible for the agencies to identifythe geographical area of such problemsand opportunities.

Another issue is that the inherentdynamic of economic activity is all toooften not utilised in development policy.The fact is that economic activity andjobs will follow where the bestopportunities are. Thus, they followspending power creating a virtuous circleas more opportunities are created. Thekey to this circle is to provide spendingopportunities in areas where people live.In general, and increasingly, people arewilling to travel to work but wish to livein an area with a high quality of life. This




emerges strongly in the Future Search

process. Importing jobs into an area,while undoubtedly positive, is a difficultway to approach the problem, since arange of competitiveness related factorsmay make those jobs difficult to sustainunless they are low value employment. If,however, the services are provided tomake an area an attractive place to live,then local expenditure will make formuch more sustainable employment.

A final issue relates to the degree towhich decision making is centralised orbrought to the local level. There has beenconsiderable progress in attempting tolocalise rural development in the pastdecade and the advantage of thisapproach over a centralised approach iswell recognised. However, someimportant decisions will inevitablyremain centralised and, where localstructures are put in place, hierarchieswill emerge. There is no reason to thinkthat such developments are in any waydisadvantageous. However, what it doesmean is that the advantages oflocalisation are reduced unless there arestrong vertical communications betweenthe local levels and the centre. In someareas there would appear to be aperception that these may be inadequate,with the result that the local groups –who have the required local informationand the ability to target initiatives – areunable to optimally influence centraliseddecisions. Again this issues crops up inthe Future Search findings.

It is recommended

that local electoral

areas should

comprise an

important "delivery"

module for area

implementation

purposes at sub-

county level.

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100 11

11.3.Development of Partnership andWider Community Participation

It is recommended that local electoral

areas should comprise an important

"delivery" module for area

implementation purposes at sub-county

level. These areas have a democraticmandate and are building throughexpanded area committees a partnershipapproach to local service delivery. Deliverywithin these areas should be informed byunderstanding of the different socio-economic areas, which in some cases aredissected by electoral area boundaries.These latter areas broadly encompasscohesive geographical and social entities.

Cork has ten expanded areacommittees. Given the size of the countyand the extent of the electoral areasthemselves, these areas may be too largeto function successfully as local deliveryunits. It should be noted that other, muchsmaller counties propose a similarnumber of area committees. In terms of

delivery of local services and strategic

measures, better interaction could be

attained in a smaller and more socially

cohesive unit. Pairing of Bandon with

Macroom electoral areas, two very

different areas culturally and

geographically, is unlikely to benefit

either area in the longer term. It is

therefore recommended that Cork should

consider operating an area committee for

each electoral area.

Another key implementation area isthe self-defined local community.Communities should be encouraged andsupported in undertaking localdevelopment projects that support thestrategy. Communities that put their ownlocal action plans in place can act at locallevel as the co-ordinators of funding andother supports from a variety of agencies.At sector level, important stakeholdergroups have their own local organisations(particularly farming and fishing), whichcan play an important role inimplementing goals.

Their involvement should be encouraged

both at local level for implementation

purposes and at County Development

Board level for policy development and

liaison.

11.4Proposed ImplementationHierarchy and Resources

Successful implementation of the Planrequires political commitment to theproposed strategy and therecommendations proposed to attain itsobjectives. In the first instance this mustcome from locally elected Members of theCouncil. However, the scope of therecommendations contained in thisReport is far reaching and theirimplementation would require a morebroadly based commitment to the Plan,than the Council. Therefore, it isrecommended that support from nationalpolitical level should be sought. It is

considered that a sub-committee of

elected representatives, including a

relevant Government Minister should

take overall responsibility for the Plan. A

Steering Committee, comprising officials

of the Council and representatives of

national and local development agencies,

should have a primary role in executing

recommendations contained in the Plan

and for monitoring implementation. This

Steering Group should report to the

proposed sub-committee of elected

representatives. Finally, it is

recommended that a small, dedicated

secretariat should be seconded from the

local authorities and relevant national

development agencies to implement the

Plan on a day-to day basis. The secretariat

should report to the Steering Committee,

through a dedicated Project Officer, who

should have responsibility for the day to

day management of the secretariat. The

secretariat function should extend to

liaison with local community groups and

supporting approved initiatives from

such groups.




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