Geological Society, London, Memoirs

doi: 10.1144/M36.56 2011; v. 36; p. 581-592Geological Society, London, Memoirs

 Svend Stouge, Jørgen Løye Christiansen, David A. T. Harper, et al. Greenland

Ediacaran) deposits in East and North-East−Chapter 56 Neoproterozoic (Cryogenian  

serviceEmail alerting to receive free e-mail alerts when new articles cite this articlehereclick

requestPermission to seek permission to re-use all or part of this articlehereclick

Subscribe to subscribe to Geological Society, London, Memoirs or the Lyell Collectionhereclick

Notes

on November 30, 2011Downloaded by

© The Geological Society of London 2011

Chapter 56

Neoproterozoic (Cryogenian–Ediacaran) deposits in East and North-East Greenland

SVEND STOUGE1*, JØRGEN LØYE CHRISTIANSEN2, DAVID A. T. HARPER1, MICHAEL HOUMARK-NIELSEN3,

KASPER KRISTIANSEN4, CONALL MACNIOCAILL5 & BJØRN BUCHARDT-WESTERGARD6

1Geological Museum, University of Copenhagen, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark2University College of Zealand, DK-4300 Holbaek, Denmark

3GeoGenetics Centre, Natural History Museum, University of Copenhagen, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark,4Maersk Oil and Gas, Denmark

5Department of Earth Sciences, Oxford University, UK6Department of Geography and Geology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark

*Corresponding author (e-mail: svends@snm.ku.dk)

Abstract: The Neoproterozoic succession of East and North-East Greenland (over 14 000 m thick) includes the Eleonore Bay Super-group (?Tonian–Cryogenian) and the Tillite Group (Cryogenian–Ediacaran). The upper units of the Eleonore Bay Supergroupconsist of shallow to deeper-water carbonates, succeeded by siliciclastic fine-grained sediments (Bedgroup 19) that characterize thetop unit of the supergroup.

The Tillite Group includes two diamictite-bearing units (Ulvesø and Storeelv formations) of glaciogenic origin and two upper,upwards-shallowing strata (Canyon and Spiral Creek formations) that were deposited during semiarid conditions and concluded theNeoproterozoic depositional cycle. Diamictite is preserved on the craton and compares with the Storeelv Formation (Fm.) of theTillite Group.

Detailed investigations of the diamictite-bearing units (i.e. Ulvesø and Storeelv formations) demonstrate that the lower of the two for-mations is mainly of marine origin, whereas the upper one has both marine and terrestrial origins. Chemostratigraphic data include ana-lyses on total carbon (TC), total organic carbon (TOC), total sulphur (TS) and d13C. The data set for d13C shows a substantial and abruptshift towards negative values of�10%, from below Bedgroup 19. Low-diversity acritarch assemblages (Cryogenian) are recorded fromthe Andree Land and Tillite groups; a thin cherty dolostone unit present above the Storeelv Fm. suggests that the diamictite units are oflate Cryogenian age and the upper part of the Tillite Group is Ediacaran.

Bedgroup 19 disconformably overlies older carbonates and the unit is a prelude to the succeeding (upper Cryogenian–lowerEdiacaran) diamictite sediments of the Tillite Group. A disconformity separates the Tillite Group from the overlying LowerPalaeozoic sediments. Both disconformities are, according to palaeomagnetic data, related to rift–drift episodes that occurred duringthe late Neoproterozoic. Alternatively, the isotope data suggest that the diamictites were deposited during the late Cryogenian glaciationand the older disconformity may be interpreted as a significant gap developed by the lowering of sea level during an earlyCryogenian glaciation.

The Neoproterozoic sediments in East and North-East Greenlandare well preserved and, despite their remote location, the area iswell known and has served as key area for the study of Neoproter-ozoic successions in the Arctic (Figs 56.1 & 56.2). It should benoted that this region was previously referred to as East Greenlandin the literature but is now referred to as East and North-EastGreenland according to new administrative boundaries.

Two diamictite bearing units (Ulvesø and Storeelv formations,formerly referred to as lower and upper tillite respectively) arethought to record glacial conditions in the region during thistime period. Other diamictite units occur in para-autochthonouswindows and are broadly correlated with the Storeelv Fm. TheUlvesø and Storeelv formations are part of the Tillite Group(Haller 1971; Henriksen & Higgins 1976; Hambrey & Spencer1987), which Kulling (1929) initially referred to as the TilliteSeries. Even though the name does not follow modern guidelinesfor stratigraphic terminology, it has been used continuously inthe literature since 1929, and it is retained here following therecommendation of Hambrey & Spencer (1987, p. 6). The TilliteGroup is exposed in a north–south-trending belt extendingthrough the central fjord region from Canning Land in the south(728250N) to Payer Land in the north (748200N). The exposure isexcellent in many places, especially along the coastlines ofthe fjords.

The Ulvesø Fm. was formally defined by Hambrey & Spencer(1987) with its type locality in Kløftelv, c. 200 m north of

Ulvesø on Ella Ø (728520N, 258050W) and with a coastal sectionbeginning in Tømmerbugt and extending into Bastion Bugt,serving as the reference section (Figs 56.3 & 56.4). It formedpart of the Cape Oswald Fm. of Poulsen (1930), and Schaub(1950) placed the unit in his Tømmerbugt Group. The StoreelvFm. takes its name from Storeelv on Ella Ø (728510N, 258070W)(Fig. 56.1).

Systematic research of the upper Neoproterozoic sedimentsbegan in the mid-1920s and continued in the 1950s, when severalexpeditions visited the area under the leadership of Lauge Koch(Koch 1929, 1930; Koch & Haller 1971; for a summary seeHaller 1971 and Henriksen & Higgins 2008). At that time, shipand aircraft support had become widely available, which made itpossible to visit these remote parts of East and North-EastGreenland. Stratigraphical, sedimentological and facies studiesfrom the mid-1970s onwards were undertaken by the GeologicalSurvey of Greenland as part of its general mapping programme(Henriksen & Higgins 1976; Bengard 1991; Henriksen 1999,2003; Henriksen & Higgins 2008). Geologists from Harvard andCambridge University participated in expeditions to the regionin the 1970s and 1980s, which resulted in several new stratigraphi-cal and sedimentological findings (Hambrey 1983, 1989; Hambrey& Spencer 1987; Moncrieff & Hambrey 1988, 1990; Hambrey et al.1989; Herrington & Fairchild 1989; Manby & Hambrey 1989;Swett & Knoll 1989) and descriptions of microfossils assemblages(Knoll et al. 1986; Green et al. 1987, 1988, 1989). The present

From: Arnaud, E., Halverson, G. P. & Shields-Zhou, G. (eds) The Geological Record of Neoproterozoic Glaciations. Geological Society, London,

Memoirs, 36, 581–592. 0435-4052/11/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2011. DOI: 10.1144/M36.56

lithostratigraphic scheme for the upper Neoproterozoic deposits inNorth-East Greenland (Hambrey & Spencer 1987) appeared ataround the same time, when Knoll et al. (1986) published theirgeochemistry-driven data for the broadly correlative successionson Spitsbergen. More recent research on stratigraphy, sedimentol-ogy, micropalaeontology, palaeomagnetism and geochemistrystarted in the late 1990s (Frederiksen et al. 1999; Frederiksen2000) and continues now into the 21st century (Stouge et al.2001; Sønderholm et al. 2008).

Structural framework

Most of the Neoproterozoic deposits of East and North-EastGreenland accumulated in the Eleonore Bay basin that existedfor c. 350 Ma. This sedimentary basin was nearly 500 km long,NE–SW trending and 200–400 km wide, and a pile of c. 14–15 km of sediments accumulated (Sønderholm et al. 2008).Eleonore Bay Basin sediments, preserved today in the FranzJoseph Allochton of the Caledonian orogen were deposited

Fig. 56.1. Location map showing positions

of exposures, and the structure and geology

of East and North-East Greenland.

(Modified from Frederiksen 2000 and

Higgins et al. 2004). Used with permission

from the National Geological Survey of

Denmark and Greenland (GEUS) #.

S. STOUGE ET AL.582

c. 200–400 km away, farther to the east (Higgins & Leslie 2000,2008) than the present day. The Neoproterozoic succession inthe basin is thought to record a rift–drift transition associatedwith the fragmentation of Rodinia (Herrington & Fairchild 1989;Stouge et al. 2001; Eyles & Januszczak 2004; Nystuen et al.2008; Sønderholm et al. 2008), although volcanic deposits typi-cally associated with rifted margins have not been reported fromthe succession (Soper 1994; Higgins & Leslie 2008; Sønderholmet al. 2008).

This Neoproterozoic sedimentary pile is incorporated in theCaledonian mountain belts of eastern Greenland, extending from708 to 828N and flanking the eastern edge of the Greenland ice sheet(Henriksen & Higgins 1976, 2008; Henriksen 1999; Higgins et al.2004; Gee et al. 2008; Higgins & Leslie 2008). The outcrop of Cale-donian bedrock in eastern Greenland (Fig. 56.1) is c. 300 km widein the south, at 708N, and narrows northwards to c. 100 km, strikingobliquely offshore into the northern Greenland continental shelf. Itforms the western part of the Caledonian Orogen dominated bythrust sheets, which were emplaced west-northwestwards ontothe Laurentian Craton with its Lower Palaeozoic cover.

The allochthons are composed of two major thrust sheets, theNiggli Spids thrust sheet and the Hagar Bjerg thrust sheet (Higginset al. 2001, 2004; Higgins & Leslie 2008) (Fig. 56.1). The lowerNiggli Spids thrust sheet comprises Archaean and Palaeoproterozoicbasement gneisses overlain by upper Mesoproterozoic to lowerNeoproterozoic metasediments or the Krummedal supracrustalsequence, which is several kilometres thick. The Hagar Bjergthrust sheet overlies the Niggle Spids thrust sheet; it includes theKrummedal supracrustal sequence intruded by c. 950–920 Ma gran-ites (Kalsbeek et al. 2001, 2008). These are overlain by thec. 18.5-km-thick Neoproterozoic siliciclastic and carbonate succes-sions (Eleonore Bay Supergroup), siliciclastic sediments with dia-mictite (Tillite Group), and Cambrian–Middle Ordoviciansiliciclastic and platform carbonate formations (Kong Oscar FjordGroup). This sedimentary package comprises the upper part of theHagar Bjerg thrust sheet and is recognized as the Franz Josephallochthon (Higgins et al. 2004; Higgins & Leslie 2008).

All the transported rocks in eastern Greenland were derivedfrom the Laurentian margin, including both Archaean and Palaeo-proterozoic crystalline basement and the younger, shallow-marinesedimentary cover. WNW-directed thrust transport of the alloch-thons has been estimated to be at least 200 km (Higgins & Leslie2000, 2008), along with sinistral strike displacements; hence,prior to the Caledonian Orogeny, the platform margin of Laurentiawas nearly twice as wide as it is today.

The upper part of the Andree Land Group is of special interest inthis context, and together with the Tillite Group crop out over anarea of c. 200 km from north to south and c. 50 km in an east–west direction (Fig. 56.1). The outcrop area is bounded to thewest by the older sediments of the Eleonore Bay Supergroup andto the east by the Lower Palaeozoic outcrops or by major north–south-trending faults. The sediments are gently folded into syn-forms and antiforms within the East and North-East GreenlandCaledonides and are only mildly affected by Caledonian meta-morphism; the succession is locally jointed and faulted byyounger late Palaeozoic (Carboniferous) orogenic events.

Additional occurrences of upper Neoproterozoic sediments arepreserved in the Charcot Land, Gaseland and Malebjerg windowsin the lower allochthon and are para-autochthonous deposits(Fig. 56.1; Wenk 1961; Phillips et al. 1973; Montcrieff 1989;Smith & Robertson 1999; Higgins et al. 2001, 2004; Sønderholmet al. 2008). The deposits are overlain by the Hagar Bjerg and theNiggli Spids thrust sheets (Higgins et al. 2004, 2008; Fig. 56.1).These sediments accumulated at least 200 km to the west of theEleonore Bay basin but are thought to be broadly correlativewith the Tillite Group (Higgins & Leslie 2000, 2008).

Stratigraphy

The allochthonous upper Neoproterozoic sediments in East andNorth-East Greenland are collectively referred to as the EleonoreBay Supergroup (Andree Land Group) and the overlying TilliteGroup (Haller 1971; Sønderholm & Tirsgaard 1993; Sønderholmet al. 2008) (Fig. 56.2). Associated para-autochtonous depositsare broadly correlated with the Storeelv Fm. of the Tillite Groupin the Eleonore Bay Basin (Montcrieff 1989).

Andree Land Group

The top unit of the Eleonore Bay succession is the Andree LandGroup (Teichert 1933; Tirsgaard 1993, 1996; Sønderholm & Tirs-gaard 1993; Tirsgaard & Sønderholm 1997) (Fig. 56.2), whichconsists primarily of shallow to relatively deeper-water marinecarbonates succeeded by marine deep-water siltstone-shale,cherty rhythmites and carbonate. It totals c. 1500 m in thicknessand was recognized previously as the ‘Die Kalk-Dolomit Serie’(i.e. ‘Limestone-Dolomite Series’; Teichert 1933), which was sub-divided into a number of ‘bed groups’ (Teichert 1933; Schaub

PeriodEra

Palaeozoic

Neo

prot

eroz

oic

CambrianE

diac

aria

nC

ryog

enia

nKong Oscar Fjord

Tillite Group

Andrée Land

Ele

onor

e B

ay

Kløftelv

Supergroup Group Formation

Spiral Creek

Canyon

Arena

Ulvesø

Storeelv

Bedgroup 19

(not named)

Bedgroup 18

Bedgroup 20

Hiatus Uplift

EventsSequence

Final carbonate deposition

Iapetus passive margin

Ma

Sauk

III

II

IRifting

Drift

542

580

635

Foundering of carbonate platform

Carbonate platform

Maximal separationSQB

SQB

SQB

Fig. 56.2. Stratigraphical nomenclature

used in this chapter and summary of the

series of events that occurred in the

Eleonore Bay basin during the Cryogenian

and Ediacaran. The succession comprises

three stratigraphic sequences, and the hiatus

between the Tillite Group and the Lower

Palaeozoic Kløftelv Fm. is extensive. No

radiometric ages are available in this

succession; ages are inferred based on

interpretation of the stratigraphic and

biostratigraphic record. See text

for discussion.

NEOPROTEROZOIC NE GREENLAND 583

1950; Katz 1952; Eha 1953; Frankl 1953; Haller 1953, 1971;Cowie & Adams 1957; Sommer 1957). These informal bedgroups have since been widely used as standard reference nomen-clature in the literature for the Eleonore Bay Supergroup (Haller1971; Hambrey & Spencer 1987; Herrington & Fairchild 1989;Swett & Knoll 1989; Fairchild & Hambrey 1995).

The Andree Land Group was formally established by Sønder-holm & Tirsgaard (1993), who also introduced informal litho-units(AL1–7), which should serve as replacements for the bedgroups.However, the older stratigraphic terminology summarized byHaller (1971) is still applicable and is used here as stratigraphicalframework (Fig. 56.2).

The upper Andree Land Group, named Bedgroup 18 (¼ AL5of Sønderholm & Tirsgaard 1993), is composed of marine,

shallow-water carbonates that accumulated on a ramp situatedalong a former low-latitude passive continental margin (Frederik-sen et al. 1999; Frederiksen 2000; Stouge et al. 2001; Mac Niocaillet al. 2004, 2008; Sønderholm et al. 2008). The uppermost strata ofthe Andree Land Group are referred to as Bedgroup 19 and Bed-group 20 (¼ AL6 and AL7 of Sønderholm & Tirsgaard 1993).These are up to c. 400 m thick and consist of fine-grained clasticsediments and carbonate.

Tillite Group

The upper part of the Neoproterozoic succession comprises thesiliciclastic deposits and minor carbonates of the Tillite Group

Fig. 56.3. Stratigraphy of the uppermost

Andree Land Group (Bedgroups 19 and 20)

and Tillite Group. The sedimentary logs

from Andree Land and Ella Ø represent the

northern and southern development of the

succession respectively. AS, sandstone

(aeolian) unit forming at the top of

Bedgroup 20; CD, cap dolomite following

above the diamictite of the Storeelv Fm.

S. STOUGE ET AL.584

Fig. 56.4. Detailed stratigraphic logs of the

Ulvesø and Storeelv formations. The Ulvesø

Formation is from the type section at Ulvesø

in Kløftelv on Ella Ø and the reference

section from Tømmerbugt til Bastion Bugt,

Ella Ø. Stratigraphic log of the Storeelv

Formation is from the coast section in

Bastion Bugt, Ella Ø.

NEOPROTEROZOIC NE GREENLAND 585

(c. 900 m), representing terrestrial and marine depositional settingsin five different formations (Figs 56.2 & 56.3). The marine depos-its accumulated at some distance from the continental margin in adeep-water, oceanic setting. The diamictite facies of the Ulvesøand Storeelv formations are separated by mudstone and sandstonefacies of the Arena Fm. and succeeded, first by deep-water sedi-ments and then by shallowing-upwards successions, where theuppermost unit concludes with evaporitic environments (Canyonand Spiral Creek formations; Fig. 56.2).

A regional synthesis of the depositional environments andstratigraphical nomenclature was reviewed by Haller (1971) andrevisions were published by Cowie & Adams (1957), Hambrey& Spencer (1987), Fairchild & Hambrey (1995), Sønderholm &Tirsgaard (1993) and Sønderholm et al. (2008). The switch fromdeposition of carbonate to deep-water, mostly fine-clastic, turbi-dites on the slope in the upper part of the Andree Land Group her-alded the deposition of the Cryogenian–Ediacaran diamictite unitsin the region.

The Eleonore Bay Supergroup disconformably overlies theKrummedal supracrustal succession (Higgins et al. 2004, 2008;Nystuen et al. 2008). Granites, which are between 950 and920 Ma old (Kalsbeek et al. 2001, 2008), intrude the Krummedalsupracrustal sequence, and the c. 900 Ma date for the granitesmay represent a maximum age for the initial start of depositionin the Eleonore Bay Basin. The late Neoproterozoic successionis unconformably overlain by the quartzitic sandstone of the Kløf-telv Fm. (Lower Cambrian) of the Kong Oscar Fjord Group in thecentral fjord zone (Fig. 56.2).

Associated para-autochthonous strata

Diamictite beds have been recorded from Charcot Land (Mon-tcrieff 1989), Gaseland (Wenk 1961; Phillips et al. 1973) and Mal-ebjerg windows (Smith & Robertson 1999) (Fig. 56.1). Thediamictite deposits are preserved in pockets on the surface ofthe basement and below the higher thrusts. The Støvfanget Fm.(Montcrieff 1989) is named from the succession in the Gaselandwindow. The strata from the Charcot Land and Malebjergwindows were named the Tillite Nunatak Fm. (Montcrieff 1989;Smith & Robertson 1999). The sediments are considered to belateral equivalents, so the name Støvfanget Fm. is used here forthese deposits.

Glaciogenic deposits and associated strata

Bedgroup 19, Andree Land Group

Bedgroup 19 is characterized by deep-water black, green, grey andred shales, interbedded with chert, dolostone, minor limestone,interbedded limestone and shale and carbonate breccias and con-glomerates (Fig. 56.2). Bedgroup 19 is overlain either by Bedgroup20 or the Ulvesø Fm. of the Tillite Group (Sønderholm et al. 2008).The lateral distribution of facies is heterogeneous and the succes-sion shows a northern and a southern development (Fig. 56.3). Bedgroup 19 is here subdivided into two informal units: Unit A andUnit B. Unit A is well developed throughout the basin, whereasUnit B is only found in the southern portion of the basin.

Unit A is the stratigraphically oldest strata of Bedgroup 19 of theupper Andree Land Group (Sønderholm et al. 2008). It is 200 m ormore thick, and is characterized by mixed chert and fine-grainedto very fine-grained siliclastic sediments associated with minorcarbonate. Lithologies include argillite (shale); siltstone; beddedlight grey, dense thin-bedded chert, developed as rhythmites;and siliceous argillite interbedded with variable amounts of thin-bedded and very fine-grained grey, green to violet chert. Yellowto yellow-brown weathering is characteristic of the finely lami-nated grey to green to violet chert.

In detail, Unit A begins with quartzitic, fine-grained sandstoneoverlying the black limestone of Bedgroup 18. The quartzitic sand-stone is succeeded by bedded chert and rhythmically bedded greychert. The chert beds are 1–5 cm thick and have millimetre-scalepartings of grey-green shale. This unit is succeeded by rhythmi-cally bedded chert with partings consisting of 0.1–0.5 mm thingreen-grey shale as well as interbeds of grey-red-brown shale over-lain by finely laminated chert and grey shale. The chert is charac-terized by light yellow to brown weathering surfaces. Besidesoccasional ripples, sedimentary structures are rare to absent inthe unit.

The basal quartzitic unit of Unit A is sparsely exposed, so it hasnot been reported previously. It is well exposed in the region fromAndree Land and east of Eleonore Bay and towards the north(Figs 56.1 & 56.3). On Ella Ø, Schaub (1950) and Hambrey &Spencer (1987) described Unit A in detail and divided it intoseveral beds, but Unit A has also an extensive lateral distribution.It is recorded across the whole basin and with a nearly uniformdevelopment. Many of the individual beds can be traced overlong distances; one prominent chert/carbonate horizon withshale partings, 7 to 10 m thick, can easily be traced laterallyfrom Lyell Land to Ella Ø to Ole Rømer Land and farther to thenorth (i.e. for more than 200 km); it can thus be used as amarker bed across the whole basin.

Unit B is composed mainly of grey and black relativelyorganic-rich shale that is interbedded with subordinate parted toribbon limestone and limestone breccia. The ribbon and partedlimestone forms the base of the unit and is very fine-grained,dark grey to black, finely laminated and with limestone bedsvarying in thickness from 4 to 40 cm. Several horizons of theribbon and parted limestone are slumped and contorted. Abovethe interval with parted to ribbon limestone and breccia bedsfollows a unit up to 100 m thick, dark grey to black shale.Unit B is recorded only in the southern extension of the basin(Sønderholm et al. 2008).

The limestone breccias of Unit B have a chaotic fabric with amatrix composed of grey to black, dirty green to dull brown,purple-to-yellow weathering calcareous mud and lime mudstone.Purple-to-yellow weathering carbonate and elongated plates oflow lithological variety are the most common clasts. They are com-posed of grey, blue-grey, to dark grey limestone and dolomiteplates. The lime breccias are mostly thin but well exposed. OnElla Ø, one breccia horizon up to 10 m thick serves as a locallithological marker band in this region (Hambrey & Spencer1987, fig. 6; Herrington & Fairchild 1989).

Bedgroup 20, Andree Land Group

Bedgroup 20 (AL7 as per Sønderholm & Tirsgard 1993) is mainlya carbonate unit (Katz 1952; Eha 1953; Frankl 1953; Haller1953; Hambrey & Spencer 1987; Herrington & Fairchild 1989;Sønderstrom et al. 2008), which conformably overlies Unit A ofBedgroup 19. Bedgroup 20 is typically composed of (i) silty,planar bedded ribbon limestone at the base, (ii) lime mudstoneand bedded limestone in the main part of the unit (Fig. 56.3) and(iii) planar lamellites associated with small domal stromatolitesand minor nodular cherts. Oolitic-pisolitic limestone, up to 40 mthick, prevails in the higher part of the unit on Ole Rømers Land(Swett & Knoll 1989; Frederiksen 2000).

Bedgroup 20 varies in thickness from 240 m in Ole Rømer Landand decreases towards the south where 2 m are recorded on thesouthern part of Ymer Ø. The unit extends northwards as far asHudson Land. Farther to the south and towards the southern exten-sion of the Eleonore Bay Basin, the carbonates of Bedgroup20 are absent.

The uppermost part of Bedgroup 20 is composed of yellow,medium-grained sandstone with well-developed and large cross-beds (Fig. 56.3). This sandstone subunit (c. 40 m) is shown in

S. STOUGE ET AL.586

Fig. 56.3 as ‘aeolian sandstone’ (AS). This subunit displays thesame geographical distribution as Bedgroup 20 (Sønderholmet al. 2008).

Ulvesø Fm., Tillite Group

At Ella Ø, the Ulvesø Fm. comprises a generally coarseningupwards succession composed of diamictite, associated withminor laminite and shale, massive sandstone and conglomerate(Figs 56.3 & 56.4). The crudely bedded diamictite is composedpredominantly of carbonate clasts derived mainly from the olderAndree Land Group and sediments of Bedgroup 19 in the southernpart of the basin, and from carbonate units of the older AndreeLand Group and Bedgroup 20 to the north of Ymer Ø. Beds arenormally 30–50 cm thick, and clasts are occasionally up to 1 min size. The matrix is grey-green and composed of shale, silt andsand, which weather characteristically as dull yellow to brown.The formation varies laterally in thickness from nearly 10 min the north to a maximum thickness of c. 320 m on northernScoresby Land.

The erosive-based diamictite is rich in striated outsized clastsup to a metre in size and slump folds and mega brecciasoccur frequently throughout the succession. Towards the top, dia-mictite interfingers with erosive-based sandstone and clast-supported conglomerate, beds of shale and brecciated limestonederived from the breakdown of the underlying carbonate-shaleplatform. Together with the lowermost part of the sandstones ofthe overlying Arena Fm., the diamictite of the Ulvesø Fm.appears strongly deformed, occurring as metre-sized ball andpillow structures.

Arena Fm., Tillite Group

The Arena Fm. is composed of grey, dark-grey to green shale,siltstone and sandstone (Figs 56.2 & 56.3). The formation wasformally defined by Hambrey & Spencer (1987), with its typelocality at Arenaen on Gunnar Andersson Land, Ymer Ø(738200N, 248500W). The formation was previously included inthe Tillite Series (Kulling 1929; Schaub 1955; Katz 1954, 1961)and the Cape Oswald Fm. of Poulsen (1930). Later it was namedthe Inter Tillite Member (Schaub 1950) or Inter-Tillite (Haller1971; Henriksen & Higgins 1976; Higgins 1981).

The formation varies from c. 100 m in thickness in StrindbergLand and Ole Rømer Land, through 220–360 m in thickness inAlbert Heim Bjerge (Hudson Land). The formation begins withshale and silt beds followed by thick-bedded green to grey sand-stone. The shale and siltstone are the dominant lithologies, witha minor increase in the amount of sandstone occurring towardsthe top of the Arena Fm. The recessive Arena Fm. separates thediamictite units and is not easy to access in inland outcrops, andthe beds of the unit are commonly covered.

On Ella Ø, the lowest part of the unit is composed of yellowsandstone, which is similar to the sandstone on ScoresbyLand. The latter includes thin diamictite horizons (Hambrey &Spencer 1987). Sedimentary structures in the Arena Fm. comprisecross-lamination, wave ripples, graded bedding, load-casts andslump structures.

Storeelv Fm., Tillite Group

The Storeelv Fm. ranges in thickness from 220 m on Ella Ø(Fig. 56.3) and Arenaen to 60 m in Strindberg Land in the northand Canning Land in the south. On Ella Ø, the formation conform-ably rests on a striated glacial boulder pavement of outsizedfar travelled erratics. Crudely bedded reddish diamictite withclasts of local and extra-basinal origin, including igneous andmetamorphic rocks of the Archaean basement, occasionally

alternate with breccias of limestone and sandstone. More com-monly, they interfinger with cross-bedded sandstone and laminatedshale with outsized clasts (Figs 56.3 & 56.4). Conglomerate-filledmega-channels truncate the diamictite, mainly in the middlepart of the formation. Towards the top, diamictite units oncemore dominate the succession. However, here it interfingerswith minor beds of laminated shale with dropstones andbedded sandstone.

Canyon Fm., Tillite Group

The Canyon Fm. was first named the Canyon Series by Schaub(1955) and Frankl (1953). Later, Haller (1971) modified it to theCanyon Fm. The name is derived from Tillite Canyon Fm.(Poulsen 1930), but the name Tillite was dropped by subsequentauthors.

In the northern part of the basin, this formation includes a chertydolostone horizon at the base. The cherty carbonate unit, up to10 m thick, is situated at the base of the formation and extendslaterally from Andree Land (Tillite Kløft and west of KapWeber) and northwards to Albert Heim Bjerge (Cowie & Adams1957). The unit is composed of light grey, dense and finely lami-nated chert or siliceous dolostone. Above follows a rhythmicallybedded shale and chert. The shale is commonly very red, and thechert beds are pale grey to nearly white, so the shale/chert unitis easy to recognize from a distance. This cherty carbonateunit is not present on Ella Ø, and red shale follows above theStoreelv diamictite. The characteristic, rhythmically bedded, redshale and grey finely laminated chert appear c. 10 m above theStoreelv Fm.

The subsequent and main part of the succession of the CanyonFm. is composed of red, grey green and black shale. Towardsthe top and on Ella Ø, the Canyon Fm. becomes increasinglysandy and the sandstone and shale display well-developed,upwards coarsening sequences.

On Ella Ø, the top of the formation is developed as c. 50 myellow weathering dolostone with small stromatolitic reefs andalgal laminations. This facies of the Canyon Fm. is only seen onElla Ø. Elsewhere, black shale with prominent yellow-weatheringsurfaces marks the top of the formation.

Spiral Creek Fm., Tillite Group

Spiral Creek Fm. is the topmost unit of the Neoproterozoicsuccession in East and North-East Greenland (Fig. 56.2). The for-mation is named after Spiral Creek, a locality on the northern shoreof Andree Land (Poulsen 1930, p. 307), where the unit is well dis-played. It is also known from Lyell Land, Ella Ø and Ole RømerLand. Spiral Creek Fm. is up to 45 m thick and is composed of silt-stone, sandstone and stromatolitic dolostone. The colours of thesediments vary from yellow, grey to green and maroon. The for-mation is divided into several beds or horizons (Poulsen 1930;Schaub 1950; Cowie & Adams 1957). Halite pseudomorphs,mudcracks, ripples and intraformational breccia are frequent inthe beds. The sediments probably deposited in a playa-likesetting and under semiarid conditions (Hambrey & Spencer1987; Fairchild & Hambrey 1995).

Støvfanget Fm., para-autochthonous deposits

The sediments of the Støvfanget Fm. include diamictite, sandstoneand laminated mudstone with dropstone (Smith et al. 2004;Sønderholm et al. 2008). The composition of the clasts is hetero-geneous and derived from local sources; granitic blocks arecommon. The blocks vary in size and are up to 2 m, rarely 6 m,in size. The succession varies from a couple of tens of metres toa maximum of c. 200 m in thickness.

NEOPROTEROZOIC NE GREENLAND 587

Boundary relations with overlying and underlying

non-glacial units

Boundary relations within the Neoproterozoic succession

The lower boundary of Bedgroup 19 is not well exposed in thesouthern part of its extent of outcrop. The boundary relationships,however, are well displayed in Andree Land and Strindberg Land,where the boundary is a disconformity. The carbonate top surfaceof Bedgroup 18 is dissolved and has karst-like features (Frederik-sen 2000; Sønderholm et al. 2008). This carbonate surface isoverlain by a thin, quartzitic and medium-grained sandstone.The quartzitic bedded sandstone is succeeded by bedded fine-grained to grey chert deposits with thin shale partings. The lowerboundary of Bedgroup 20 is conformable, with a gradual transitionfrom dark grey to black shale, through interbedded silty laminatedlimestone to bedded limestone.

The base of the overlying Tillite Group is usually sharp in thedeep part of the basin, where black shale (Unit B) of Bedgroup19 is overlain directly by the Ulvesø Formation diamictite(Hambrey & Spencer 1987). The boundary towards the north isdifferent and the top carbonate strata of Bedgroup 20 are separatedfrom the diamictite of the Ulvesø Fm. by a yellow (aeolian), quart-zitic sandstone. This sandstone is conformably overlain by theUlvesø Fm. of the Tillite Group. On Ymer Ø, Bedgroup 20 is infaulted contact with the overlying Ulvesø Fm. and boundaryrelationships are obscure (Hambrey & Spencer 1987; Moncrieff& Hambrey 1988).

The upper boundary of the Ulvesø Fm. is in most placesgradual and is marked by a transition from dark grey diamictite,conglomerate or sandstone to the lower sandstone of the ArenaFm. On Ella Ø the base of the overlying Arena Fm. is sharp andstrongly deformed with the underlying Ulvesø into metre-sizedload-casts.

The upper Neoproterozoic para-authochthonous sediments restdirectly on basement rocks and are tectonically constrainedupwards by thrust sheets; however, the diamictite in the Malebjergwindow is overlain disconformably by Lower Cambrian quartziticsandstone referred to as the Slottet Fm. (Smith et al. 2004).

Boundary relations with the Lower Palaeozoic succession

The Lower Cambrian Kløftelv Fm. of the Kong Oscar Fjord Group(Lower Cambrian to Middle Ordovician) unconformably overliesthe Tillite Group across the whole Eleonore Bay basin and theboundary is a low-angle angular unconformity (Henriksen &Higgins 1976; Hambrey 1989; Hambrey et al. 1989; Stougeet al. 2001, 2002; Sønderholm et al. 2008). Thus the boundaryrelationships from the north to south are variably developed.

In Andree Land and on Ella Ø, the upper Neoproterozoic eva-poritic sediments of Spiral Creek Fm. are overlain unconfomablyby the Lower Cambrian Kløftelv Fm., and the Lower Palaeozoicsuccession begins with a basal conglomerate (Stouge et al. 2001,2002). Away from Andree Land and Ella Ø, the Spiral CreekFm. and the upper stromatolitic limestone facies of the CanyonFm. are absent and black shales of Canyon Fm. are directly over-lain by a basal conglomerate followed by the arenitic sandstoneof the Lower Cambrian Kloftelv Fm. The hiatus separating theNeoproterozoic from the Palaeozoic strata is proposed to havelasted for about 35 Ma (see Sønderholm et al. 2008 for furtherdiscussion).

Chemostratigraphy

Early studies of carbonate and organic carbon geochemistry werecarried out by Knoll et al. (1986). Samples from Bedgroup 7through 20 (Eleonore Bay Supergroup) as well as from the

Canyon and Spiral Creek formations (Tillite Group) revealed nega-tive d13Corg values between –20 and –35‰PDB. The d13Ccarb

values were predominantly positive throughout the Eleonore BaySupergroup with a sharp decrease to negative values (–4 to–9‰PBD) in the uppermost Bedgroup 19/20 and negativevalues (c. 0 to –5‰PDB) in the Canyon and Spiral Creek for-mations. Both geochemical data sets followed very similar profilessuggesting a primary signature and an unusual secular variation inthe Neoproterozoic carbon cycle (Knoll et al. 1986).

Total carbon (TC), total organic carbon (TOC) and total sulphur(TS) have been recorded through an interval ranging from theupper part of the Andree Land Group and up to and includingthe top of Tillite Group; the results will be presented elsewhere.Stable C-isotopes from the upper part of the Andree Land Grouphave also been analysed and will be presented elsewhere (seeHalverson et al. 2005; Sønderholm et al. 2008 for further details).

Other characteristics

Organic constructed organisms (acritarchs) in the successionrepresent the plankton of the Andree Land–Tillite Group basin.The microflora assemblage is of low diversity and consists ofboth small and large smooth leosperoid types associated withonly few acanthomorphs (Vidal 1976, 1979, 1985). The biostrati-graphic value of the acritarch assemblage is at present limited, butin general the microflora from Andree Land Group is assigned tothe Cryogenian (Vidal 1976, 1979; Green et al. 1987, 1988,1989). Other microfossils reported from the succession are vase-shaped protists (Green et al. 1988), similar to those reported inother Neoproterozoic successions (Porter & Knoll 2000; Porteret al. 2003).

Palaeolatitude and palaeogeography

Palaeogeographical reconstructions of East and North-East Green-land have long been tied to the palaeogeographical evolution of theNeoproterozoic succession in northeastern Svalbard based ondetailed lithostratigraphic similarity between these two basins(Harland & Gayer 1972; Fairchild & Hambrey 1995; Halversonet al. 2004; Sønderholm et al. 2008; Halverson 2011).

The Hekla Hoek succession in northeastern Spitsbergen issimilar to the Eleonore Bay Supergroup of northeastern Greenlandand shows development from siliciclastic to carbonate depositionfollowed by glaciogenic deposits. This similarity is also strength-ened by comparable and substantial thicknesses of the lithologicalunits in the two regions (Harland & Geyer 1972; Hambrey 1989;Fairchild & Hambrey 1995; Harland 1997).

The chemostratigraphy shows similarities (Knoll et al. 1986)suggesting close affinities between the two areas. Halversonet al. (2005) identified the distinctive pre-Marinoan negatived13C anomaly or the ‘Trezona anomaly’ beneath the lowest dia-mictite in northeastern Svalbard. The same anomaly has beenrecognized from within the upper unit of the Eleonore Bay Super-group in East and North-East Greenland (Sønderholm 2008; Kris-tiansen unpublished data), which also provides a strong argumentfor the similarity of the two regions. Palynology studies in bothEast and North-East Greenland and Svalbard (Vidal 1985; Greenet al. 1989; Swett & Knoll 1989) also indicate close relationshipsbetween the two areas and as a whole the two regions are con-sidered to be deposited within the same basin or series of ensialicbasins, with East and North-East Greenland located near easternSvalbard (Sønderholm et al. 2008).

Recent and ongoing palaeomagnetic studies have shown thatEast and North-East Greenland was situated at equatorial latitudesat about 38S during the Cryogenian, with palaeomagnetic datafrom 23 sites (105 specimens) towards the top of the EleonoreBay Supergroup yielding a mean palaeomagnetic inclination

S. STOUGE ET AL.588

of 58 (k ¼ 12; a95 ¼ 98) (Mac Niocaill et al. 2004, 2008; Kilner2005). These data are constrained by a positive fold test (Caledo-nian folding) and a positive conglomerate test on clasts in theoverlying lower Tillite. At that time the carbonate sedimentarysuccession of the Andree Land Group was deposited in a platformsetting on a ramp. The region formed the eastern part of the north-eastern margin of the Rodinia palaeocontinent. A change in thelatitudinal position began at the base of Bedgroup 19 as the conti-nental margin region started to move southwards. During depo-sition of the Storeelv Fm., the area was situated at c. 668southern latitude, with sparse palaeomagnetic data from six sites(nine specimens) in the Tillite Group yielding a mean palaeomag-netic inclination of 788 (k ¼ 10; a95 ¼ 228) (Mac Niocaill et al.2004, 2008; Kilner 2005), although this awaits confirmation withfurther analyses in progress. The movement towards higher,southern latitudes is associated with the shift from stable carbonateaccumulation of Andree Land Group to the siliciclastic depositionof Bedgroup 19 and the start of foundering of the platform. Thepresence of Bedgroup 20 signifies that carbonate accumulation –for a short while – returned to the region, but finally ceased inthe late Cryogenian.

Geochronological constraints

Radiometric ages have not been obtained from the Andree Landand Tillite groups. A Cryogenian age is confirmed based on thebiostratigraphic record (see previous section).

Discussion

Depositional setting

The stratigraphy of the upper Andree Land Group has been con-sidered to conform to a normal superposition succession, whereBedgroup 20 overlies Bedgroup 19. However, Eha (1953) pro-posed that the carbonate sediments of Bedgroup 19 (¼ base ofUnit B of this chapter) represented the lateral equivalents of Bed-group 20. In this review, the upper part of Bedgroup 19, that is, thesediments of Unit B and Bedgroup 20 (¼ AL7), are consideredcoeval (Fig. 56.3), as this interpretation is supported by the sedi-mentology, intragroup stratigraphy and the overall stratigraphicalsuccession developed during recent fieldwork. Unit B is con-sidered the fine-grained and deep-water equivalent of Bedgroup20, dominated by parted to ribbon limestone, debris-flow deposits,lime-breccias containing intrabasinal clasts and distal turbiditicshale at the basin margin and organic-rich shale in the basin.

Bedgroup 19 (Eha 1953; Frankl 1953; Haller 1971) of the upper-most Andree Land Group significantly provides the first record offine-grained to very fine-grained siliciclastic sediment and chertrhythmites (i.e. Unit A), which followed disconformably abovethe shallow-water stromatolite-bearing limestone and slightlydeeper-water carbonate rocks. Limestone (Bedgroup 20) andshale and ‘lime-breccias’ (i.e. Bedgroup 19, Unit B) underlie thefirst diamictite unit (i.e. Ulvesø Fm.) of the Tillite Group. This suc-cession is interpreted as recording deepening within the basin andfoundering of a carbonate platform that had developed on a stablecraton and had been in existence for a long period of time (i.e.during deposition of the underlying Ymer Ø Group and most ofthe Andree Land Group). In addition, the rapid facies changefrom carbonate accumulation to siliciclastic deposition showsthat rift-related subsidence was initiated in the Cryogenian, creat-ing north–south elongated basins with isolated and carbonate-capped platforms and deep-water troughs. Bedgroup 20 carbonatesprobably developed a low-relief bank profile with mobile pisoliteshoals at the margin, and shallow sub-tidal carbonate and peritidaldeposits in the interior. The final carbonate deposition in the region(i.e. before the occurrence of diamictite and represented by

Bedgroup 20) was due to a marked regression and perhaps alsodue to a change in palaeo-climate.

The diamictites of the Tillite Group have long been consideredglaciogenic deposits (Kulling 1929; Poulsen 1930 and subsequentauthors). Hambrey & Spencer (1987) and Moncrieff & Hambrey(1988, 1990) provided detailed models for glacial depositionalenvironments. Halverson et al. (2004, 2005) placed the TilliteGroup deposits within the scope of ‘Snowball Earth’.

The Ulvesø and Storeelv formations are indeed dominated bydiamictite, with megabreccias and sculptured clasts alternatingwith minor quantities of shale, sandstone and conglomerate. A ter-restrial origin can most probably be applied to the lowermost andmiddle parts of the Storeelv Fm.; the facies successions here indi-cate a highly diverse depositional system. Glaciers grounded onthe shelf or in fjords delivered till and glacio-fluvial deposits inter-bedded with flow diamictites and lacustrine and aeolian facies.Other parts of the Storeelv and most of the Ulvesø Fm. weremost probably deposited below the grounding line in sub-aqueousenvironments. Consequently, the Tillite Group contains a limitedamount of tillite, and although most components in the successionoriginated from glacial debris, most diamictites finally settled inmarine settings, especially those of the Ulvesø Fm. A marineorigin is supported by the occurrence of algal life forms throughoutthe Tillite Group, except where sediments show signs of oxidation(Stouge & Piasecki unpublished data). The diamictite units wereprincipally deposited from suspensions of glacial debris releasedbeneath floating ice shelves and by ice-rafting in a glaciomarineenvironment. These deposits suffered slumping and reworkingby sediment gravity flows in a near shelf break environment.Only parts of the Storeelv Fm. indicate that glaciers occasionallyreached grounding line or more rarely that terrestrial ice sheetsdeposited tillite and glaciofluvial deposits. It is not clear howmuch conglomerate and sandstone that originated in on-shorefluvial and aeolian environments was actually reworked to even-tually settle in submarine canyons and in current- and wave-dominated shallow water.

Sequence stratigraphy

The upper part of the Andree Land Group and the Tillite Grouprepresent three depositional sequences that mostly accumulatedas deeper- to deep-water sediments in oceanic settings (Fig. 56.2;Sønderholm et al. 2008). The oldest sequence is represented byBedgroups 19 and 20. The lower sequence boundary is an erosionalor a dissolution surface. Siliciclastic silt, shale and chert weredeposited in the transgressive system tract during the progradationof the coastline outside the study area. The maximum floodingsurface can be traced across the whole basin, and the followinghighstand deposition created the regressive platform of Bedgroup20 and the distal deposits of Unit B. The regressive top ofBedgroup 20 is composed of shallow-water silt and sandstonedeposited in tidal flat environment and aeolian sandstones.

The second sequence comprises the Ulvesø and Arena for-mations (Fairchild & Hambrey 1995: Sønderholm et al. 2008),which are developed exclusively in clastic facies. The thirdsequence comprises the transgressive Storeelv Fm. – includingthe thin carbonate unit – and the Canyon Fm., which becomesregressive upwards, permitting shallow-water carbonates toaccumulate. The overlying Spiral Creek Fm. represents the ulti-mate part of the highstand, and the regressive top of the TilliteGroup accumulated in shoreface and semi-arid, evaporitic lagoo-nal environments (Fairchild & Herrington 1989).

Timing of glaciation

Possibly two widespread or even global glaciations took placeduring the late Neoproterozoic (Hambrey & Harland 1995; Knoll

NEOPROTEROZOIC NE GREENLAND 589

2000; Hoffman & Schrag 2002). It is, however, uncertain if the twodiamictite units in East and North-East Greenland represent one ortwo separate glaciations and in what respect they correlate withother Neoproterozoic phases of glaciations (e.g. Kennedy et al.1988; Kaufman et al. 1997; Brasier & Shields 2000; Hoffmann& Schrag 2002; Robb et al. 2004).

Halverson et al. (2004, 2005) suggested that the two diamictiteunits on Svalbard represent one glaciation. This idea is based onthe d13C-isotope curve (Knoll et al. 1986; Halverson et al. 2004,2005) and the presence of a distinctive d13C anomaly (¼‘Trezonaanomaly’) found beneath the lowest tillite unit in Svalbard. Inaddition, the presence of the thin carbonate unit, which shouldbe equal to a ‘cap dolomite’ (Fairchild & Hambrey 1995), istypical of the late Cryogenian glaciation. The diamictite units inSvalbard were therefore related genetically to the late Cryogenianglaciation (Marinoan) by Halverson et al. (2004, 2005).

Based on their stratigraphic similarity (mentioned previously),the two diamictite units in East and North-East Greenland mayalso contain tillite deposits of the Marinoan (late Cryogenian) gla-ciation. The trend of the d13C-isotope curve (Knoll et al. 1986;Kristiansen et al. unpublished data) from the upper part of theAndree land Group carbonates, combined with the presence of apossible cap dolomite above the Storeelv Formation in the northernpart of the basin, suggests that the two diamictite units in East andNorth-East Greenland could be related to one glaciation.

A problem with this interpretation arises, however, becauseany trace of an older Cryogenian glaciation often found in otherNeoproterozoic successions is apparently missing in the Greenlandsuccession. Although no diamictite-bearing units occur below theUlvesø Fm., the extensive disconformity developed at the bound-ary between Bedgroup 18 and Bedgroup 19 may be the response toa global or eustatic lowering of sea level causing subaerialexposure and subsequent dissolution of the shallow marine seabed in the region. The subsequent deepening (see ‘Sequence stra-tigraphy’ section) could thus be a result of the rapid melting of theice sheet producing fine- to very fine-grained sedimentation.

Palaeogeographical setting

The transition from the upper Andree Land Group to Bedgroup 19and further to the Tillite Group has also been interpreted as depo-sition in an early rift basin related to the splitting of Rodinia andbefore the opening phase of the Iapetus Ocean (Fig. 56.2; Herring-ton & Fairchild 1989; Stouge et al. 2001; Eyles & Januszczak2004; Nystuen et al. 2008; Sønderholm et al. 2008). Accordingto the interpretation of Eyles & Januszczak (2004), the upperpart of the Andree Land Group and the main part of the TilliteGroup accumulated during active rifting, and deep-water sedi-ments accumulated in oceanic settings bordered by glaciated con-tinents. Upwards, the uppermost part of the Andree Land Groupand the top of the Tillite Group became shallower and the regres-sive top of the Andree Land Group is marked by a prominentdissolution surface, which is overlain by marine sandstone.

The palaeomagnetic signal supports rifting and the developmentof an extension-related basin and the rapid drift of the region fromlow to higher southern latitudes (Mac Niocaill et al. 2004, 2008). ACryogenian age for the onset of rifting as potentially recorded inthe East and North-East Greenland succession is earlier than thatinitially proposed for the region by previous authors (i.e. duringthe Ediacaran; e.g. Soper 1994; Higgins & Leslie 2000). Anadditional and more significant problem with the rift-basinmodel is that no evidence or structures such as rift-related doleritedykes or volcanic or pyroclastic deposits have been observed in theregion, which might suggest a rifting stage (Soper 1994; Higgins &Leslie 2008; Sønderholm et al. 2008). One explanation couldbe that the eastern Laurentian margin in East and North-EastGreenland was, in fact, located in a cratonward position relativeto the rift zone.

The authors thank the reviewers M. J. Hambrey and A. H. Knoll for their valuable

comments and suggestions, from which the manuscript greatly benefited. Field-

work in Greenland was funded both by the Carlsberg Foundation and the

Danish Research Council. The Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland

(GEUS) gave permission to reproduce elements in Figure 56.1. This represents

a contribution of the IUGS- and UNESCO-funded IGCP (International

Geoscience Programme) Project #512.

References

Bengaard, H.-J. 1991. Upper Proterozoic (Eleonore Bay Supergroup) toDevonian central fjord zone, East Greenland, geological map, 1:250000. Copenhagen, Geological Survey of Greenland.

Brasier, M. D. & Shields, G. 2000. Neoproterozoic chemostratigraphyand correlation of the Port Askaig glaciation, Dalradian Supergroupof Scotland. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 157,909–914.

Cowie, J. W. & Adams, P. J. 1957. The geology of the Cambro-Ordovician rocks of central Greenland. Part 1: Stratigraphy and struc-ture. Meddelelser om Grønland, 153, 193.

Eha, S. 1953. The pre-Devonian sediments on Ymers Ø, Suess Land,and Ella Ø (East Greenland) and their tectonics. Meddelelser omGrønland, 111, 105.

Eyles, N. & Januszczak, N. 2004. ‘Zipper-rift’: a tectonic model forNeoproterozoic glaciations. Earth Science Reviews, 65, 1–73.

Fairchild, I. J. & Herrington, P. M. 1989. A tempestite-stromatolite-evaporite association (Late Vendian, East Greenland): a shoreface-lagoon model. Precambrian Research, 43, 101–127.

Fairchild, I. J. & Hambrey, M. J. 1995. Vendian basin evolution inEast Greenland and NE Svalbard. Precambrian Research, 73,217–223.

Frankl, E. 1953. Geologische Untersuchungen in Ost-Andrees Land(NE-Grønland). Meddelelser om Grønland, 113, 160.

Frederiksen, K. S. 2000. Evolution of a Late Proterozoic carbonate rampYmer Ø and Andree Land Groups, Eleonore Bay Supergroup, EastGreenland: response to relative sea-level rise. Polarforschung, 68,125–130.

Frederiksen, K. S., Craig, L. E. & Skipper, C. B 1999. New observationsof the stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Upper ProterozoicAndree Land Group, East Greenland: supporting evidence for adrowned carbonate ramp. Danmarks og Grønlands GeologiskeUndersøgelse Rapport, 1999/19, 145–158.

Gee, D. G., Fossen, H., Henriksen, N. & Higgins, A. K. 2008.From the Early Paleozoic platforms of Baltica and Laurentiato the Caldonide Orogen of Scandinavia and Greenland. Episodes,31, 1–8.

Green, J. W., Knoll, A. H., Golubic, S. & Swett, K. 1987. Paleobio-logy of distinctive benthic microfossils from the Upper Proterozoiclimestone-dolomite ‘Series’, central East Greenland. AmericanJournal of Botany, 74, 928–940.

Green, J. W., Knoll, A. H. & Swett, K. 1988. Microfossils from oolitesand pisolites of the Upper Proterozoic Eleonore Bay Group, centralEast Greenland. Journal of Paleontology, 62, 835–852.

Green, J. W., Knoll, A. H. & Swett, K. 1989. Microfossils from silici-fied stromatolitic carbonates of the Upper Proterozoic Limestone-Dolomite ‘Series’, central East Greenland. Geological Magazine,126, 567–585.

Haller, J. 1953. Geologie und Petrographie von West-Andrees Landund Ost-Frænkels Land (NE-Gronland). Meddelelser om Grønland,113, 196.

Haller, J. 1971. Geology of the East Greenland Caledonides. Inter-science Publishers, New York.

Halverson, G. P. 2011. Glacial sediments and associated strata of thePolarisbreen Group, northeastern Svalbard. In: Arnaud, E.,Halverson, G. P. & Shields-Zhou, G. (eds) The GeologicalRecord of Neoproterozoic Glaciations. Geological Society, London,Memoirs, 36, 571–580.

Halverson, G. P., Hoffman, P. F., Schrag, D. P., Maloof, A. C. &Rice, A. H. N. 2005. Toward a Neoproterozoic composite carbon-isotope record. Geological Society of America, Bulletin, 117,1181–1207.

S. STOUGE ET AL.590

Halverson, G. P., Maloof, A. C. & Hoffman, P. F. 2004. The Marinoanglaciation (Neoproterozoic) in northeast Svalbard. Basin Research,16, 297–324.

Hambrey, M. J. 1983. Correlation of late Proterozoic tillites in theNorth Atlantic region and Europe. Geological Magazine, 120,290–320.

Hambrey, M. J. 1989. The Late Proterozoic sedimentary record of EastGreenland: its place in understanding the evolution of the CaledonideOrogen. In: Gayer, R. A. (ed.) The Caledonide Geology of Scandina-via. Graham & Trotman, London, 352, 257–262.

Hambrey, M. J. & Spencer, A. M. 1987. Late Precambrian glaciationof central East Greenland: Meddelelser om Grønland, Geoscience,19, 50.

Hambrey, M. J. & Harland, W. B. 1995. The Late Proterozoic glacialera. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 51,255–272.

Hambrey, M. J., Peel, J. S. & Smith, M. P. 1989. Upper Proterozoic andLower Palaeozoic in northern East Greenland. Rapport GrønlandsGeologiske Undersøgelse, 145, 103–108.

Harland, W. B. 1997. The Geology of Svalbard. Geological Society ofLondon, Memoirs, 17, 521.

Harland, W. B. & Gayer, R. A. 1972. The Arctic Caledonides andearlier oceans. Geological Magazine, 109, 289–314.

Henriksen, N. 1999. Conclusion of the 1 : 500000 mapping project in theCaledonian fold belt in North-East Greenland. Geology of GreenlandSurvey Bulletin 183, 10–22.

Henriksen, N. 2003. Caledonian orogen East Greenland 708–828N, litho-tectonic map 1: 1 000000. Geological Survey of Denmark and Green-land, Copenhagen.

Henriksen, N. & Higgins, A. K. 1976. East Greenland Caledonian foldbelt. In: Escher, A. & Watt, W. S. (eds) Geology of Greenland.Geological Survey of Greenland, Copenhagen, 182–246.

Henriksen, N. & Higgins, A. K. 2008. Geological research andmapping in the Caledonian orogen in East Greenland, 708N–828N.1–28. In: Higgins, A. K., Gilotti, J. & Smith, P. M. (eds) TheGreenland Caledonides: Evolution of the Northeast Margin of Laur-entia. Memoir Geological Society of America, 202, 368.

Herrington, P. M. & Fairchild, I. J. 1989. Carbonate shelf and slopefacies evolution prior to Vendian glaciation, central East Greenland.In: Gayer, R. A. (ed.) The Caledonide Geology of Scandinavia.Graham & Trotman, London, 263–273.

Higgins, A. K. 1981. The Late Precambrian Tillite Group of the KongOscars Fjord and Kejser Franz Josefs Fjord region of East Greenland.In: Hambrey, M. J. & Harland, W. B. (eds) Earth’s Pre-PleistoceneGlacial Record. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 778–781.

Higgins, A. K. & Leslie, A. G. 2000. Restoring thrusting in the EastGreenland Caledonides. Geology, 28, 1019–1022.

Higgins, A. K. & Leslie, A. G. 2008. Architecture and evolution of theEast Greenland Caledonides – an introduction. In: Higgins, A. K.,Gilotti, J. A. & Smith, M. P. (eds) The Greenland Caledonides:Evolution of the Northeast Margin of Laurentia. Geological Societyof America, Memoir, 202, 369, 29–53.

Higgins, A. K, Leslie, A. G. & Smith, M. P. 2001. Neoproterozoic –Lower Palaeozoic stratigraphical relationships in the marginalthin-skinned thrust belt of the East Greenland Caledonides: compari-sons with the foreland of Scotland. Geological Magazine, 138,143–160.

Higgins, A. K., Elvevold, S. et al. 2004. The foreland-propagatingthrust sheet architecture of the East Greenland Caledonides 728–758N. Journal of the Geological Society (London), 161, 1009–1026.

Higgins, A. K., Gilotti, J. A. & Smith, M. P. (eds) 2008. The GreenlandCaledonides: Evolution of the Northeast Margin of Laurentia. Geo-logical Society of America, Memoir, 202, 369.

Hoffman, P. F. & Schrag, D. P. 2002. The snowball Earth hypothesis:testing the limits of global change. Terra Nova, 14, 129–155.

Kalsbeek, F., Thrane, K., Nutman, A. P. & Jepsen, H. F. 2000. LateMesoproterozoic to early Neoproterozoic history of the East Green-land Caledonides: evidence for Grenvillian orogenesis? Journal ofthe Geological Society (London), 157, 1215–1225.

Kalsbeek, F., Jepsen, H. F. & Jones, K. A. 2001. Geochemistry andpetrogenesis of S-type granites in the East Greenland Caledonides.Lithos, 57, 91–109, doi: 10.1016/S0024–4937(01)00038-X.

Kalsbeek, F., Higgins, A. K. & Jepsen, H. F. 2008. Granites and granitesin the East Greenland Caledonides. 227–249. In: Higgins, A. K.,Gilotti, J. A. & Smith, M. P. (eds) The Greenland Caledonides:Evolution of the Northeast Margin of Laurentia. Memoir, GeologicalSociety of America, 202, 369.

Katz, H. R. 1952. Zur Geologie von Strindbergs Land (NE-Gronland).Meddelelser om Grønland, 111, 150.

Katz, H. R. 1954. Einige Benmerkungen zur Lithologie und Stratigraphieder Tillitprofile in Gebiet des Kejser Franz Josephs Fjord, Ostgron-land. Meddelelser om Grønland, 72, 63.

Katz, H. R. 1961. Late Precambrian to Cambrian stratigraphy in EastGreenland. In: Raasch, G. O. (ed.) Geology of the Arctic. Vol. 1.University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 299–328.

Kaufman, A. J., Knoll, A. H. & Narbonne, G. M. 1997. Isotopes, iceages, and terminal Proterozoic earth history. Proceedings of theNational Academy of Science, 94, 6600–6605.

Kennedy, M. J., Runnegar, B., Prave, A. R., Hoffman, K. H. &Arthur, M. 1998. Two or four Neoproterozoic glaciations?Geology, 26, 1059–1063.

Kilner, B. R. 2005. Low latitude Neoproterozoic glaciation: palaeomag-netic investigations of the Precambrian sequences of Oman and EastGreenland. Unpublished D.Phil thesis, University of Oxford.

Knoll, A. H. 2000. Learning to tell Neoproterozoic time. PrecambrianResearch, 100, 3–20.

Knoll, A. H., Hayes, J. M., Kaufman, A. J., Swett, K. & Lambert, I. B.1986. Secular variation in carbon isotope ratios from Upper Proterozoicsuccessions of Svalbard and East Greenland. Nature, 321, 832–838.

Koch, L. 1929. The geology of East Greenland. Meddelelser om Grøn-land, 73, II(I), 204.

Koch, L. 1930. Die technische Entwicklung Gronlands. GeologischeRundschau, 21, 345–347.

Koch, J. & Haller, J. 1971. Geological map of East Greenland 72–76N. Lat. (1 : 250.000). Meddelelser om Grønland, 183, 26, 13 maps.

Kulling, O. 1929. Stratigraphic studies of the geology of North-eastGreenland. Meddelelser om Grønland, 74, 317–346.

Mac NioCaill, C., Stouge, S., Harper, D. A. T., Christiansen, J.,Kilner, B., Johnson, A. & Watts, C. 2004. Preliminary paleomag-netic results from the late Neoproterozoic of eastern Greenland: Alow-latitude Sturtian glaciation? EOS Transactions of the AmericanGeophysical Union, 85, 165.

Mac Niocaill, C., Kilner, B., Stouge, S., Knudsen, M. F., Harper,D. A. T. & Christiansen, J. L. 2008. The Neoproterozoic drifthistory of Laurentia: a critical evaluation and new palaeomagneticdata from Northern and Eastern Greenland. EOS Transactions ofthe American Geophysical Union, 89, S514–05.

Manby, G. M. & Hambrey, M. J. 1989. The structural setting of the LateProterozoic tillites of East Greenland. In: Gayer, R. A. (ed.) TheCaledonide Geology of Scandinavia. Graham & Trotman, London,352, 299–312.

Moncrieff, A. C. M. 1989. The Tillite Group and related rocks of EastGreenland: implications for Late Proterozoic palaeogeography. In:Gayer, R. A. (ed.) The Caledonian Geology of Scandinavia.Graham and Trotman, London, 352, 285–297.

Moncrieff, A. C. M. & Hambrey, M. J. 1988. Late Precambrianglacially-related grooved and striated surfaces in the Tillite Groupof Central East Greenland. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology, 65, 183–200.

Moncrieff, A. C. M. & Hambrey, M. J. 1990. Marginal-marine glacialsedimentation in the late Precambrian succession of East Greenland.In: Dowdeswell, J. A. & Scourse, J. D. (eds) Glacimarine Environ-ments: Processes and Sediments. Geological Society, London,Special Publication, 53, 397–410.

Nystuen, J. P., Andresen, A., Kumpulainen, R. A. & Siedlecka, A.2008. Neoproterozoic basin evolution in Fennoscandia, East Green-land, and Svalbard. Episodes, 31, 35–43.

Phillips, W. E. A, Stillman, C. J., Friderichsen, J. D. & Jemelin, L.1973. Preliminary results of mapping in the western gneiss andschist zone around Vestfjord and inner Gasefjord, south-west Scor-esby Sund. Rapport Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse, 58, 17–32.

Porter, S. M. & Knoll, A. H. 2000. Testate amoebae in the Neoproter-ozoic era: evidence from vase-shaped microfossils in the ChuarGroup, Grand Canyon. Paleobiology, 26, 360–385.

NEOPROTEROZOIC NE GREENLAND 591

Porter, S. M., Meisterfeld, R. & Knoll, A. H. 2003. Vase-shapedmicrofossils from the Neoproterozoic Chuar Group, Grand Canyon:a classification guided by modern testate amoebae. Journal ofPaleontology, 77, 409–429.

Poulsen, C. 1930. Contributions to the stratigraphy of the Cambro–Ordo-vician of East Greenland. Meddelelser om Grønland, 74, 297–316.

Robb, L. J., Knoll, A. H., Plumb, K. A., Shields, G. A., Strauss, H. &Veizer, J. 2004. The Precambrian: the Archaean and Proterozoiceons. In: Gradstein, F. M., Ogg, J. G. & Smith, A. G. (eds) A Geo-logic Time Scale 2004. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,129–140.

Schaub, H. P. 1950. On the pre-Cambrian sedimentation in NE-Greenland. Meddelelser om Grønland, 114, 50.

Schaub, H. P. 1955. Tectonics and morphology of Kap Oswald(NE-Greenland). Meddelelser om Grønland, 103, 1–33.

Smith, M. P. & Robertson, S. 1999. Vendian – Lower Palaeozoic strati-graphy of the parautochthon in the Malebjerg and Eleonore Søwindows, East Greenland Caledonides. Danmarks og GrønlandsGeologiske Undersøgelse Rapport, 1999/19, 169–182.

Smith, M. P., Rasmussen, J. A., Robertson, S., Higgins, A. K & Leslie,A. G. 2004. Lower Palaeozoic stratigraphy of the East GreenlandCaledonides. Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Bulletin,6, 5–28.

Sommer, M. 1957. Geologie von Lyells Land (NE-Gronland). Meddelel-ser om Grønland, 155, 157.

Soper, N. J. 1994. Neoproterozoic sedimentation on the NE margin ofLaurentia and the opening of Iapetus. Geological Magazine, 131,291–299.

Stouge, S., Boyce, W. D., Christiansen, J. L., Harper, D. A. T. &Knight, I. 2001. Vendian – Lower Ordovician stratigraphy of EllaØ, North-East Greenland: new investigations. Geology of GreenlandSurvey Bulletin, 189, 107–114.

Stouge, S., Boyce, W. D., Christiansen, J. L., Harper, D. A. T. &Knight, I. 2002. Lower–Middle Ordovician stratigraphy of North-East Greenland. Geology of Greenland Survey Bulletin, 191,117–125.

Sønderholm, M. & Tirsgaard, H. 1993. Lithostratigraphic frameworkof the Upper Proterozoic Eleonore Bay Supergroup of East and

North-East Greenland. Bulletin Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse,167, 38

Sønderholm, M., Frederiksen, K. S., Smith, M. P. & Tirsgaard, H.2008. Neoproterozoic sedimentary basins with glacigenic depositsof the East Greenland Caledonides. In: Higgins, A. K., Gilotti, J.A. & Smith, M. P. (eds) The Greenland Caledonides: Evolution ofthe Northeast Margin of Laurentia. Memoir, Geological Society ofAmerica, 202, 99–136.

Swett, K. & Knoll, A. H. 1989. Marine pisolites from Upper Proterozoiccarbonates of East Greenland and Spitsbergen. Sedimentology, 36,75–93.

Teichert, C. 1933. Untersuchungen zum Bau des kaledonischen Gebirgesin Ostgronland. Meddelelser om Grønland, 95, 121.

Tirsgaard, H. 1993. The architecture of Precambrian high energy tidalchannels: an example from the Lyell Land Group (Eleonore BaySupergroup), East Greenland. Sedimentary Geology, 88, 137–152.

Tirsgaard, H. 1996. Cyclic sedimentation of carbonate and siliciclasticdeposits on a late Precambrian ramp: the Elisabeth Bjerg Formation(Eleonore Bay Supergroup), East Greenland. Journal of SedimentaryResearch, 66B, 699–712.

Tirsgaard, H. & Sønderholm, M. 1997. Lithostratigraphy, sedimentaryevolution and sequence stratigraphy of the Upper Proterozoic LyellLand Group (Eleonore Bay Supergroup) of East and North-EastGreenland. Geology of Greenland Survey Bulletin, 178, 60.

Vidal, G. 1976. Late Precambrian acritarchs from the Eleonore BayGroup and Tillite Group in East Greenland. Grønlands GeologiskeUndersøgelse Rapport, 78, 19.

Vidal, G. 1979. Acritarchs from the Upper Proterozoic and LowerCambrian of East Greenland. Grønlands Geologiske UndersøgelseRapport, 134, 40.

Vidal, G. 1985. Biostratigraphic correlation of the Upper Proterozoic andLower Cambrian of the Fennoscandian Shield and the Caledonides ofEast Greenland and Svalbard. In: Gee, D. G. & Sturt, B. A. (eds)The Caledonide Orogen – Scandinavia and Related Areas. JohnWiley and Sons Ltd., London, 331–338.

Wenk, E. 1961. On the crystalline basement and the basal part of the pre-Cambrian Eleonore Bay Group in the southwestern part of ScoresbySund. Meddelelser om Grønland, 168, 54.

S. STOUGE ET AL.592