動動動動動動動動動動動動動

動動動動動動動動動動動

動動動

運運運運

動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 ,動 ,動動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 動 ,動 ,動

• 動動動動 v.s. 動動動動動動一– Student v.s. patient– Active learning v.s. passive facilitation

– Learning v.s. performance

Motor learning• A set of processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent changes in the capability for movement (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)

Types of motor learning• Non-associative

– Habituation

– Sensitization

• Associative

– Classical conditioning

– Operant conditioning

Habituation: gill withdrawal reflex

(Squire & Kandel, 1999)

Long Term Habituation

(Squire & Kandel, 1999)

Long Term Habituation

(Squire & Kandel, 1999)

1300

840

Types of motor learning• Non-associative

– Habituation

– Sensitization

• Associative

– Classical conditioning

– Operant conditioning

Aristotle (350 B.C.): learning involves an association of ideas

Pavlov at Russian Military Medical Academy (Squire & Kandel, 1999)

Operant chamber

Thorndike• S-R theory, 1935• Law of readiness, mental set

• Law of exercise: pairing and motivating

• Law of effect: reinforcer or punishment

• Specificity theory of learning

Types of learning• Declarative

– memory– Knowledge– Knowing that– Knowledge of facts and events

– Memory with record

– Explicit recognition

– Conscious level– verbalizable

• Nondeclarative (procedural)– Habit– Knowing how– Knowledge of skills

– Implicit recognition

– Memory without record

– Eg. Priming, classical conditioning

Story of H.M. (Scoville & Milner, 1957)

動動動動

動動

動動動

動動

動

動

動動動動

動動動動

Measurement of learning

Retention/transfer test

(Stelmach, 1969)

Performance vs learning

動動動動（ Motor Learning)

• A set of processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent changes in the capability for responding

•performance ≠ learning

動動動動動動動• 動動動

– practice schedule– feedback schedule– individual ability

• 動動動 /possible 動動– arousal– motivation-goal setting– attention– anxious

Arousal and throwing proficiency

(Weinberg & Ragan, 1978)

Arousal level

Motivation and goal setting (Boyce, 1992)

1 wk post

5 days in 3 wks

Attention affects performance• Stroop effect

•運 運 運 運 運

• Cocktail party phenomenon• Von Restorff effect

動動動動動Level of

Attention

Cognitive Associative AutonomousStages of Learning

Performance

Dual Task Design 動動動動動動－Tasks: Driving ＋ digit detection

Mean Percent Correct

Digit task only

Residential driving

Crowded driving

90.6

83.879.5

Attention and balance

(Shumway-Cook et al., 1997)

Attention deficit (Cratty, 1971)

Pre-treatment

Post-treatment

Anxious

動動動動動動動• 動動動

– practice schedule– feedback schedule– individual ability

• 動動動 /possible 動動– arousal– motivation-goal setting– attention– anxious

動動（ Ability)• Used interchangeably with capability, aptitude

• a hypothetical construct that underlies performance in a number of tasks or activities

• is relatively stable• genetically determined or developed through growth and maturation, NOT easily modifiable by practice or experience

• abilities as limiting factors

動動（ Ability) 動• General motor ability• Henry’s Specificity Hypothesis, 1950s

– motor abilities are specific to a particular task

– transfer among tasks should be low• Factor-Analytic Studies

– instrument comprehension– reaction time– rate of movement– mechanical principles– visual pursuit– kinesthetic coordination

(translated from Fleishman & Hempel, 1956)

Ability and motivation

動動動動動動動• 動動動

– practice schedule– feedback schedule– individual ability

• 動動動 /possible 動動– arousal– motivation-goal setting– attention– anxious

動動動動動動動動• Task specificity( 動動動動動 )動動 動動動動動動動動動動動動動動動動一 !

BUT 動動 (practice)≠ 動動 (drill)

Nonrepetitious repetition ( 動動動動動動動動 )

動動動動動

• Massed or Distributed• Variability or Constant

• Random or Blocked• Mental Practice• Part-Whole Transfer

動動 v.s. 動動• Massed or Distributed

– Fatigue– Graw, 1968, Bachman ladder, stabilometry tests

Bachman ladder climbing task

Stability task

動動 v.s. 動動• Variability or Constant

– McCracken & Stelmach, 1977

– Schema theory

Linear position task

Schema theory 動動動動

• Schema: a rule, concept, or relationship formed on the basis of experience

動動 v.s. 動動• Random or Blocked– Shea & Morgan, 1979

Block vs RandomPractice

Block Practice Random Practice

Double transfer design

Random Practice Superiority• level of processing hypothesis- Battig; Shea and Morgan, 1979

• forgetting hypothesis- Cuddy and Jacoby, 1982– When forgetting helps memory

• Schema theory

動動動動 (mental practice)

(Rawlings et al., 1972)

動動動動動動• 動動動• 動動動動動動動

動動 (Transfer)• The attainment (or loss) of proficiency in one task as a result of practice or experience at some other task.

Interaction among Components

highlowAmount of Transfer

less

more

動動動動動動動• Whole Part Whole Principle• Progressive parts• Backward chaining

Gearshift analogy

動動動動動動動• 動動動

– practice schedule– feedback schedule– individual ability

• 動動動 /possible 動動– arousal– motivation-goal setting– attention– anxious

動動動動動動動• 動動動動• 動動動動

– 動動動動– 動動– 動動動– 動動動動動– KR and KP– Manual guidance

Knowledge of Results (KR)

• 動動動動動• Verbalized (or verbalizable) post-response information about the outcome of the response in the environment

Knowledge of Performance (KP)

• 動動動動動• Verbalized (or verbalizable) post-response information about the nature of the movement pattern

Content of feedback

(Kernodle & Carlton, 1992)

動動動動動動動• 動動動動動 3-8 動動動動• 動動動動動動動動動動動 動動動動、

(Swinnen et al., 1990)

Feedback Schedule

• Relative frequency- the percentage of trials on which feedback is given; – Bandwidth– average – faded– summary

Bandwidth feedback 動動動動

Average feedback 動動動動

(Liden et al., 1993)

Faded feedback 動動動動

(Young & Schmidt, 1992)

Summary feedback 動動動動

Summary Feedback• Lavery, 1962; pin-ball task– ↓relative frequency↑learning

• mechanism?– ↓dependency– ↑stability– ↑self cognitive phase

optimal summary length

• Schmidt et al. 1987, complex coordination task

• simple task, lower feedback frequency

• complex task, higher frequency

動動動動動動• 動動動動動 -Fitts, Posner• 動動動動 - Schmidt• 動動動動動 - Adams• 動動動動動 - Newell

Summary and Clinical Implications

• 3-stages of motor learning• Schema formation• performance≠learning

– Be careful as to your documentation

• allow post-feedback delay• ↓relative feedback frequency

• practice schedule

Practice- 動動• Massed or Distributed• Variability or Constant• Random or Blocked• Mental Practice- cognitive learning is important

• Part-Whole Transfer– task specific training– Backward chaining

Learning Treatment Strategy

Learning ability

Learning environmentPoor Good

Performance training Motor learningpredictable environment changing environmenttask component functional task sequencefrequent feedback/cue faded feedbackblocked practice random practice

References• Schmidt RA and Lee TD. Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis, 3nd ed. Illinois: Human Kinetics, 1999.

• Shumway-Cook A, Woollacott MH. Motor Control: Theory and Practical Applications, 2nd ed. Baltimore :Williams and Wilkins, 2001.

• 動動動 動動動動動動動動動動 動動。。 : 動動， 2001。

Thank You