modernism in scandinavian architecture

Nur Syaza Azrudin 343316 ABPL 30050 – MoMo to PoMo Toby Horrocks – Tuesday 5:15pm

Essay Topic 17: Modern architecture in Scandinavia was based on traditions that were quite

particular to the region and quite different to the driving forces of modernism in France, the

Netherlands and Germany. Discuss the impact and character of Nordic Classicism (sometimes

also called romantic classicism) in the work of Erik Gunnar Asplund and at least one other

Scandinavian architect, citing specific examples to support your discussion.

Politics, technologies, wars, and economies were all elements of the 20th century world

that affected every aspect of life during this time. Architecture during this time was largely shaped

by these drivers more than any other time of world history. 1 Across the globe, architects started

to obtain an International Style that consisted of similar elements despite different countries and

regions due to the collision of politics between countries.2 Expressionist group emerged in

Germany as a result of this phenomenon. Works of architecture in this group were mainly about

the true expression of the building as a built form. 2 Meanwhile, the Netherland’s de Stihl was

emerging in this part of the world. Also around the same period, Le Corbusier was the main driver

in France. 3 All of these architects somehow produced works that are almost similar in forms and

characters. The responds towards the economies, technologies, and politics were all about being

economically beneficial, simple, expression of technologies, and drifting away from the previous

19th century architectural styles. Buildings were all acting as an expression of the world condition

on the time which were economic, functional, and technologically expressed. This resulted in

extensive use of steel and glass which led to the International Style of being light in weight,

colour, and transparency.4 However, this paper is not to discuss these similarities of buildings in

1 Copplestone, 1991: Trewin Copplestone, ‘Outline Survey of Twentieth-Century Architecture’, in Twentieth

Century World Architecture, London: Brian Trodd Publishing House Limited, 1991, pp. 12-14. 2 Copplestone, 1991: Trewin Copplestone, ‘Outline Survey of Twentieth-Century Architecture’, in Twentieth

Century World Architecture, London: Brian Trodd Publishing House Limited, 1991, p. 17. 3 Copplestone, 1991: Trewin Copplestone, ‘Outline Survey of Twentieth-Century Architecture’, in Twentieth

Century World Architecture, London: Brian Trodd Publishing House Limited, 1991, pp. 17-20. 4 Copplestone, 1991: Trewin Copplestone, ‘Outline Survey of Twentieth-Century Architecture’, in Twentieth

Century World Architecture, London: Brian Trodd Publishing House Limited, 1991, pp. 12-28.


those regions but to investigate a more interesting modernism impact in the architecture of a

particular region yet different than other countries. The Scandinavian countries possessed

somehow different forms and characters of buildings during the early 20th century. After that,

functional modernism was introduced to this region in 1925 5 but they are believed to be

influenced by Nordic Classicism which blossomed in this region from 1910 to 1930. How is

modern architecture in the Scandinavia different and why? Do these differences allow us to say

that Scandinavia was not as modern as other regions? In order to investigate this thoroughly,

works of Scandinavian architects should be examined such as those of Erik Gunnar Asplund’s

which was considered as a modernist and also a Nordic classicist at the same time (Ford) and

works of Asplund’s close counterpart, Alvar Aalto.6 There are quite a number of comparisons can

be made between these two architects - similarities and also differences that altogether have

different outcome of modernism than other regions that is believed to be caused by Nordic

Classicism influence.

In order to understand the impact of Nordic Classicism on Scandinavian modern buildings,

it is vital to understand the origin of the term itself. How did the term came about and what

caused it to emerged in the first place? Primarily, the theory of Nordic Classicism as a reference to

Nordic buildings was first triggered by Heinrich Wolfflin in his book '‘Italien und das deutsche

Formgefuhl’ which was published in 1931. The theory and term was then further used and

developed by Sigfried Giedion.7 The term was referred to the classical elements of buildings in

the Northern part of the world that are somehow quite different from other European classical

architectural elements. According to most history writers including Norberg-Schulz and Quantrill,

5 Norberg-Schulz, 1996: Christian Norberg-Schulz, ‘The International’, in Nightlands: Nordic Buildings,

London: The MIT Press, 1996, p. 150. 6 Ford, 2003: Edward R. Ford, ‘The Conversion of Erik Gunnar Asplund’, in The Details of Modern

Architecture (vol. 2), London: The MIT Press, 2003, pp. 51-61. 7 Norberg-Schulz, 1996: Christian Norberg-Schulz, ‘Preface’, in Nightlands: Nordic Buildings, London: The

MIT Press, 1996, p. vii.


geographical factor was the main reason that had caused the emergence of Nordic Classicism. 8

This includes climate which was a large factor in shaping the buildings. According to Norberg-

Schulz in his book entitled Nightlands, “architecture acts as an outcome or reflection of an

environment.”8 Due to the geographical location of the Scandinavian countries, climate is

considered as cold with limited sunlight throughout the year.8 The spaces of the land in these

countries are also more scattered than grouped like those of French or German which led to

houses being built in the same manner and hidden in their own spaces within the vast land.8

Hence, it can be said that environmental factors were the main driving forces in this region.

Whereas in French and Germany, political forces play the most important role, Scandinavians

could not get away from ignoring environmental influences. Nordic classicism however should

not be confused with classicism from the previous century. It is a shift from traditional classicism

in a way that it incorporated differences in materials, expression and composition of classical

elements and articulation of mass.9 For instance, the most obvious shift was in materials. Nordic

Classicism shifted from using traditional material which was wood to stone but it stayed as an

expression of classical elements such as Doric columns rather than structural expression. It can be

said that Nordic Classicism was a movement both vernacular and classical at the same time.9

Environmental and geographical factors were constraining architectural style to change totally

and abruptly. Hence, during 1910 to 1930 where de Stihl was already bringing forward

architectural characters of mechanistic and rationalist in Netherland, Bauhas in Germany was

moving along with functional modernism in Weimar, and Le Corbusier had introduced light

building elements in his Five Points of a New Architecture, Scandinavians on the other hand was

8 Norberg-Schulz, 1996: Christian Norberg-Schulz, ‘The Nordic’, in Nightlands: Nordic Buildings, London: The

MIT Press, 1996, pp. 1-22. 9 Ford, 2003: Edward R. Ford, ‘The Conversion of Erik Gunnar Asplund’, in The Details of Modern

Architecture (vol. 2), London: The MIT Press, 2003, p. 51.


trying to work out modernism movement to be appropriate for the regional climate.10 This

phenomenon did not only occur during this period, impact of Nordic Classicism continued to be

seen in post-war modern buildings of Asplund’s and Aalto’s. Material choices, functional

expression, and transparency in their buildings are the main elements that show influences of

Nordic Classicism.

Material choices can be said as the basic important character in architecture because

other characters of the buildings that are to be achieved, must work with the nature of the

materials. Steel and glass were quite an obsession in the International Style across the globe.

However, given the fact that Scandinavians consisted of vernacular architecture as much as

international modern movement, the use of stone and solid massive materials were incorporated

in buildings because Finland, Sweden, and Norway consisted of a solid granite basis .11 One of the

buildings that were built based on Nordic Classicism material is Stockholm Public Library by Erik

Gunnar Asplund. It was built in 1920 to 1928.12 Stone was used as the main material in this

building and the elements of mass and weight were still being used which considered the building

to not be a true functional modern building but more towards a Nordic Classic building (Figure

1).13 A rather different material approach in 20th century buildings of this region is Alvar Aalto’s

Seinajoki Defense Corp Building which was built in 1924 to 1929 (Figure 2).14 The building

consisted of a way more traditional material than the Stockholm Public Library, wood. Classical

10

Copplestone, 1991: Trewin Copplestone, ‘Outline Survey of Twentieth-Century Architecture’, in Twentieth

Century World Architecture, London: Brian Trodd Publishing House Limited, 1991, pp. 12-28. 11

Norberg-Schulz, 1996: Christian Norberg-Schulz, ‘Chapter 6: The National’, in Nightlands: Nordic

Buildings, London: The MIT Press, 1996, p. 136. 12


Buildings, London: The MIT Press, 1996, p. 142-143. 13

Figure 1: Norberg-Schulz, 1996: Christian Norberg-Schulz, ‘Chapter 6: The National’, in Nightlands: Nordic

Buildings, London: The MIT Press, 1996, p. 143. 14

Figure 2: Ford, 2003: Edward R. Ford, ‘The Conversion of Erik Gunnar Asplund’, in The Details of Modern



characters like portraying classical elements in the facade was strongly used in the building and

those elements were mainly wood. The Corinthian wooden pilasters served as a strong indicator

of Nordic Classicism but not in functional modernism as they did not carry any structural function

or meaning. However, 20th century Scandinavian buildings did not only linger around vernacular

architecture alone, functional modern movement also has its impact in this region later in time.

Asplund’s idea of mass started to shift as a result of following the International Style. The concept

of dematerialization from Nordic Classicism was pushed further. Bredenberg Department Store

was one of his works that portrays minimalism in mass. Compared to the Stockholm Public

Library, this building was more delicate in mass expression which can be seen in the strip glass

facade (Figure 3).15 However, what was interesting is that Nordic Classicism material can still be

seen. Due to climate as being mentioned before, materials in modern buildings maintained to be

of those solid and composite. Exposed structural frames, thin screenlike glass walls cannot be

achieved in this climate where problems were mainly heat loss, thermal expansion, and

weathering but Asplund successfully countered this issue in minimising materials through the use

of composite structure where concrete and steel acted together as one structure. Meanwhile,

Aalto’s works that were influenced by Nordic Classicism used different material, wood which is

the traditional material of the region. His work in Villa Marea shows extensive use of wood and he

flaunted it well enough to still have characters of modernism mainly through the expression of

wood columns (Figure 4). 16 The modern character of light and minimising mass can be seen

through the facade of the house which contained large window planes but the windows were

framed by wood and sit on a concrete wall, making it appropriate for climatic purposes. Use of

concrete in Nordic Classicism can also be seen in Aalto’s works. One of them is Saynatsalo Town

15


Architecture (vol. 2), London: The MIT Press, 2003, p. 58. 16

Figure 4: Lahti, 2009: Louna Lahti, ‘Villa Mairea’, in Alvar Aalto, Koln: Taschen, 2009, pp. 45, 47.


Hall where he had made himself clear about the importance of regional materials which shows

how the modern architecture of this region was so attached with Nordic Classicism.17

Function was one of the key characters of modern movement. Hence, the phrase ‘Form

follows function’ was used extensively during this time than any other period. Expressionists in

Germany based their ideas on this particular character while de Stihl movement in Netherland

was obsessed with rationality in functions.18 This resulted in buildings where steel frames were

flaunted in facade and interiors. However, the influence of Nordic Classicism in Scandinavian

countries had caused this expression to be quite different but not at all misled. Asplund showed

this character in the Bredenberg Department Store by placing columns on the plane of the

exterior wall.19 Steel frame that was usually expressed so obvious in other regions’ modern

buildings was not obvious in this building. Again, it was due to climatic reasons that steel frames

needed to be covered by concrete for insulation hence, Asplund decided to sculpture the

concrete of columns to suggest the profile of the steel inside.19 Therefore, it can be said that

columns - being one of the Nordic Classicism elements, were portrayed as an important building

element in Asplund’s works. Previously, columns were used only to express classicism which led

to Nordic Classicism to have this character of falsehood in building elements. 20 His design of

Woodland Chapel in Stockholm has columns that are incorrectly proportioned, have no

entablature and separated from the ceiling by wood blocks (Figure 5).21 After functional

17

Ford, 2003: Edward R. Ford, ‘Alvar Aalto and Marcel Breuer’, in The Details of Modern Architecture (vol.

2), London: The MIT Press, 2003, p. 147. 18



Ford, 2003: Edward R. Ford, ‘The Conversion of Erik Gunnar Asplund’, in The Details of Modern







modernism arrived in the region where structural expression was the key character of

modernism, Asplund continued to use columns as a way of preserving his original style of Nordic

Classicism only that they are structural and their functions were expressed as much as possible

this time. Even in the design of Bredenberg Department Store, the expressed structural columns

were still influenced by Nordic Classicism in terms of their forms. The columns are slightly

enlarged at the bottom to imply a Classical base.22 Asplund stressed out on columns even more as

he continued to be a modernist. The sculptured concrete technique to show steel structural

columns was refined in Gothernburg Law Courts Annex.23 Framing of the building consisted of a

composite steel and concrete U-shaped block that is a replication of the Classical form.23 The

importance of columns in Scandinavian architecture can also be seen in Aalto’s Finnish Pavilion

for 1937 World Exposition, where three types of columns were used; natural, vernacular, and

industrial.24 This was a start of Aalto’s trademark in using columns where he used lashed wooded

columns in the garden and fins design as column guards.25 However, Villa Marea was the most

obvious use of Aalto’s perception on columns. As been said before, the building was mainly an

expression of wood structural columns (Figure 6).26 The plan shows how the columns were

emphasized to be the main expression of the building instead of the whole steel frames. 27 Aalto

was said to be more of vernacular architect due to this approach. It can be said that his buildings

were less industrial compared to other modern buildings.

22





Ford, 2003: Edward R. Ford, ‘Alvar Aalto and Marcel Breuer, in The Details of Modern Architecture (vol. 2),

London: The MIT Press, 2003, p. 129. 25

Quantrill, 1995: Malcolm Quantrill, ‘Encounters with Functionalism: 1927-1939’, in Finnish Architecture

and the Modernist Tradition, London: E&FN Spon, 1995, p. 79. 26

Quantrill, 1995: Malcolm Quantrill, ‘Encounters with Functionalism: 1927-1939’, in Finnish Architecture

and the Modernist Tradition, London: E&FN Spon, 1995, p. 82. 27

Figure 6: Ford, 2003: Edward R. Ford, ‘Alvar Aalto and Marcel Breuer, in The Details of Modern



However, to be said that buildings with less industrial expression are less modern can be

an inaccurate judgement. Modern movement consisted of one other important character which is

the emphasis on light and transparency. Since Nordic Classicism has the character or solid mass

and enclosed grand facade of continuous wall surfaces, light and transparency can be said to be

the trickiest modernism character to be implemented by Scandinavian architects because that

particular Nordic Classicism character was driven by the condition of the regional environment.

Change of architectural style is possible anywhere but climatic condition is uncontrollable.

Transparency in the modern movement portrays the character of weightlessness, light and

floating in some way and all of that were achieved through extensive use of glass.28 However,

interesting approach on this character was taken by Aalto quite delicately. Aalto’s interest in

lightness and transparency was obvious in his works. Among other modern architectural

characters, lightness and transparency were opted the most by Aalto. However, his use of light

was still influenced by Nordic Classicism as much as the modern movement. He continued the

concept of dematerialization in Nordic Classicism by playing with expression of light through

perforated walls and screens instead of full glass curtain walls. This can be seen in Paimio

Tuberculosis Sanitorium (Figure 7).29 The use of louvers and perforated screens acted as the

concepts of minimal material and maximum transparency yet, not as transparent as modern

buildings in other parts of the world. In fact, concept of light for Aalto was not to achieve from

material choice but from the articulation of the building envelope as a series of layers.30 This gave

28



Figure 7: Ford, 2003: Edward R. Ford, ‘Alvar Aalto and Marcel Breuer, in The Details of Modern



London: The MIT Press, 2003, p. 129.


a functional rationale to lightness in buildings31 which interestingly, is a delicate way of

implementing both modern movement and regional tradition in design.

Given all of these impacts of Nordic Classicism in characters of Scandinavian buildings, it is

fair to say that modern movement had caused different outcome in forms. This is mainly due to

regional environments and tradition which is the Nordic Classicism. However, as we all know,

architecture is not mainly about forms. It is inaccurate to say that Scandinavian buildings were not

as modern as those from France, Germany, and Netherland by judging through their form. As

been explained thoroughly before, each key elements of modern architecture was delicately

integrated in Scandinavian modern buildings and these elements were slightly twisted to suit the

climatic condition. Preservation of Nordic Classicism was also done acceptably in this period by

only taking some elements of the classicism and served them in a modern expression such as the

drifting of falsehood to structural columns. In conclusion, architects of this northern region opted

the idea of modern movement down to its core instead of just taking machineries, technologies,

light, and transparency in a literal way. Being functional means that the building must also served

people suitably with the environments. Hence, Norberg-Schulz stated that “building tradition is a

meaningful term, for it renders the natural domestic by expressing human use of the given.”32

Therefore, Scandinavian modern buildings should not be called as less modern buildings, instead,

they should be proudly called the Scandinavian modern building where they carry along their

regional characters and traditions on an international basis.

(2455 words excluding footnotes)

31


London: The MIT Press, 2003, p. 121. 32


Buildings, London: The MIT Press, 1996, p. 51.


APPENDICES

Figure 1:

Stockholm Public Library by Erik Gunnar Asplund. Source: Norberg-Schulz, 1996: Christian Norberg-Schulz, ‘Chapter 6: The National’, in Nightlands: Nordic Buildings, London: The MIT Press, 1996, p. 143.

Figure 2:

Alvar Aalto’s Seinajoki Defense Corp Building. Source: Ford, 2003: Edward R. Ford, ‘The Conversion of Erik Gunnar Asplund’, in The Details of Modern Architecture (vol. 2), London: The MIT Press, 2003, p. 52.


Figure 3:

Bredenberg Department Store. Source: Ford, 2003: Edward R. Ford, ‘The Conversion of Erik Gunnar Asplund’, in The Details of Modern Architecture (vol. 2), London: The MIT Press, 2003, p. 58.

Figure 4:

Villa Mairea by Alvar Aalto. Source: Lahti, 2009: Louna Lahti, ‘Villa Mairea’, in Alvar Aalto, Koln: Taschen, 2009, pp. 45, 47.

Figure 5:

Woodland Chapel by Erik Gunnar Asplund. Source: Ford, 2003: Edward R. Ford, ‘The Conversion of Erik Gunnar Asplund’, in The Details of Modern Architecture (vol. 2), London: The MIT Press, 2003, p. 53.


Figure 6:

Structural plan of Villa Mairea by Alvar Aalto. Source: Ford, 2003: Edward R. Ford, ‘Alvar Aalto and Marcel Breuer, in The Details of Modern Architecture (vol. 2), London: The MIT Press, 2003, p. 134.

Figure 7:

Paimio Tuberculosis Sanitorium. Source: , 2003: Edward R. Ford, ‘Alvar Aalto and Marcel Breuer, in The Details of Modern Architecture (vol. 2), London: The MIT Press, 2003, p. 120.


BIBBLIOGRAPHY

Norberg-Schulz, 1996: Christian Norberg-Schulz, Nightlands: Nordic Buildings, London:

The MIT Press.

Ford, 2003: Edward R. Ford, in The Details of Modern Architecture (vol. 2), London: The

MIT Press, 2003.

Copplestone, 1991: Trewin Copplestone, ‘Outline Survey of Twentieth-Century

Architecture’, in Twentieth Century World Architecture, London: Brian Trodd Publishing

House Limited, 1991.

Quantrill, 1995: Malcolm Quantrill, Finnish Architecture and the Modernist Tradition,

London: E&FN Spon.

Lahti, 2009: Louna Lahti, Alvar Aalto, Koln: Taschen, 2009.

modernism in scandinavian architecture

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