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INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE, TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION OF
KIBUNGO (INATEK)
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND HUMANITIES
OPTION: FRENCH – ENGLISH
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Education in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of Bachelor’s
Degree with Honor in French-English with Education
By Jackson MUHANANO
SUPERVISOR: Mr. Emmanuel MULIGO
Kibungo, October 2014
THE LITERARY ANALYSIS ON THEMES IN THE RIVER
BETWEEN BY NGUGI WA THIONG’O AND THEIR SOCIAL
IMPACT TOWARDS RWANDAN SOCIETY
DECLARATION
I, Jackson MUHANANO, hereby declare that the work presented in this dissertation is a result of
my own research and has never been presented elsewhere for academic qualification. For any
reference in terms of books, websites both are indicated in bibliography.
Signature…………………………………
Date………………………………..
i
APPROVAL
I, Emmanuel MULIGO, hereby approve that this research entitled “The Literary Analysis on
Themes in The River Between by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o and their Social Impact towards
Rwandan Society “was carried out by Jackson MUHANANO and it has never been submitted in
any other University or institution of higher learning for academic qualification.
Signature: …………………………..
Date: ……………………………………..
ii
DEDICATION
To The Almighty God
My Parents
My Uncle and Cousin
My Brothers and Sisters
Mr. Emmanuel MULIGO
All my friends and colleagues
I dedicate this work.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am so grateful to my parents, uncle, cousin as well as other relatives whose toil and sacrifice
made it possible to complete my studies of Bachelor’s Degree in French-English with Education
My sincere thanks go to Mr. Emmanuel MULIGO for his excellent guidance, suggestions and
supervision toward this work.
I am also indebted to all my friends at the INATEK for their financial and moral support.
I would like to thank the authorities of the INATEK for providing me with all the necessities to
make this study be successful.
My schoolmates at E.S KABIRIZI also deserve special thanks, not only for their encouragement
in general and academic advice in particular but also for their very important technical help in
compiling this work.
I wish to extend my gratitude to all of those who directly or indirectly helped me to fulfill this
tiresome work and may Almighty God bless you all.
iv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
E.S: École Secondaire
INATEK: Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Education of Kibungo
Mr.: Mister
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION................................................................................................................................................ I
DEDICATION.................................................................................................................................................. III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................................................. IV
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS............................................................................................V
TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................................................. VI
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................................... X
RÉSUMÉ.......................................................................................................................................................... XI
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................1
1.1. Introduction.....................................................................................................................1
1.2. Background of the Study....................................................................................................1
1.3. Problem Statement..............................................................................................................2
1.4. Research objectives.............................................................................................................3
1.5. Research Questions.............................................................................................................4
1.6. Research Hypotheses..........................................................................................................4
1.7. The Significance of the Study.............................................................................................4
1.8. Delimitation of the Study....................................................................................................5
1.9. Research Methodology.......................................................................................................5
1.10. Organization of the study.................................................................................................6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW....................................................................................................7
2.1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................7
2.2. Definitions of the Key Concepts.........................................................................................7
2.2.1. Theme..........................................................................................................................................7
2.2.2. Literary.......................................................................................................................................8
2.2.3. Analysis.......................................................................................................................................8
2.2.4. Literary analysis.........................................................................................................................9
2.2.5. Social...........................................................................................................................................9
2.2.6. Social Impact..............................................................................................................................9vi
2.3. Biography.............................................................................................................................9
2.4. Novel presentation.............................................................................................................10
2.4.1. The title.....................................................................................................................................11
2.4.2. Origin of the story (novel).......................................................................................................11
2.4.3. Summary of the story..............................................................................................................12
2.5. The identification of a theme in a story...........................................................................14
2.6. Themes in ‘The River Between’........................................................................................15
2.6.1. Girlhood....................................................................................................................................15
2.6.2. Colonization..............................................................................................................................16
2.6.3. Religion.....................................................................................................................................16
2.6.4. Tolerance..................................................................................................................................16
2.6.5. Division......................................................................................................................................17
CHAPTER THREE: LINGUISTIC STUDY OF THE NOVEL......................................................................18
3.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................18
3.2. Narrator and his function.................................................................................................18
3.3. Characters and their characterizations..........................................................................18
3.3.1. Main characters.......................................................................................................................18
3.3.2. Minor Characters.....................................................................................................................23
3.4. Literary Techniques..........................................................................................................26
3.4.1. Symbolism.................................................................................................................................26
3.4.2. Prophecies.................................................................................................................................27
3.4.3. Irony..........................................................................................................................................28
3.4.4. Biblical Allusion.......................................................................................................................28
3.4.5. Similes.......................................................................................................................................29
3.4.6. Metaphors.................................................................................................................................30
3.4.7. Flashback..................................................................................................................................30
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3.4.8. Idiom.........................................................................................................................................30
3.4.9. Onomatopoeia..........................................................................................................................31
3.4.10. Personification........................................................................................................................31
3.4.11. Satire.......................................................................................................................................32
3.4.12. Story Telling...........................................................................................................................32
3.4.13. Description..............................................................................................................................33
3.4.14. Foreshadow.............................................................................................................................33
3.4.15. Rhetorical Questions..............................................................................................................34
3.4.16. Parallelism..............................................................................................................................34
3.4.17. Oxymoron...............................................................................................................................34
3.4.18. Repetition................................................................................................................................35
3.5. Analysis of Themes of the Work......................................................................................35
3.5.1. Circumcision.............................................................................................................................36
3.5.2. Fighting for the Leadership of the Community....................................................................37
3.5.3. Unity and Reconciliation.........................................................................................................40
3.5.4. Education..................................................................................................................................41
3.5.5. Patience.....................................................................................................................................42
3.5.6. Obedience..................................................................................................................................43
3.5.7. Bravery......................................................................................................................................43
3.5.8. Heredity....................................................................................................................................44
3.5.9. Culture preservation................................................................................................................45
3.5.10. Fighting for Independence and Freedom............................................................................47
3.5.11. Extremism against Moderation............................................................................................48
3.5.12. Jealousy...................................................................................................................................49
3.5.13. Betrayal...................................................................................................................................50
3.5.14. Love.........................................................................................................................................51
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3.5.15. The Complexity of a Human Being......................................................................................52
3.6. Summary............................................................................................................................53
CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...............................................................54
4.1. Conclusion..........................................................................................................................54
4.2. Recommendations.............................................................................................................56
4.2.1. Recommendation to Students and Parents............................................................................56
4.2.2. Recommendation to Teachers.................................................................................................57
4.2.3. Recommendation to Further Researchers.............................................................................57
BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................................................ 58
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ABSTRACT
This work was focused much more on reading and writing activities than any other activity that
can actually be done in a research. It targeted to finding out the themes that one finds in Ngugi
Wa Thiong’o’s The River Between when going through it. Secondly, literary analysis about
themes was made so as to know clearly the message that the writer wanted to convey to the
society. Lastly but not least, the examination of the social impact on Rwandan society was made
in order to know how realistic it is to Rwanda.
To achieve the above objectives, different techniques strongly assisted me. Documentation
helped me to get much information that I wanted. Then after, I used analysis and comparative
study to get the crucial message and its social impact to Rwandan society. Before starting my
work I had some tentative answers. I made them because pointing out themes in any literary
work of such a strong writer seems difficult. Their analysis and relationship with the society also
complicate reader due to different literary techniques used in the novel.
After reading The River Between by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o, I came up with the message and its
relevance and verisimilitude to the Rwandan society. Among the themes I noticed education,
jealousy, fighting for leadership and so on. The analysis and comparative study showed that they
highly influence Rwandan society. Dealing with a literary work is very exhausting. For this
reason I suggest readers should provide themselves with basic knowledge about literature and
literary works. Much concentration and critical thinking should be in advance for their activity to
be effective.
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RÉSUMÉ
Ce travail s’est basé surtout sur la lecture et rédaction plus que d’autres activités souvent
menées tout au long de la recherche ordinaire. L’objectif primordial était d’identifier les thèmes
se trouvant dans le roman The River Between by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o. En effet, l’analyse
littéraire a été menée afin de montrer convenablement le message de l’auteur envers la société.
Enfin, l’étude de l’impact social des thèmes sur la communauté Rwandaise a été faite.
Différentes techniques m’ont extrêmement servi pour atteindre les dits objectifs. La
documentation m’a aidé à trouver beaucoup d’informations voulues comme les thèmes dans le
roman. Ensuite, pour capter le message et son impact sur la société Rwandaise, j’ai procédé à
l’analyse et étude comparative. Avant de démarrer mon travail, j’avais eu quelques hypothèses.
Je les ai établies parce qu’il est difficile d’identifier les thèmes de l’œuvre littéraire d’un écrivain
si fort comme Ngugi Wa Thiong’o. L’analyse et relation sociale aussi deviennent une barrière
aux lecteurs quitte aux différentes techniques littéraires rencontrées dans le roman.
Après la lecture de The River Between by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o, j’ai remarqué beaucoup
de messages et ses importances sur la société rwandaise. Parmi les thèmes trouvés il y a
éducation, jalousie le combat pour le pouvoir et les autres. L’analyse et étude comparative
menées ont prouvé que les thèmes influencent tellement la société rwandaise.
Pour terminer, je dirais que travailler sur l’œuvre littéraire est fatigant. Ça demande de se
sacrifier. Je conseillerais les lecteurs d’accumuler bien avant les connaissances théoriques et
pratiques suffisantes dans la littérature. Une forte concentration et esprit de critique devraient
être à un bon niveau pour atteindre l’objectif.
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CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction
This first chapter of my work is like the skeleton or head of everything that one finds throughout
it. It includes the plan of all activities that should be carried out and the way they ought to be
done for the work to be relevant and significant. It guides me in whatever I do and I pay much
attention to it for fear of being beyond the target. In this chapter, you can understand well why I
am interested in working on this novel in the way indicated in the topic. It also explains how
important the work is on the community especially elite people. It is in this chapter that my
objectives, guiding questions and hypotheses are clearly cited.
The General introduction shows well how I tackle on the topic, the organization of the work as
well as my limitation when dealing with it. I beg a reader of my work to first of all understand it
for effective exploration.
1.2. Background of the Study
Like other literary works, The River Between by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o (2007) obviously conveys
the message to the society.
According to Ngugi Wa Thiong’o (2007: iii), ‘though finished in December 1961, it was not
published until 1965.’ during the colonization period. The missionaries had already come in
Africa. Kenya, the writer’s motherland, is also concerned. Therefore throughout this story, the
reader can see the changes in Kenyans’ daily life due to the settlement of white people who are
imposing their culture and leadership.
There begin the conflicts between two ridges, Makuyu and Kameno, who have been united for a
long time. These two ridges are separated by the river Honia which means “cure”. The above
parts become antagonist. The quarrels among the people exist, some for either the tradition or
modernism. For instance Waiyaki, who has been sent by his father to Siriana to study the white
people’s knowledge but not their vices, becomes an enemy of Joshua who has totally converted
to Christianity. This makes Joshua hate whoever remains traditionalist, to the extent that he is not
hurt by Muthoni’s death, when she does not heal after circumcision. Her sister wants to be a
tribal girl through it though she is Christian,
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Joshua is a strict Christian and he is strongly against circumcision and drinking. He and his wife
are circumcised before they become Christians, but he repents hard for having been circumcised
for it is a sin in his faith; "In fact Joshua believed circumcision to be sinful that he devoted
prayer to asking God to forgive him for marrying a woman who had been circumcised". (p.31)
Circumcision is the main factor that separates the villages. The followers of Joshua are strongly
against it.
Any literary work should reflect on the daily economic, political and social life of the community
even though it is imaginary. So the analysis of themes and their impact on the society is very
helpful to readers so as to understand what a society is according to the writer and what it should
be.
Ngugi Wa Thiong’o, as a strong writer, uses so different literary techniques that the reader needs
much concentration, enough literary and reading skills in particular in order to clearly identify
the central message. There are a lot of linguistic symbols that represent the surface meaning, so a
lot of words and phrases need be dealt with in their social, time and place context in order to
discover the deep meaning.
For the above reasons, my focus is on the deep meaning so that I can identify the right themes of
the story. In order to achieve my objective, literary techniques, characters and characterization
are deeply studied. After the identification of themes, I analyze them and their social impact on
the Rwandan community.
1.3. Problem Statement
When one is reading through The River Between by Ngugi wa Thiong’o, he or she gets the brief
and unclear content of what the story is about. Some focused themes are not easily identified due
to literary techniques that the author has used.
Additionally, the readers claim to lack the connection between the message and the society. I
wonder whether the complexity resides in literary techniques and other literary elements used in
order to get the deep meaning. However, a number of readers claim to fail getting the intention
and purpose of the writer throughout the story. This results in automatically losing the interests
to keep on reading literary works even though they are full of inestimable lessons.
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Another issue that the reader encounters is the social impact of the content on the people’s daily
activities and interaction. The level of the verisimilitude of the story is also problematic because
some cultural aspects found in the novel do not exist in some communities. For example, Kenya
would circumcise even the female person, which does not exist in a lot of countries including
Rwanda.
It seems also difficult, especially for young generations, to understanding the role of some
characters like Chege in the society because many old people who preserve the culture are not
found in some communities. This becomes a big challenge for readers when they are dealing
with characters and the way the author has presented them.
Once again, it is proved that the lack of interests and little understanding are caused by limited
knowledge about the physical, social and historical settings of where the story was written about.
In this respect, it is doubtful that since some readers are neither historians nor geographers, they
can find it difficult to get well what the novel is all about.
After noticing all of these readers’ hindrances, I am committed to point out themes, a literary
analysis on them in The River Between by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o and their social impact on
Rwandan community. In the last I try to have a look at different moral lessons that one should
come up with after reading it.
This study should particularly be beneficial to Rwandan learners, teachers, educated people and
Rwandese in general. The literary analysis of the novel is in connection with Rwandan
community in order to show how important the novel is to people of various ages and
generations.
1.4. Research objectives
Throughout this analysis, the focus turns around on the following objectives:
To point out the themes that the author wanted to present in The River Between by Ngugi
Wa Thiong’o;
To deeply explain the meaning of the themes towards the society of the story;
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To explore the social impact that the themes from The River Between by Ngugi Wa
Thiong’o might have on the Rwandan community.
1.5. Research Questions
This study is guided by the following questions:
What are the themes that the writer presented in The River Between by Ngugi Wa
Thiong’o?
What do the themes mean in regard of the society of the story?
What social impact do the themes from The River Between by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o might
have on the Rwandan community?
1.6. Research Hypotheses
To conduct a fruitful research, the following tentative answers are listed down:
Among the themes that one might find in the novel, there might be conflicts among the
people after the arrival of missionaries, fighting for education, culture preservation and so
on;
For instance, Waiyaki might be fighting for education for all young people of his society
hoping that it will assist him to unite and reconcile the antagonist sides (Makuyu and
Kameno). More to that, formal education could be believed to help in the long run in
fighting against the white man;
The social impact of theme of education vis-à-vis the Rwandan community may be seen
by the way education has been adopted to fight against poverty, conflicts, ignorance, and
the like.
1.7. The Significance of the Study
This literary analysis is paramount to learners, teachers as well as other people who are interested
in reading. Since I have analyzed the discourse centers of the story, it is exemplary for them of
how to deal with any literary work when you are reading. For others who can read and analyze
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the same literary work and aspects or others, it is very helpful because they get the overview of
the story before beginning.
The analysis clearly shows the relationship between the message of the author and the society.
That is the social setting of where the story takes place. The story is taken into account so that
the reader of this analysis can easily understand the reflection of the novel towards the Kenyan,
Rwandan and other communities.
It is difficult conducting any literary study when you leave out some aspects. Therefore my
analysis tackles on literary techniques, styles, characters and characterization, physical, social
and historical settings so that I can thoroughly approach the problem. This also acquaints the
readers with competences that it is possible to conduct a study about a literary work.
1.8. Delimitation of the Study
Even though this analysis may seem to be about the whole novel, because of interconnection
among its aspects, the focus is on themes and their social impact. I fully look at the way the
author expresses his message to the reader so as to change the society. Apart from the
identification of themes, I am interested in knowing their relevance to the society. In order to
reach my target, I try to relate the story with the Rwandans’ daily life.
The focus is also on readers of the novel especially students and teachers who always deal with
similar literary work. The time when the author wrote the story is referred to, that is the
colonization period in Kenya. This period is taken into account in order to find out accurate
information of what pushed the author to publish the novel as well as the message he wanted to
spread.
1.9. Research Methodology
Dealing with any literary work is not an easy task; one needs enough time and materials in order
to be successful in reaching reliable results. In this regard, the researcher of this work based on
different research methodologies to come up with the effective findings. Documentation
certainly serve as a precious tool to find most of data in need since much of it is in the written
documents like The River Between by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o itself, as well as books about the
history of Kenya, documents about how to analyze literary works, and so forth.
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Other techniques that help to effectively achieve on results are analysis and interpretation of
information that concerns the impact of the themes from The River Between by Ngugi Wa
Thiong’o on community. Also, comparative study is useful in establishing the relationship
between the story setting and the Rwandan community.
1.10. Organization of the study
This research carries four different chapters. The first chapter is general introduction and it
encompasses introduction, the background information to the study, the statement of the
problem, research objectives, questions and hypotheses, the significance of the study, research
methodology, scope and organization of the study. The second chapter dealt with the review of
literature where some relative theories mentioned by the previous researchers were consulted and
reviewed. The third chapter is linguistic study which presents the interpretation of what the story
is about towards the society. The last chapter embodies general conclusion to the study and
suggests realistic recommendations.
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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Introduction
According to Mugenda & Mugenda (2003:29) “Literature review involves the systematic
identification, location and analysis of documents containing information related to the research
problem being investigated.” Similarly, Mutai (2000:32) said, “Literature review is
identification, reading, location, and critical analysis of many relevant materials that are related
to the problem under investigation.’‘
Therefore, this chapter includes discussion of existing literature about the literary analysis on
themes in The River Between by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o and their social impact which is the focus
of this study. It is in this regard that direct and indirect quotations, paraphrases, comments and
summary are viewed on different authors and writers who published the same ideas, thoughts,
beliefs and emotions to the topic of this study.
In the same point of view, this chapter is widely about the definitions of paramount concepts in
order to point out the same understanding on some issues. Obviously, the emphasis is on how to
analyze any discourse and understand it so as to get the writer or author’s message. I also carry
out a stress on themes and their social impact to the readers in getting the story from its original
setting.
2.2. Definitions of the Key Concepts
This part provides the reader with the maximum explanations of important terms used in the
topic that are treated in this work. It includes definitions and comments made to the concepts. It
is of great value because it helps understand precisely and concisely the work.
2.2.1. Theme
According Letterpart (2003:1827) ’a theme is the main subject or idea in a piece of writing,
speech, film etc.’ A theme, as one of literary elements, is a writer’s message to the society. It is
fundamental issues that a writer raises in any text.
According to www.novel-writing-help.com (Accessed on 17TH June, 2014) a theme is what a
novel means. A literary theme, on the other hand, is not concrete at all. It can usually be summed
up by a phrase like grief, unrequited love or blind faith, something intangible like that.7
According to Ginny Wiehardt (2007) through www.About.com (Accessed on 14th June, 2014)
‘’a theme is the central idea or ideas explored by a literary work.’’ On the same website, John
Gardner (2007) (Accessed on 14th June, 2014) puts it this way: "By theme here we mean not a
message but the general subject, as the theme of an evening of debates may be World Wide
Inflation." A work of literature may have more than one theme. Hamlet, for instance, deals with
the themes of death, revenge, and action, to name a few. King Lear's themes include justice,
reconciliation, madness, and betrayal.
According to Brooks (2011:23),’ a theme is the relevance of your story to life, to reality, as
affected in your fiction.’ Therefore a theme should match the daily life of the reader or people in
general. What affects the characters in the story must extremely be like what occur to people in
their every day cooperation.
2.2.2. Literary
Literary is an adjective formed from a noun literature and it means ‘connected with literature’.
According to Esther Lombardi (2013), literature is a term used to describe written or spoken
material. Broadly speaking, ‘literature’ is used to describe anything from creative writing to
more technical or scientific works, but the term is most commonly used to refer to works of the
creative imagination, including works of poetry, drama, fiction, and nonfiction.
2.2.3. Analysis
This is a noun formed from a verb to analyze. Therefore, American Heritage Dictionary of the
English Language (2009:48) states that ‘analyze’means to examine in detail in order to discover
the meaning, essential features, etc or to break down into components or essential features.’
According to Hugh Halman and William Harmony (1986:67) analysis is a method by which a
thing is separated into parts, and those parts are given rigorous, logical, detailed scrutiny,
resulting in a consistent and relatively complete account of the elements of the thing and
principles of their organization.
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2.2.4. Literary analysis
This refers to the critical examination of any creative writing with the purpose of bringing out the
essential elements or giving the essence. Therefore literary analysis means a process of studying
or examining a literary work in detail in order to understand it or explain it. Generally, literary
analysis is not merely a summary of a literary work. Instead, it is an argument about the work
that expresses a writer's personal perspective, interpretation, judgment, or critical evaluation of
the work.
It is an art or practice of breaking down, examining, judging and commenting on the qualities
and character of literary works. It aims at finding new understanding of work and thinking about
writer’s choices and their significance.
2.2.5. Social
This word is an adjective which is related with a noun society or its organization. According to
Alston Chase (1982) society must be understood as a combination of functional, cognitive, and
cultural systems. Functional systems include market, political, institutional, and familial
processes and deal with the production and consumption of goods, the provision of services, the
waging of war, and the administration of justice and education. Cognitive systems organize
values to guide choice among alternatives. A unique combination of functional, cognitive, and
cultural systems defines and distinguishes a society.
2.2.6. Social Impact
of the author According to the next online resource accessed on 24th June, 2014 -
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/social-impact.html#ixzz35SkBfBoL, social impact
can be defined as the net effect of an activity on a community and the well-being of individuals
and families.
2.3. Biography
According to Ngugi Wa Thiong’o (2007) Ngugi was born in 1939 at Limuru near Nairobi in
Kenya. He grows up at the time of the white occupation of Kenya and witnesses the Mau Mau
rebellion, which greatly contributes to the independence of Kenya.
9
He studies Literature at Makerere University in Uganda, and it is evident that his literary skills
are shaped by the environment in which he grows up. It should be remembered that central
Kenya which constitutes the famous Kenyan highlands, is the most affected by colonialism. This
vast area is inhabited by the populous Kikuyu tribe to which Kikuyu belongs. The white settlers
are attracted by the fertile Kenyan highland whose climatic conditions are quite similar to those
of Europe. They thus drive the natives into settlement camps where they are made squatters on
the land that belongs to their ancestors.
According to www.Amazon.com (Accessed on 27th June, 2014) it is therefore not surprising that
the Mau Mau uprising, and generally the struggle for independence, is led by Kikuyu figures
such as Jomo Kenyatta, Dedan Kimathi, among others. This is because the Kikuyu are the most
affected by colonization. Ngugi Wa Thiong’o first novels centre around the effects of
colonialism, while his latter novels focus forms on post-independence Kenya and its challenges.
In The River Between, Ngugi looks at Kenya’s first contact with the white man and how
Christianity comes to Kenya, while Weep Not, Child focuses on the colonial era and the struggle
for independence. A Grain of Wheat, Devils on the Cross and Petals of Blood, all focus on post-
independence Kenya and the disappointment of the people with the post-colonial leaders.
He has also written plays like, The Trial of Dedan Kimathi (co-authored), Matigari, and The
Black Hermit, all of which focus on post-independence Kenya and its challenges.
Ngugi’s works, especially those of post-independence Kenya, have earned him hostility from the
government. By the 1970s he has become critical of the government of Jomo Kenyatta, which he
accuses of letting Kenyans. In 1978, he is detained and while in prison, he writes Devil on the
Cross. Upon his release, he flees to exile where he has taught at universities in the United
Kingdom and United States. He only returns to Kenya in 2004, following the defeat of the
KANU government which has harassed him
2.4. Novel presentation.
According to Ngugi Wa Thiong’o (2007) Ngugi’s first written novel is originally called The
Black Messiah. It is written during 1961 for a novel writing competition organized by the East
African Literature Bureau. In Internews in 1994, he says The Black Messiah deals with a
situation in the thirties when there is a class between the Kikuyus and the missionaries and also 10
between the Kikuyus and the government. The result of that is we see the beginnings of political
movement in Kenya and also the beginning of Kikuyu Independent Schools. Ngugi is inspired by
West Indian, African and European writers. He is influenced by D.H. Lawrence with his way of
entering into the spirit of things.
2.4.1. The title.
According to www.Amazon.comThe title ‘The River Between’ is derived from the river Honia,
in the novel. This is the river that runs between the two rival ridges of Kameno and Makuyu.
When he first writes the novel, Ngugi chooses the title the Black Messiah. This is in reference to
Waiyaki who is portrayed as one who will save the ridges from the white man. Ngugi later
adopts the title ‘The River Between’ which is more universal. The title emphasizes the
importance of River Honia which is portrayed as ambivalent. It physically divides or separates
the two ridges as it runs in between. Yet again, it unites the ridges, for people and animals from
both ridges come to draw water from it. It is thus a meeting point for the people of the ridges.
2.4.2. Origin of the story (novel)
According to Ngugi Wa Thiong’o (2007), Ngugi’s The River Between focuses on the lost
heritage of Eastern Africans through the characters of Waiyaki and his tribe. Ngugi is the first
English-educated African writer to develop fiction portraying the Kikuyu view of the colonial
war, the Mau Mau Emergency or Rebellion, which is a violent uprising by the Kikuyu people
against British control. This event puts the region in a state of emergency from 1952 to 1960.
The novel focuses on the conflict between Christian missionaries and the indigenous tribes. It
also explores the long-lasting effects of colonialism and the consequences of struggling for
independence.
2.4.3. Summary of the story
The River Between tells the story about the separation of two villages of Kenya who were
neighbors but differences in faith and culture separate them. The bitterness between them causes
11
much hatred between the adults of each side. The story tells about the struggle of a young leader
to unite the two villages of Kameno and Makuyu through sacrifice and pain.
In the story a boy, Waiyaki, the son of Chege, is to be a great leader in the village of Kameno.
Chege sends Waiyaki to Siriana, where the white men stay, to gain knowledge of the white men
to help his village. Waiyaki dreams of the day where he will be born again to be a man; "All his
life Waiyaki has waited for this day, for this very opportunity to reveal his courage like a man"
(p.45). He is to be circumcised to be initiated to be a man and gain respect from everyone in his
village.
Circumcision of both the men and women is the way of all tribes that has not embraced
Christianity or the British educational system. To monotheistic followers it is a detestable
practice; they are strongly against the female circumcision or female genital mutilation
depending on how non-tribal, traditional followers view it.
In Kameno the inhabitants are followers of the traditional tribal belief of polytheism. In Kameno,
the inhabitants praise and respect all who go through the pain and get circumcised. The Kameno
people do not want to accept the new faith and they strongly resist the white men's way of life. In
Waiyaki's earlier years his father lectured him to work hard for the community and do all he can
to help keep the traditional way of life.
Unlike the traditional polytheistic followers of Kameno, the people of village of Makuyu are the
followers of Christianity. Their leader Joshua, embrace the religion of Christianity after the white
men settle in Kenya. In Siriana, there is the knowledge of white men; schools teaching the ways
of white men flourished and hospitals help the ill get better. Joshua is a strict Christian and he is
strongly against circumcision and drinking. Joshua and his wife are circumcised before they
become Christians, but Joshua repents hard for being circumcised for it is a sin in his faith; "In
fact Joshua believes circumcision to be so sinful that he devoted prayer to asking God to forgive
him for marrying a woman who had been circumcised" (p.31). Circumcision is the main factor
that separates the villages. The followers of Joshua are strongly against it.
Joshua's daughter, Muthoni, is an ambitious girl. She wants to be a woman in the tribal way even
though she is a Christian. Muthoni becomes against her father and goes to the circumcision
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rituals. When Muthoni comes to the ceremony it surprises Waiyaki, knowing that Muthoni is
Christian and she is of the new cult.
Muthoni gets circumcised; however, she does not heal well after the circumcision. She is taken
to the nearest missionary hospital and soon dies after. Rumors spread quickly saying that it is her
father's curse that causes her death because a girl dying from circumcision is rare. Muthoni's
death reaches her family. Muthoni's mother and sister, Nyambura, cry and strongly feel the pain
of losing a family member.
However, Muthoni's father disowns Muthoni for getting circumcised and refuses to feel anything
for his deceased daughter. Livingstone, the head missionary from Siriana, knows of the tribal
warfare from past missionaries so, he does not force Christianity to the villagers instead he wants
the faith to slowly blend in the land to avoid conflict with the natives. Livingstone trusts Joshua
greatly but it shocks him when he gets the word that it is Joshua's daughter that has died because
of circumcision. He is shocked that his own student's progeny goes through this forbidden
practice of Christianity.
Waiyaki grows to be a noble person after his father. He becomes the headmaster of a school he
establishes called Marioshoni. As time passes he establishes more schools in Kameno and
teaches the knowledge, the ‘magic’ of the white men. He strongly pushes everyone to understand
that only through education that his people can be stronger than before.
He also has strong and intimate relationship with Joshua's other beautiful daughter Nyambura.
Even though he loves her, Waiyaki cannot marry Nyambura due to their differences in faith and
that causes him a great deal of pain. Nyambura loves Waiyaki too, but she does not want to go
against her father like her sister does; ‘Can't you see we cannot marry? ... Father will not allow
it. I cannot disobey him.’ (p.107). Waiyaki struggles hard to unite the two ridges and go through
many convictions especially from his own sides because of his education from Siriana. Waiyaki
and Nyambura are tested when Waiyaki goes to Nyambura's father's house to save her.
Nyambura admits in front of everyone that she truly does love Waiyaki. After her daring
confession of her love for Waiyaki, Nyambura is told to leave the house by her father. Joshua
13
disowns her for betraying him, for loving a pagan. As they are out of the house Waiyaki tells
Nyambura to go back to her father's house, but she refuses and she stays with him.
In Kameno there is a big gathering; people wants to see if the rumors are true, they want to see if
Waiyaki has broken the oath, the oath to protect the purity and the traditions of the tribe.
Kabonyi, a person from Kameno, who is always jealous of Waiyaki's prominence, makes
Waiyaki stand trial before the Kameno people. Waiyaki and Nyambura's love is yet tested again
in front of a massive crowd. Waiyaki has so much respect from his people and there, in the
gathering, he admits his love for Joshua's daughter and this shocks everyone. It is depicted as if
Waiyaki broke the oath to keep the tribe pure from outsiders and their ideas. However, Waiyaki
generalizes that the oath never goes against loving someone.
The story depicts the struggle between the followers of the monotheist faith and the polytheist
faith. The pain and bitterness between these both people of the same origin causes more
separation day by day. The story shows that religion can cause great menacing feelings between
similar people of different faiths. The title of the story "The River Between" is well thought out
giving the theme of dividing two ways of life, the traditional, tribal way of life and the new
introduced, Christian way of life; both struggling against each other.
2.5. The identification of a theme in a story
According to Esther Lombardi (2013) ‘a theme is a central or underlying idea in literature. ‘The
writer may express insight about humanity or a world view. Before you attempt to identify the
theme of a work, you must have first read the work, and you should understand at least the basics
about the plot, characterizations, and other literary elements. Hereafter is how to identify the
theme of a work of literature:
According to http://www.ehow.com/how_2063746_identify-short-story-theme.html following
the plot of a short story is fine, but the discerning reader will be able to identify the theme of the
story. The theme is the message the writer uses in the story to convey to the reader about life in
general. Understanding the theme gives the reader an additional level of appreciation for a short
story. You can identify a short story theme by following a few easy steps.
14
First is to understand the main character. Analyzing the main character is an important part of
discovering the theme. List the physical and intangible attributes of the main character. Decide if
the reader is supposed to identify with the main character or if she is someone the reader doesn't
(or shouldn't) want to be.
Second is to identify the conflict. The conflict in a short story always involves the main
character. The conflict can be between the main character and another, society or some force of
nature, or within the main character himself. Figure out specifically who or what the main
character is struggling against in the short story.
Third is to know how the conflict is resolved. The resolution of the conflict can give the reader a
big clue as to the theme of a short story. Who wins the conflict is the writer's way of telling the
reader which force was better. If an evil main character, one wouldn't admire, wins out over
some force of nature, the theme will have a negative slant.
Also, the reader is expected to make a generalization. Look at the main character, her conflict
and how it was resolved to determine the theme of the story. Start by understanding what the
main character learned in the short story. Then, generalize that lesson to apply to everyone. If the
main character learned not to trust her friend who just won the lottery, the theme of the short
story may be that money changes people.
2.6. Themes in ‘The River Between’
These are some themes that have been talked about by different people. They are good examples
for me of how and what to do.
2.6.1. Girlhood
As Macharia Keguro (2012) said in his academic journal on literary criticism, the theme of
girlhood should be viewed in Muthoni, the Joshua’s eldest girl. She has for the first time
converted to Christianity as her father has but then after she left home without telling to any
family member towards her aunt who lives in Makuyu in order to be circumcised as other
traditionalist girls.
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2.6.2. Colonization
Another theme is colonization which must be tackled basing on the time when Europeans were
coming in Africa. The reader should consider where the story took place which is Kenya, in
Makuyu and Kameno where people had lived in harmony for a long time and became divided
into two antagonist parts.
2.6.3. Religion
David Maughan (1991) discussed the rehabilitation of religion. He put that in 1967 Ngugi wa
Thiong'o said that in writing ‘The River Between’ he was deeply Christian and concerned with
trying to remove the central Christian doctrine from the dress of Western culture, and seeing how
this might be grafted onto the central beliefs of people. Ngugi has repeatedly provided secular
explanations for his use of Biblical texts and imagery. But after Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s attitude
toward Christianity seemed less and less ambivalent.
2.6.4. Tolerance
According to Micocci (2004) Ngugi once again arrives at a viewpoint of tolerance in ‘The River
Between’ while denouncing corruption in society. He manages to do so without demonizing the
people on either side of any particular issue. He recognizes the strengths and weaknesses, the
convictions and the doubts with which most human beings are imbued. He doesn't automatically
blame all of his country's or his continent's problems on the "White Man", but rather he
recognizes that the corruption and venality that continue to plague his society are things which
are rooted in the universal human condition, not imports from Europe or the USA.
He manages to deal with a highly charged issue, as provocative and controversial now as it was
at the time he wrote this book, namely "female circumcision" or "female genital mutilation",
depending on one’s point of view. Almost uniquely, it seems, among Kenyan intellectuals he
questions the absolute necessity of the practice to the maintenance of traditional social structure
and values; but he does so while neither fervently condemning nor acclaiming it. As the critic
has come to expect from him, Ngugi finds a road between extreme and fanatical stands - or a
"river between", if you prefer; the protagonist attempts to make up his own mind rather than
16
unquestioningly accepting received teaching about the absolute rightness or wrongness of either
traditional practices or revolutionary knowledge.
The author recognizes that not all traditional practices are necessarily "better" or more "pure"
than new ways of thinking, but that neither can they be eliminated by fiat without disastrous
consequences for society, that education and time are necessary for peoples' thinking to evolve
and for other values to be allowed to take the place of some of those that have been cherished
since time immemorial. The critic confesses that he was a little leery when he began reading this
book; he feared that Ngugi would follow the line of so many other African writers in fervent
support of female circumcision.
2.6.5. Division
According to Tuner, D. M.W. (2007) in his review, he states that ‘The River Between’ is about
the division between two villages in Africa, divisions began by the differences between the tribal
ways and Christian ways brought by the missionaries. The death of Muthoni, the eldest daughter
of Joshua, the most stringent follower of the missionary, after undergoing female circumcision
causes the missionary to "outlaw" female circumcision and forbid the children of the
"circumcised" to attend the school. An expelled student of the school in his final year sets up
schools for those that believe the tribal traditions, but his youth awakens an old enemy of his
father to oppose him and set him up for failure by utilizing the young man's love for Nyambura,
Joshua's other daughter.
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CHAPTER THREE: LINGUISTIC STUDY OF THE NOVEL
3.1. IntroductionThis chapter is the course of my work. It presents the ultimate part of the present work. It
presents and analyzes the findings of this work. As this work is about a literary work, Ngugi Wa
Thiongo’s novel, The River Between, hereafter the study finds it useful to mainly deal with the
characters and their characterization, literary techniques and themes of the novel. It is paramount
and it is in it where much of my effort should be spent.
This chapter depicts different aspects of the novel but the focus is on themes and their social
impact, on Rwandan community in particular. Through this chapter, many of my objectives,
research questions and hypotheses are strongly taken into consideration.
3.2. Narrator and his functionThe story is written in third person and the majority is presented in the limited omniscient
perspectives of Waiyaki and Nyambura. The story spends the majority of the time in Waiyaki's
point of view though there are times when the reader leaves Waiyaki and sees the story unfold
from Nyambura's perspective. The limit is not a problem and necessary information is provided
merely as background. For example, the book opens with the lore of the region, which is largely
just historical information though it later plays into the story line when Chege reveals that
Waiyaki has a role in that traditional lore.
3.3. Characters and their characterizationsCharacters are people in a narrative work of arts such as a novel or a play. They can also be
animals especially in satiric stories.
3.3.1. Main characters
Main or major characters are vital to the development and resolution of the conflict. In other words, the plot and resolution of conflict resolves around these characters.
3.3.1.1. WaiyakiWaiyaki is the protagonist and novel’s hero. He is introduced to us as a young boy but rather tall
for his age. He has a well-built attractive body, with rough and kinky hair. He has a stunning
gaze that makes women feel shy. He is quite authoritative. His authority is evident even as a
18
young boy when orders Kamau and Kinuthia to stop fighting. There is a character in him that
commands respect among his friends.‘The tremor in the boy’s voice sends a quiver of fear up
Kamau.’ (p.6) He is much younger than Kamau and Kinuthia but he commands authority over
them ever when, as adults, they are teachers at Marioshoni School.
Waiyaki is loyal. He is loyal both to his father and the tribe. Following in the footsteps of his
father, he works for the preservation of the tribe’s tradition. He undergoes his second birth and
circumcision so that he can promote the customs of the tribe. When he goes to Siriana to acquire
the Whiteman’s learning in fulfillment of Mugo Wa Kibiro’s prophecy, he does not promote
Christianity.
He is very hardworking person. When he starts Marioshoni School, he puts all his efforts and
being in educating the children. He works hard to build more schools across the bridges, and to
source for more teachers in far off places like Siriana and Kiambu. The education of the ridges
entirely rests in his efforts.
Waiyaki is caring and responsible. He shows great concern for other people’s well being. When
Muthoni falls sick after her circumcision Waiyaki is concerned and offers to take her to hospital
as nobody seems to mind. ‘If there is nobody to take her’ I shall. I can get some helpers….’ (p.
49).Throughout Muthoni’s illness, he is greatly concerned. He takes the trouble to contact
Nyambura to tell her about Muthoni.
He is independent-minded. Despite his loyalty, to the tribe, Waiyaki thinks beyond more
tradition. He refuses to be a slave to the Kiama’s demands. He sees no reason why he should not
interact with Christians even if he does not join them. He takes an oath of allegiance but refused
to be bound to its disastrous demands. When challenged about his relationship with Nyambura
he reports that the oath does not forbid him to love.
Waiyaki is conciliatory. At the height of conflict between the tribe and the Christians, he tries to
bring the two together he tries to preach unity. He believes that division will alienate the
community further. He goes to Joshua’s house to warn him about the Kiama’s plans. This is an
attempt to prevent a disastrous confrontation between the Kiama and the Christians.
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3.3.1.2. Chege
Chege is Waiyaki’s father. Chege is a much-admired tribal leader of the Gikuyu. He barely
survived a great famine, later married and produced daughters who married well and one son. He
is a well known elder in Kameno. The other elders fear and respect him and some people believe
he has the gift of magic. He offers the responsibility of carrying on the tribe to Waiyaki, who he
describes as “the last in the line” of tribesman in Gikuyu land.
Chege is very knowledgeable. People in the ridges hold him in reverence. Stories run of how he
possesses the gift of magic and that he is a seer through whom Murungu, their god speaks. ‘For
he knew more than any other person, the ways of the land and hidden things of the tribe.’ (p. 7)
He knows so much about the customs of the tribe that he is always at the head of every important
ceremony.
Chege is also intelligent and foresight. He is believed to have descended from Mugo wa Kibiro,
the great seer of old. Chege’s mark of prophecy is seen when he warns people about the coming
of the white missionaries to the ridges. The people ignore him arguing that the white man cannot
find the way to the ridges. His warning is later proven by the conversion of Joshua and Kabonyi,
and the establishment of a church at Makuyu. Chege tries to pass on as much knowledge as he
does, to his son Waiyaki. Believing in the prophecy of Mugo wa Kibiro, he sends his son to
Siriana to acquire the Whiteman’s knowledge.
He also takes Waiyaki to the sacred grove and reveals to time the sacred knowledge of the tribe.
He dies having lived a life of purity uncontaminated by the white man’s ways. When he falls sick
in his old age, he refuses to take the white man’s medicine. At his death, the burden of leading
the tribe falls on his son Waiyaki.
3.3.1.3. MuthoniMuthoni is the heroine of the novel. She is the young daughter of Joshua and a sister to
Nyambura. She has got the same physical features as her sister Nyambura, fairly tall, with sharp
eyes and thick shinny black hair. She is a very ambitious girl. Despite being Christian, Muthoni
wants to fulfill all the tribe’s customs by being circumcised. She believes her being a Christian
should not stop her from achieving this since both her parents are circumcised. She said, ‘Father
and mother are circumcised. Are they not Christians? Circumcision does not prevent them from
20
being Christians’ (p.25.) She is determined to achieve her desire, even if it means abandoning
her home.
Muthoni is brave and daring. Her decision to get circumcised shocks many, including the tribe’s
elders. The narrator said, ‘Everybody talks about it. Muthoni’s revolt had rung from hill to hill as
if the news were passed by the wind and the drums.’ (p.39)
Waiyaki can hardly believe it, until he speaks to her and hears it from her. She bears the
circumcision bravely. Even when she falls ill, she does not regret her action. In fact, Muthoni is a
stoic character. She bears the pain of her action bravely and with pride. Her consolation is that
she is now a woman, beautiful in the tribe. Muthoni is, however, perceived as a rebellious
character. Her death may be seen as a punishment to her rebelliousness. The death of Muthoni is
received with mixed reactions. The elders see it as a punishment to Joshua for abandoning the
tribe. Joshua himself shows no emotion at her daughter’s death.
3.3.1.4. KabonyiKabonyi is the leader of Kiama and a former follower of Joshua. He breaks ranks with Joshua
and returns to the tribe. He is very fanatical. When he leaves christianity to the tribe, he stirs up
the elders against the Christians. He wanted to start a total war on Joshua and his followers. He
spearheads the formation of Kiama, which soon becomes a powerful force in the tribe.
Kabonyi is resentful and vindictive. He resents Waiyaki’s leading role in the tribe. He thinks his
son Kamau ought to have played his role. He asked his son, ‘Couldn’t you have supplanted him a
long time ago? What has he that you have not?’ (p.94) He hates waiyaki for his leadership skills
and always tries to oppose him in everything he does.
He is very influential. He easily influences the Kiama to turn against Waiyaki. His leadership of
Kiama gives him courage. He turns the Kiama into a militant group that forcefully enforces its
will on the people.
Kabonyi is very cunning. His war with Waiyaki is a strategic one. When he loses out to Waiyaki
before the parents, he devises a clandestine scheme to bring down his opponent. He sets his son
Kamau to spy on Waiyaki. He spies on Waiyaki’s activities, especially his interaction with
Nyambura which he then uses to convince the elders to turn against Waiyaki.21
3.3.1.5. JoshuaJoshua is the leader of the Christians in the ridges. He comes from Makuyu, which is also the
stronghold of Christianity. He is a middle-aged man who preaches in sharp ringing tone.
He is a devoted Christian. From the day he encounters Christianity, he uphold the Christian
teaching with zeal. He views his encounter with Christianity as a life changing experience. These
strong words frightened Joshua and shook him with his whole body; ‘… he became baptized and
it was only then that he felt at peace…’ (p.28) He becomes a fearless preacher, ready to
challenge the tribe and its wicked ways.
Joshua is uncompromising. He does not have patience with those who do not follow the right
path, even his own family. When Muthoni, his daughter, decides to go and get circumcised, he is
ready to sacrifice her and move on: ‘Let her go back to Egypt. Yes let her go back. He Joshua
would travel on, to the new Jerusalem.’ (p.35) He ceases to consider Muthoni as his daughter
and resolves never to be caught in the same situation again. Similarly, when Nyambura walks out
on him and goes with Waiyaki, he remains unshaken and gives her up.
He is, however, portrayed as being heartless. Though he tries to remain strong, as a christian
should. When Muthoni rebels against him, his reaction to her death is shocking. He shows no
emotion at her death, as if to say she deserved it. The fact is that, even when Muthoni rebels, she
remains his daughter.
Miriamu behaves like a true parent. She does not approve of Muthoni’s behaviours yet she
mourns her death. Some elders perceived Muthoni’s death to be a punishment for Joshua. He is
also quite adamant. When Waiyaki comes to warn him about the Kiama’s plans, he dismisses
him. He refuses to listen to the voice of reason, which leads him to lose his other daughter
Nyambura.
3.3.2. Minor Characters
Minor characters serve to complement the major characters and help move the plot event forward.
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3.3.2.1. Kamau
Kamau is a son of Kabonyi. He is a childhood friend of Waiyaki, together with Kinuthia. We
first meet him in chapter two when, as a young boy, he is involved in a fight with Kinuthia.
He is very sly and treacherous. Kamau pretends to be friendly to Waiyaki. As a teacher at
Marioshoni School, he submits to Waiyaki, giving the impression that he is loyal to him.
However, he works behind Waiyaki’s back to betray him. He secretly spies on Waiyaki and
reports him to his father Kabonyi.
Kamau is also vindictive. He hates Waiyaki though he seems to hide the fact. His hatred for
Waiyaki dates back to their childhood, to the day Waiyaki orders him to stop fighting Kinuthia.
The narrator said, ‘Meekly he obeyed the spoken command. But his face went a shade darker
than it normally was. He slunk away, feeling humiliated and hating himself for submitting.’ (p.6)
His hatred for Waiyaki increases when the latter takes the responsibility of leadership with his
education programmes. Crticised by his father for letting Waiyaki surpass him, Kamau starts
working against his friend. He becomes visibly incensed when Waiyaki seems to have won the
heart of Nyambura, the girl he loves. This is a double blow to him: ‘would Kamau after all these
things stand aside and watch Waiyaki beat him in love?’ (p.104)
Kamau is a hypocrite. He pretends to be more loyal to the tribe than Waiyaki. He spies on
Waiyaki and reports his dealing with Nyambura to the Kiama. However, Kamau is an equally
interested in Nyambura and is only beaten to it by Waiyaki. In fact, he has had to plan to propose
to Nyambura so she could elope with him to Nairobi.
3.3.2.2. KinuthiaKinuthia is a childhood friend of Waiyaki and his fellow teacher at Marioshoni. Like Kamau, we
first meet him when the two boys engage in a fight.
He is a humble character who does not have the aggressiveness of Kamau. Even in that fight
Kamau has an upper hand and Kinuthia is mostly on the receiving end. He remains submissive
throughout the novel and shows an admirable character.
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Kinuthia is loyal. His loyality to Waiyaki starts right from the day when the latter save him from
Kamau’s blows. He becomes a close confidant of Waiyaki and reveals to him what he sees as a
plot by Kabonyi to fight Waiyaki. He told Waiyaki, ‘I think Kabonyi does not like you, I would
be careful of if I were you.’ (p.81) He keeps up dating Waiyaki on what people talk and think of
him. Towards end as Waiyaki’s conflict with Kabonyi becomes intense, Kinuthia throw his
weight behind Waiyaki and promises to sick by him. He naturally admires Waiyaki and almost
worships him. He feels deep regret and guilt when Nyambura is stolen from his custody. ‘He
feels he has failed Waiyaki. And he cried and blamed himself because he had failed Waiyaki.’
(p.141)
3.3.2.3. Nyambura
Nyambura is the elder daughter of Joshua and sister to Muthoni. She is introduced as a perfect
resemblance to her sister- tall with sharp restless eyes, and thick shiny black hair.
She is a respectable and obedient girl. Nyambura is full of respect and fear of the father. The
narrator tells, ‘When Muthoni declares that she wants to be circumcised, Nyambura tries to
remind her of the need to obey their father. She believes in his father and his teachings. She was
content to follow whatever said was right.’ (p.25)
Nyambura is very caring and responsible. When she hears of Muthoni’s illness after her
circumcision she is devastated. She visits Muthoni every day, and takes care of her. Muthoni’s
death is a great blow to her.
She is a very appreciative and loving character. She is quite touched by Waiyaki’s responsibility
towards Muthoni. She appreciates him and her love for him is real. She is grateful to Waiyaki
for bringing to her Muthoni’s last words. She often longed to meet and talk to her.
Nyambura is a level-head girl. In the latter stages of the novel, she begins to reason logically and
to think beyond her father’s domain of Christianity. Her eventual rebellion against her father is
unlike Muthoni’s, she rebels after closely examining her Christian values and the need to reach
out others. She does not rebel to engage in tribal rituals like Muthoni, but rather to show that love
transcends religion. She reasons like Nyambura who, despite being a follower of the tribe,
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questions the motives of the Kiama. Nyambura sees nothing wrong with loving a non-christian
just like waiyaki sees anything wrong with loving an uncircumcised girl.
3.3.2.4. Miriamu
Miriamu is the wife to Joshua and mother to Nyambura and Muthoni. She is portrayed as a loyal
and submissive wife. She bears her husband’s dominance and does not challenge him on
anything. He commands her and she is not expected to protest. When Muthoni runs away from
home, Joshua orders Miriamu to go to look for her. She searches in vain and cannot dare protest
to him that she cannot look elsewhere.
When Muthoni dies, Miriamu is shocked, yet her husband shows no emotions. This upsets her
yet she cannot say a word in protest. The narrator tells ‘Miriamu weeps even more when she sees
the impassive face.’ (p.51) Unlike her daughters, Miriamu sticks to her husband, even when she
realizes he is being unrealistic and unfair. When Nyambura walks out on them, she agrees with
her husband not to let their daughter leave.
3.3.2.5. LivingstonThe Reverend Livingston is the white missionary at Siriana. He is introduced as an old man, bad-
headed and with a double chin. He is portrayed as an experienced missionary with twenty years
experience at the mission.
Livingston is pragmatic and cautious in his approach. He comes to the mission finally with a lot
of vapor and desire to make an impact. But he gets disappointed and realizes he has to change his
approach. He avoids an all out war on the traditionalist, in preference an interactive approach. He
even attends some of the circumcision dances to get a clear picture of the tribe’s customs. The
narrator lets us know, ‘He was a man of moderation and advocated gradual methods of
eradicating the custom.’ (p.54) He had to contend with fanatics like Joshua and Martha who
want an aggressive approach in evangelization.
3.3.2.6. The Elders
The elders are the old and wise leaders of the tribe that work closely with Kabonyi. They are the
keepers of the purity of the tribe. It is these elders that decide whether something is right or
25
wrong according to the culture. Kabonyi convinces them that Waiyaki is being out of the
tradition so that he can win the war between them.
3.4. Literary TechniquesIn human life, people react differently to the nature elements. It is in this case that writers have
their own techniques to express their message to the society. Like others, Ngugi Wa Thiong’o
uses his own ways or techniques when writing this novel.
3.4.1. Symbolism
According to Letterpart (2003:1788) Symbolism is ‘the use of symbols to represent ideas and
qualities.’ It can be done by giving them symbolic meanings that are different from their literal
sense. Symbolism can take different forms. Generally, it is an object representing another to give
it an entirely different meaning that is much deeper and more significant. However, sometimes
an action, an event or a word spoken by someone may have a symbolic value.
In The River Between, Ngugi Wa Thiong’o uses symbolism to illustrate some of the key issues in
the story. A number of symbols are used to portray the key themes in the novel. To name just a
few, one can present.
River Honia runs through the country of ridges, between Makuyu and Kameno. Honia means to
cure or to bring back to life (restore). River Honia symbolises significance quite ambivalent. In
the first place, physically, the river separates the two ridges as it runs between them. Thus, the
rivalry of the Makuyu and Kameno is physically pronounced. However, as the river physically
separates the two ridges, so does it unite them. It draws people from both ridges that come to get
water from it. Even animals from either ridge come down to drink from it. Circumcision
candidates from both ridges, come to immerse themselves in its cold water to numb the pain of
the surgeon’s knife. Therefore, the river Honia is a symbol of unity. It has the power to cure the
rivalry between the two ridges.
Like Honia River, Waiyaki is a symbol of unity. Waiyaki stands out from the rest of the
characters because of his rather neutral stand. He is the only character who does not take any side
in the conflict between the tribe and Christians. Waiyaki is portrayed as a saviour. He is regarded
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as the promised Messiah, and we see him striving to keep the ridges united. He preaches unity
and interacts with both Christians and traditionalists.
Similarly, the two ridges are also symbolic in a way. Initially, there is one leadership with either
ridge claiming dominance. The symbolic significance of the two ridges becomes pronounced
with coming of Christianity. Makuyu becomes the centre of Christians, with Joshua as the leader.
Kameno becomes the stronghold of the traditionalists, led by Kabonyi and the Kiama. The
imposing nature of the two ridges therefore symbolizes the rivalry between Christianity and
traditionalism.
In addition, the Mugumo tree is described as a very important grove where people bring
sacrifices to appease ancestors in case of dangers and difficult situations. It symbolizes their god
Mugo who is said to have stopped there and give the country to Kameno people. This shows how
polytheists these people are. It is this belief that provokes the two antagonist groups in the
society. The people of Kameno still believe in the prophecy of Mugo Wa Kibiro. They want to
keep their culture pure and chase away the new white settlers who are occupying their land,
imposing taxes and Christianity. This modernism is adopted by Makuyu people led by Joshua
who make great antagonism and confrontation with Kameno.
3.4.2. Prophecies
The narrator uses prophesies to emphasize some of the key issues in the novel. These prophecies
serve to foreshadow the events in the story. The prophecy of Mugo Wa Kibiro alluded to Mugo
Wa Kibiro is a very old prophet who lived many years before. His prophecy about the coming of
the white man is re-echoed by Chege, who is believed to be his descendant. Chege warns the
people of the ridges about the coming of the white man. Chege foretells ‘See them the butterflies.
They are here, beyond the ridges, putting up many houses and some taking the land.’ (p.7)
The people do not listen to him, and soon the missionaries come and start a church in Makuyu.
Chege sending his son Waiyaki to Siriana is a fulfillment of the prophecy. It calls the people to
learn the white man’s ways if they are to defeat him. The narrator tells, ‘For the prophecy still
held well. It is good to be wise in the affairs of the white man.’ (p.37)
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3.4.3. Irony
Irony is where circumstances appear different from the expected or usual situation. In The River
Between, we see situation that are ironical, making the story more intriguing. The most
remarkable irony concerns Joshua and his family. He is the leader of Christians and strives to
make his home a model for other Christian. However, we see his two daughters rebelling against
him and desert him. Muthoni gets circumcised and dies, while Nyambura elopes with Waiyaki.
It is also quite ironical that Waiyaki, who has been praised as the saviour of the ridges, does not
live up to the expectations of the people. His father, Chege, reveals to him the secrets of the tribe,
he is expected to keep the purity of the tribe. However, Waiyaki disregards some of the tribe’s
custom and loves Nyambura an uncircumcised girl.
Kabonyi is an ironic character, initially; he is a Christian convert and is one of the leaders of the
church in the ridges. He is an assistant to Joshua. But all of the sudden he defects and becomes
one of the fiercest opponents of the Christians. He spearheads the Kiama who aggressively fights
Joshua and his followers.
3.4.4. Biblical Allusion
Allusion is a reference in a literary work to a person, place, or thing in history or another work of
literature. Allusions are often indirect or brief references to well-known characters or events.
Ngugi Wa Thiong’o uses biblical allusion in his projection of the main character Waiyaki. From
the beginning, waiyaki is cast in the shade of the promised messiah, whom Mugo Wa kibiro
prophesied about the Messiah who will save the people from the White man. In fact, the initial
title of the novel was The Black Messiah, in reference to Waiyaki. Waiyaki is, therefore,
compared with Jesus Christ, the Biblical messiah who came to save mankind. Jesus’ coming had
been foretold by the prophet Isaiah. Some of Waiyaki’s experiences in the novel are also
comparable to Jesus’ experiences in the Bible. Waiyaki’s disregard of tribal customs and loving
Nyambura is comparable to Jesus’ rejection of the discriminative practices of the Jews. His
taking Muthoni to hospital after other people refusing to touch her because she is unclean, is a
reflection of the story of the Good Samaritan.
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Waiyaki often goes to River Honia to meditate whenever his mind is troubled. This is
comparable to Jesus meditation on the Mount of Olives. At the end of the novel, Waiyaki
together with Nyambura is scorned before a gathering of people and is put on trial. This is the
same as Jesus was treated by the Pharisees who moved him and arraigned him before Pontius
Pilate.
3.4.5. Similes
Similes compares two distinct objects and draws similarity between them by using “as” or “like”.
An example of a simile in the novel is ‘they were like many sleeping lions which never
woke.’(p.1) The writer is describing the both ridges just at the beginning of the novel by telling
what they look like. So by the eyes, you can think that they are lions that sleep somewhere
forever as the mountains cannot move.
‘…for he considered himself able to make decisions like a man.’(p.8) That is Waiyaki admires
himself to know the ridge so he is proud though he is still a child, that is why he says this when
his father asks him who has shown him a way when he reaches home in the night with all cattle.
‘He knew he wanted to be like his father.’(p.11) Waiyaki is obsessed. He wants to be brave and
famous like his father who is respected by everyone. In order to achieve his objective, he must
first be born again and become a man.
‘Their voices were a distant buzz like another he had heard in a dream...’ (p.12)The shouting of
a lot of women is compared to the sound of a swarm of bees which is moving. Waiyaki has
dreamt of this.
’The rumours! Spreading like fire in a plain of dry grass. ’ (p.118) The way people are telling to
one another rumours that Waiyaki was marrying Nyambura, which was forbidden, is compared
to how quick dry grass on a hill burns.
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3.4.6. Metaphors
Metaphor compares two distinct objects and draws similarity between them. Its difference from
simile is that Simile uses “as” or “like” and Metaphor does not.
‘Honia was the soul of Kameno and Makuyu.’(p. 1). This indicates well how important the river
which separates the two ridges is. It is obvious to compare it to the soul because in its absence
life would almost be impossible.
3.4.7. Flashback
A flashback is an interruption of the chronological sequence of a film or literary work of an
event of earlier occurrence. A flashback is a narrative technique that allows a writer to present
past events during current events, in order to provide background for the current narration.
’And the words of his father came back to him. But they rejected Mugo, his thin boy’s voice had
queried. Let them do what they like. A time will come when they shall cry for a saviour .’(p.131)
Waiyaki has gone to tell Joshua and other Christians that Kamau and the Kiama are coming to do
something wrong to them. They all reject him in a church and make him remember the words
that his father had told him before dying.
3.4.8. Idiom
It is an expression whose meaning is different from the meaning of the individual words.
’We are his offspring. His blood flows in your veins.’(p.19) This is Chege who is telling Wayaki
that Mugo Wa Kibiro, the great seer off the ridge, is of their line or family. Therefore he has to
imitate him when he will take the leadership of the community as he is destined. It is a great
motivation.
‘To drink from a calabash of trust and responsibility of the community.’ (p.14) This is said when
Chege has taken Waiyaki to Mugumo tree. He reveals him a lot of secrets of the community to
make him become mature as someone who has been entrusted to be responsible and save the
people in their hour of need.
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3.4.9. Onomatopoeia
It is a figure of speech where we observe the use of words that sound like the sound they refer to.
’And the women who had come to wait for the birth of a child, shouted with joy: ‘ali-ali-ali-ali-
ali-ali-alii.’ (p.12) The author uses these words to indicate what the voices of women sound like.
They are happy because the Old Waiyaki is born again.
’Waiyaki wanted to laugh at the monstrous idea of Livingston standing and watching all ....a-a-
a...‘ (p.45).The numbness is wearing away but Waiyaki cannot move after his circumcision so
this sound indicates that he feels the pain.
3.4.10. Personification
Personification is defined as the attribution of human quality to animals, inanimate object or
abstract notions.
’ These were the people whose blood and bones spoke the language of the hill .’ (p.3)This saying
tells us the way there were pure and loyal people toward the culture that the whole community
believed. These were the people who had never gone out of the ridge since their birth. They do
not know any of outside rather than their community. So their blood and bones are represented
as people but they cannot speak a language like a person but it is to mean that they had never
been contaminated by strange culture.
3.4.11. Satire
Satire is a technique employed by writers to expose and criticize foolishness and corruption of an
individual or a society by using humor, irony, exaggeration or ridicule. It intends to improve
humanity by criticizing its follies. A writer in a satire uses fictional characters, which stand for
real people, to expose and condemn their corruption.
’Cow,’ cried Kiuthia. In pin
‘Hyena.’
’Even you,’ kinuthia hissed back.’ (P.4-5)
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These are words that both Kinuthia and Kamau are using when they are wrestling. Kamau is on
Kinuthia beating him before Waiyaki arrives to stop the fighting.
’You beggar‘
’White man’s slave.’ (p.5) Waiyaki arrives and notices that Kamau is beating Kinuthia.
He judges Kinuthia innocent according to what has caused the fighting. The author indicates this
through the satiric words that Waiyaki uses. It is got that Waiyaki believes that Kamau’s father
has done wrong to become a Christian when the white man comes.
3.4.12. Story Telling
This is a technique where the persona narrates a story as if it occurred long time ago. The story
conveys a certain moral lesson especially about how things used to be done.
’Demi na Mathathi were giants of the tribe. They had lived a long way back, at the beginning of
time. They cut down trees and cleared the dense forest for cultivation. They owned many cattle,
sheep and goats and they often sacrificed to Murungu and held communion with the ncestral
spirits.’(p.10) This is a story that Ngugi tells to show the name of the people that Waiyaki cannot
take when playing with other children because he has not been born yet. He tries his best to do
like them.
‘Long ago women used to rule this land and its men. They were harsh..... They knew women
were weak. So why should they fear them? ‘(p.15) The narrator tells this to show that women are
less valued. Chege tells this to explain to him why antelopes do not run when they see women
and do for men. An antelope runs away when it sees them passing near Mugumo tree.
3.4.13. Description
It is a statement that tells how something or someone looks like, sounds, smells, tastes or feels.
In the novel there are a lot words with description to the extent that the reader can have a mental
picture of the referred to.
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‘A big Mugumo tree stood near the edge of the hill. It is a huge tree, thick and mysterious. Bush
grew and bowed reverently around it.....’(p.15) This is what Mugumo tree looks like. This is to
let us know where Chege and his son are.
‘Nyambura was older, but it was not easy to tell this. Both were fairly tall and well formed;
about the same height and looks, though Muthoni’s skin was darker. They had the same sharp
but strangely restless eyes. Their hair was thick and shiny black. It was tough but to the eyes it
looked soft and beautiful to touch. Nyambura’s features seemed hard, restrained, where she was
quiet, Muthoni was vivacious. ‘(p.23) This is a brief paragraph that the writer uses to give the
mental picture of Joshua’s girls who are closed friends.
3.4.14. Foreshadow
Foreshadowing is a literary device in which a writer gives an advance hint of what is to come
later in the story. Foreshadowing often appears at the beginning of a story or a chapter and helps
the reader develop expectations about the coming events in a story.
‘Let them do what they like. A time will come-I can see it coming- when they shall cry for a
savior. ‘Listen! A leader shall come from the hills to save you?’ (p.21)These are words that
Chege uses to predict what will happen to Gikuyu people.
‘...there shall come a people with clothes like butterflies...’ (p.19) Mugo is telling people what
he has seen that will happen to them
3.4.15. Rhetorical Questions
This is a figure of speech in a form of a question asked for a purpose other than to obtain
information the question asks. Most of the time it intends to emphasize the already known
information that the question asks. Ngugi uses a lot of rhetorical questions and some of them are
found in the examples below.
‘But Father, remember him. ‘’Why! Are we fools?’ She shook Nyambura.’ (p.25) Muthoni uses
this question just to convince Nyambura that circumcision is necessary for their both parents has
been circumcised and are Christians. So they are not so foolish that they will leave it out.
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’Was he not drinking from a calabash of trust and responsibility?’ (p.14) ’Had she not refused
him?’ (p.118)The narrator uses this to confirm that Nyambura has already denied getting married
to him. However his mother has heard that he is doing it.
3.4.16. Parallelism
This is similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases or clauses. It is also
called a parallel structure.
’ You are brave and I love you.’ (p.132) Nyambura is telling this to Waiyaki to show him that he
still loves him though his father and Christians are shouting at him in the church.
‘The bark of that tree is good for a fresh wound! The roots of this plant are good.’(p.14 ) There
are two sentences which are parallel by their structure of the words.
‘I have not seen your school. You should come some day.' (p.75) Here we notice also a pair of
parallel sentences.
‘I will marry soon so that she can have a companion. ‘(p.118) This is one complex sentence
and in it we find two parallel clauses.
3.4.17. Oxymoron
Oxymoron, plural oxymora, is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create
an effect. The common oxymoron phrase is a combination of a noun preceded by an adjective
with contrasting meanings.
‘...giving her both pain and pleasure.’(p.131) Actually we can hardly find anything that can give
both pleasure and pain at the same time because they are opposite. One exists in the absence of
other. Here the writer says that something strange settles in Nyambura’s bowels and gives her
both of them. He indicates the way she doubts about leaving her parents and goes together with
Waiyaki or stay. She finally followed him and betrays the parents, it gives her pleasure.
Remaining would let her painful.
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3.4.18. Repetition
This is a literary device that repeats the same words or phrases a few times to make an idea clearer. Some of the repetitions that one finds in the novel are below:
’... I don’t want to hear more. No! No! No, father! ‘Instead he only whispered.’(p.19) Waiyaki
repeats these three No! Simply to emphasize his refusal for he is afraid and tired of his father’s
words. Chege talks a lot and seems to keep on when they are on the hills near the sacred tree
Mugumo.
‘‘You are lying. You are lying. ‘I was alone, Father, ’she insisted ‘‘(p.112) This is Joshua who is
talking to Nyambura. He doubts about her coming late from the river. He thinks she might have
been with Waiyaki. When the girl denies having been with him, Joshua shouts at him repeatedly
that she is lying so that she can accept or to show her that he has seen them together.
’It leapt -leapt-leapt away. ‘(p.15) The author uses this to indicate the speed of the antelope
which ran when Waiyaki and his father from the hills disturbed it from its hiding place.
3.5. Analysis of Themes of the Work
This subchapter is the very important part in my dissertation. It includes a lot of themes from the
novel. Not only do I point out the themes but I also analyze them and focus on their social impact
on Rwanda in order to provide the reader with its significance. It will relate the main message to
the Rwandan society in the past time and its influence to the current community.
3.5.1. Circumcision
Circumcision, which is often viewed as the Muslim rite, is a very important element of the
culture in the society of Makuyu and Kameno. In these communities, separated by the river
Honia, every boy or girl should become a man or woman through it after the second birth. It is of
great value and brings all people together as it is described when Waiyaki is being initiated: ‘All
his life Waiyaki had waited for this day, for this very opportunity to reveal his courage like a
man… Around him women were shouting and praising him.’ (p.44) This rite is like kubandwa in
the ancient Rwanda. There had to be such a kind of rite for a child to become initiated and be
recognised as a right member of the society. It was after this that a child was considered adult.
He/she would be allowed to do different activities according to his gender. He could have 35
responsibilities, he was permitted to give his/her opinion in meeting or advise others. It was a big
ceremony.
Like in Rwanda, this rite was hampered by the introduction of Christianity brought by the
missionaries in Kenya. Ngugi expresses this great change through Joshua and his followers. The
immediate change of Joshua as an adult member of the Makuyu society, who has even
undergone circumcision shows very well that there have been division and misunderstanding
among them because of Christianity or new culture. This abrupt separation of the Christians
might be possible due to the quarrels that have been between two ridges for a long time. Each
community claims the leadership and power let by Murungu as it is said ‘A man rose in Makuyu.
He claimed that Gikuyu and Mumbi sojourned there with Murungu on their way to Mukurwe wa
Gathanga. As a result of that stay, he said leadership had been left to makuyu’ (p.1). In daily
life, other people consider the church as a refuge. Joshua might have tried to solve the problem
of conflicts and failed. For this, he no longer wants to be in contact with the tradition; he has
become disgusted. Ngugi tells about this by presenting his hatred towards his youngest girl
Muthoni. Here, the reader gets well how Joshua is getting rid of tradition.
Though, we notice the high value of circumcision in this community, Ngugi criticises this
behavour of loyalty to the culture and women circumcision. Muthoni disobeys his parents so as
to be circumcised and dies; something which has happened to only one or two since the rite
existed. It seems a punishment because if she had respected her parents and rejected the
mentality of becoming a circumcised woman, she would not have died. She ignored the God’s
commandment where one should respect the parents.
So for the author women circumcision should stop. Nowadays, even in Rwanda men
circumcision is extremely encouraged but not for female people. Therefore the writer accepts the
role of Christianity in the community. In other words, on one hand the coming of missionaries is
important and on other hand disadvantageous. For example, in Rwanda they undermined some
culture which would now be very dangerous like sharing materials which would enhance the
spread of some diseases. Women wear trousers especially in some activities, eating goat and so
on. These are some Rwandan culture habits that would now be hindrances to people if they still
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existed. Nonetheless, in various African countries even in Rwanda, the white man imposes the
division, dependence so as to manage and exploit well people and the country in general.
The women circumcision, which still exists in some countries like Uganda and Kenya, is not so
needed that it should be done. Any community is somehow free to choose what is right or wrong,
but some cultures which are against human rights should be avoided.
3.5.2. Fighting for the Leadership of the Community
You hardly find anyone who does not want his ideas to be valued. To achieve this, the majority
of people fight for being on top as leaders of communities. Ngugi explores the confrontation
among people of Makuyu and Kameno. It is quite normal in society because nothing comes by
chance and when it does so it happens once.
At the beginning of the story, we are introduced to the wish of domination of each community.
Makuyu people say that Murungu, who is much respected as their god, left the power to Gikuyu
and Mumbi who sojourned once there. Nevertheless, a few people believe this because a lot of
heroes of the community are from Kameno. It is quite like what former Rwandan leaders said
that tutsi people are from Ethiopia and Abissnia in order to convince people that the country was
theirs. They needed to lead themselves forever.In Kikuyu, It is believed that a sacred grove, that
all people honored and go for sacrifices to appease ancestors, is where Gikuyu and Mumbi
stopped and were given the leadership of the tribe by Murungu. Therefore, Kameno deserves the
leadership and it could preserve the culture when the missionaries came whereas the majority of
people of Makuyu, headed by Joshua, became Christians. They ignore the culture by denying
circumcision.
For the narrator, leadership is inherited. Kameno is presented as a community with more leaders
and heroes than Makuyu. This is quite common because in ancient Rwanda the kings were from
one clan ‘Nyiginya’. He somehow accepts some special cases through Joshua. Though he does
not prove the highest talent but he takes a decision of becoming a Christian. He leads a church
and succeeds in convincing a lot of people though a group of some people, led by Kabonyi,
deserted to the tradition again. It should not be astonishing because this is always seen in
Rwanda. We always observe different politicians who disagree with Rwandan system of
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government and choose to go out so as to fight against the current leaders. They want to become
leaders and impose their ideology like Kabonyi. Most of such people do not want to be led in any
community and are selfish.
Ngugi also explores the fighting for the domination and leadership of the community between
Waiyaki and Kabonyi. For him this is obvious as he says, ‘Why should he dislike me? I have not
done anything wrong to him. Jealousy’ (p. 81). That is why Waiyaki should struggle and prove
his power and talent especially as the prophecy has appointed him a Messiah of the community.
He has been acting as brave since he was a small child. Everybody sees Chege, his father who
was extremely respected by the whole tribe, through him. So like father like son. Kabonyi tries to
destroy his good reputation so that he can take the head of the community. The author shows that
the world is not a paradise so whatever good actions you can do; it is impossible to please
everyone. Even in Rwandan society it became a problem when the country got independent. A
group of people wanted to lead the country forever. There would be another in opposition that
needed to take the head. Gregoire Kayibanda was killed by Juvenal Habyarimana in order to
become the president.
Kabonyi resents Waiyaki’s leading role in the tribe. He also admires himself to accomplish
Waiyaki’s duties. In case of impossibility, failure or weakness he thinks his son Kamau ought to
have played his role. ‘Couldn’t you have supplanted him a long time ago? What has he that you
have not?’ (p.94) He hates Waiyaki for his leadership skills and always tries to oppose him in
everything he does. In Rwanda, there have been attempt of coup of leaders some became
possible like Habyarimana’s whereas others failed. That is there cannot lack people who are
against you as a leader and it is quite normal. Therefore, any leader should fight and try to
convince the people his policies so as to be elected or supported. It is mandatory especially when
people are poor at critical thinking and decision making like in Rwanda.
Kabonyi easily influences the Kiama to turn against Waiyaki. His leadership of Kiama gives him
courage. He turns the Kiama into a militant group that forcefully enforces its will on the people.
Waiyaki regrets having given up the responsibility he once had on the Kiama. Now it is difficult
knowing dangerous plans that Kabonyi have with them against him. He is busy with education
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affairs. All pieces of information he can know are only from Kinuthia. So at this point, Waiyaki
ought to have some people who would tell him about what people think about him. Now, it is
advisable to have intelligence service that informs you about people because they may not tell
you the truth face to face.
His war with Waiyaki is a strategic one. During the parents’ meeting, he convinces people even
elders that education is much more needed than other issues. Kabonyi tries to oppose him but
fails and goes home puzzled. It is a kind of compaign. He devises a clandestine scheme to bring
down his opponent. He sets his son Kamau to spy on Waiyaki. He spies on Waiyaki’s activities,
especially his interaction with Nyambura which he then uses to convince the elders to turn
against Waiyaki. For the narrator, never give up, you would rather keep struggling especially
when you know that it is for a lot of people’s profits. The more he tells people Waiyaki’s
mistakes, in his absence, the more they become convinced until they call him for unwanted
explanations.
Waiyaki has built a school so as to educate the children and reach the unity and reconciliation
among the people. We can also notice his impartiality between traditionalist and Christians as a
leader. He used to go to Makuyu and sometimes entered the church. He loved an uncircumcised
and Christian girl, Nyambura, Joshua’s girl. All these are the main allegations that Kabonyi uses
to convince everyone that Waiyaki does not deserve the leadership of the community. He adds
that he is too young to lead. Kabonyi is quite right because leading requires experience and at
the end we notice that he falls in mistakes and fails defending them, what is likely to happen to
young leaders.
3.5.3. Unity and Reconciliation
These are positive words which are needed where misunderstanding and fighting are. Makuyu
and Kameno are two antagonist communities. The traditionalists are against the Christians.
Waiyaki, as a brave, prophesied savior and lined from a hero like Mugo Wa Kibiro, is confided
in this great deal. It is the same as the way someone is chosen by others so that he can lead the in
difficult situations especially a divided society.
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Waiyaki has to unite people like any other leader should does. He finds education a better way of
accomplishing this duty. He thinks much of this to the extent that he talks less about unity than
building more schools apart from Marioshoni. The important lesson here is that uniting a divided
society is a hard task. Wisdom and maturity should be applied. The author seems to be against
the young leaders confirming that however they can be talented; some problems may appear
beyond their thinking capacity. Waiyaki forgets about uniting society against white people who
are occupying their land, obliging people to pay taxes, and focuses on education. In Rwanda, to
reinforce the unity and reconciliation, clubs, dialogues and a commission of unity and
reconciliation have been adopted.
Another raised issue, against the young people through Waiyaki, is about his weaknesses before
girls, one of the most factors that lead him to failure. Nyambura takes the opposite side together
with a big part of Waiyaki’s mind when the main duties like bringing the people together should
be carried out. He does not resist her beauty and good care he gets when they are together. These
make him forget that he is being against the tradition and away from his tasks. He bears her
refusal of the marriage and keeps her in his mind. This struggle confirms what happened in the
history of Rwanda where the kings were dethroned.
On the other hand, one can think that Waiyaki sees the facilities in marrying Nyambura of
uniting the traditionalists and Christians. Though it most of the time seems impossible, people
even in Rwanda do it. Some criminals of genocide and its survivors have got united and
nowadays live in harmony due to the marriage between the children. So Waiyaki’s love may
achieve good result even if in this story, he fails because he is guilt at betraying the tradition that
he has to protect. Waiyaki might commit all of these errors because his father has died and he
rarely meets the old or mature people for advice.
3.5.4. Education
This is the most important thing that Waiyaki wants to promote to achieve his objective of
unifying people. It is similarly a key factor to development that all societies even Rwanda
promotes. We first of all learn the informal education that people of this community have.
Through different rites, they teach the children how to become a good member. Girls are taught
40
how to become good wives and boys how to become right husbands, able to protect their
families and the country at large.
This is why Chege takes Waiyaki to Mugumo tree where he reveals the secrets to him as the
author says ‘Do you see all this land, this country stretching beyond and joining the sky? ... All
this is our land.’ He adds, 'Do you see that mountain showing through the grey mist on the
horizon- “Kerinyaga?” Yes, the mountain of He-who-shines-in-Holiness. Chege stopped but
continued with his steadfast look … That is the seat of Murungu. He made Gikuyu and Mumbi.’
(p.17)
Here, Ngugi acquaints us with the informal education that characterizes African traditional
societies just before the coming of white people. In Rwandan society, people have Itorero for
boys where they learn to protect and fight for the country, bravery, to sacrifice themselves as
well as accomplishing different man duties. For this, Rwanda has had heroes like Rukara
Rwabishingwe and the like. Urubohero is for girls. They learn female activities, behaviours and
characters that match the moral values of the society. For instance, an adolescent girl learns
gukuna also known as guca imyeyo in order to become a good woman. It is through this kind of
education that Muthoni acquires the importance of circumcision, though it seems harsh and bad,
to the extent that she rebels against his father, Joshua, a convinced Christian.
The writer explores also the formal education. Waiyaki totally believes to be the saviour of the
community through it. Therefore, he is sent by his father to Siriana Mission, where white people
stay. He is sent to get educated and become a man who will lead and fight for the society. ’Go to
the Mission place. Learn all the wisdom and all the secrets of the white man. But do not follow
his vices.’ (p.20).Other people like Kamau, Joshua and Kinuthia go there.
This good idea exists in a lot of African countries when white people come. Selected young boys
with special talents and competence are sent to white people’s schools. They expect them to save
the country in its way down as they will have known very well a rival, the white man. Some can
betray the community like Joshua and others develop it as Waiyaki in spite of some mistakes.
In Rwanda likewise, when white men come, young people learn how to write, read and
catechism. The result from these educated people is different. Some like Nyerere, Rwagasore,
41
Nkwame N’krumah, Mandela, and so forth fought for the independence, but others enhanced the
hatred and division that white men have brought until a tragic event that occurs in 1994.
In the novel, Waiyaki becomes educated in Siriana. After the break out caused by Muthoni’s
death, White people no longer accepts the Gikuyu people to learn. Waiyaki founded a school of
Marioshoni for the community. This informs us that Africans are able to make noble choices in
the absence of White people and without relying on their help. He and the parents agree that
education is paramount and needed. They build other numerous schools for education is expected
to bring antagonist sides together. This is what the Rwandan government is doing now. After
noticing that killings were intensified due to ignorance and poverty, people when white men
come. Therefore, it is doing its best to achieve education for all and meet the Millennium
Development Goals. In this regard, together with the people, lots of schools have been built and
now every Rwandan has access to education as a key to development and self-reliance.
3.5.5. Patience
Ngugi teaches the people that patience is needed in the society for cooperation and interaction to
be possible. People are differently natured. Some are good other bad hearted. Miriamu gets
patient towards Joshua’s bad behaviour because it is her nature: ‘She was a peace-loving woman
and she never liked unnecessary tension in the house. Her injunction to her children was always:
obey your father’ (p.33). This is quite mandatory for wives and husbands though some bad
behaviours are difficult to bear. For example, prostitution and temptation of killing are widely
intolerable. This was the same in Rwanda long ago. Wives were more required to respect their
husbands than the husbands were. Wives did. Nowadays because of a good policy of gender
balance; they should equally respect each other.
In Rwanda, the spouses are recommended to be patient and be together in both bad and good
situations. The government recognizes that some people are not kind and hardly get patient. For
this reason there is recommended age for marriage in Rwanda which is 21. The couple should
also have a legal marriage and choose the way they will manage their property.
Patience is expressed through Waiyaki. He bears to keep coping with Kamau but he knows that
he hates him for his father was in big fighting with Waiyaki. He no doubt does this in order to
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keep cooperation especially because he teaches in the school of which he is the leader. Rwanda
is a better example for this. In 1994, people killed their neighbours but now they live together
and share everything. Patience is at the basis of this togetherness. In other words, after any
disastrous event life should go on.
3.5.6. Obedience
Nyambura’s behavior towards his parents, Kamau’s and those of Waiyki indicate that obeying all
people particularly parents is very important for being blessed. Muthoni does not respect his
father’s religion and chooses circumcision. The end of his plan becomes bad and every one even
the elders wonder why she has betrayed his father: ‘She had died clinging to that image, to that
obsession which had led her from Makuyu to Kameno. Who knew what it was? The only question
which people had asked was - Why did she do it…? Why? Why? And even for Waiyaki the
question remained – Why?’ (p.51) Ngugi recommends children to maximumly respect their
parents. According to the Rwandan culture, this is almost obligatory. A child is expected to
respect the parents and every one in general. It is seen in the establishment of laws where for
example it is optional for the parents to give heritage to children.
3.5.7. Bravery
Like in other African traditional societies, brave people are found in Kenya. Ngugi tells this by
portraying Waiyaki as a strong and brave person from his childhood: ‘The goat had run after one
of the herdboys. Seeing this, waiyaki had taken a stick and run after the goat shouting. The goat
turned on him and jabbed him with its horns, tearing the flesh to the bone. His father arrived in
time to save him … That was a long while ago. The wound had healed, leaving him a hero
among the boys’ (p.6). This is not quite astonishing because there have been a lot of brave people
in the tribe. In him, one notices that hero people who fight against the colonization have got this
spirit from their brothers. Nonetheless, the author tells us that bravery should be accompanied
and guided by others especially old people.
Bravery is part of Rwandan culture and she had brave people like Rukara Rwabishingwe who
killed a white man, a great magician the King Ruganzu II Ndori. Nowadays the culture is still
there and that is what pushed other many people to fight for independence. The writer no doubt
43
recognizes the bravery of Muthoni. Few people can stick to their ideas when they are failing. It
shows well that brave women exist as we do have in Rwanda like Ndabaga.
Generally, Rwanda had, has and will certainly have both brave female and male people. This is
why the country has tried to be out of the problems she encountered and a lot of countries have
been learning from her.
3.5.8. Heredity
Ngugi believes that heredity plays a great role in one’s talent. It is explained well in Waiyaki’s
talent from his father Chege: ’Chege, his father, was a well-known elder in Kameno.... He knew
the meaning of every ritual and every sign. So, he was at the head of every important ceremony.
Any stories ran around him. Some people said that he had the gift of magic’ (p.6&7). Waiyaki,
who proves the high ability and bravery in whatever he does, convinces people not only because
of his actions but also descendants: ‘Waiyaki was the last in the line of that great seer who had
prophesied of a black messiah from the hills.’ (p.37) Even his rival Kabonyi knows this.
This biological transmission of different similarities among relatives is very valued in the
community of Gikuyu. It has been one of the factors that convince people of Kameno that
Murungu stopped there and left the leadership to them. Everyone agrees that the great talented
people like Watchiori, Mugo Wa Kibiro and Kamiri from the area take root from Murungu.
This is also viewed through Muthoni’s behaviours and his father’s. This is to mean that the
author believes in the proverb, ‘Like father, like son’. Though he might not accept its total
influence especially because even the science at a certain level, he may agree with the ancient
Kingdom succession system in Africa. With it, only one family governed the country and peace
was everywhere more than today.
In Rwanda, like elsewhere, balancing the nature and nurture in one’s behaviours is difficult.
Despite this, it is believed that people of the same family necessarily share some characteristics.
This had more value in the ancient leadership whereby the king should be from Nyiginya clan.
Rwandan people believe that the father transmit more bahaviours than the mother. It becomes
sometimes controversial when they say that female children belong to the mother and male
children to the father. Though this problematic belief of Rwandese, heredity is there as a lot of
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similar people in talents and physical as well as biological features. Nevertheless, no doubt that
people can also look alike without any blood relationship.
3.5.9. Culture preservation
In The River Between, Ngugi portrays Makuyu and Kameno as a community that strives to keep
its cherished tradition. It is a community that deeply takes origin from its tribal customs that has
lasted a long time. As other communities, the ridges have a rich history. The African societies
believe that they have origin. For example, Rwandan people believe that it is Gihanga
Ngomijana created this country though this theory becomes problematic when white men arrive.
It is revealed that Gikuyu and Mumbi, the mother and father of the tribe, sojourned in the ridges
and were given the land by Murungu: ‘This land I give to you:-O man and woman it is yours to
rule and till, you and your posterity …’ (p 2).
That is, African communities have their own culture and they do not want to change. The writer
criticizes this ideology of wishing to keep the total culture. This is seen through
misunderstanding among them when new settlers come. This shows very well that white men do
not bring only bad things. African people should sit and decide the wrong and right. They should
also accept that culture is born, grows and dies as a language when it is not preserved.
No one should think that African societies have heroes in this period of colonization. Heroism
has been part of the culture. Ngugi tells us of great men whose fame resounds in the surrounding
countries. First is the great seer Mugo wa Kibiro, who prophesied the coming of the white men.
Then there is Kamiri the great witch whose witchery baffles even the white man. There is also
Wachiori, the great warrior who led the tribe against Ukabi. This habit of sacrificing yourself
was there from long ago in Rwanda. People who were known as ‘Abacengeri’ used to shed their
blood in order to save the entire community. Rwanda had great people who fought for it to
become large as it is now. Among them there is Gihanga Ngomijana as well as other kings of
war named as Kigeli for instance.
In the novel, we are introduced to the ritual of circumcision which is the epitome of the tribe’s
identity. It is in this ceremony that young boys and girls become men and women. Circumcision
is so much cherished that even Muthoni, a Christian abandons her home in order to be
45
circumcised; despite her disastrous end, she is happy at her achievement: ‘… I see Jesus, and I
am a woman beautiful in the tribe…’ (p.51). There is the historical conflict about dominance of
the community.
The coming of Christianity escalates this conflict. Makuyu accepts the change and becomes the
center of Christianity, while Kameno becomes the stronghold of the traditionalists. The two
ridges are thus set up as centers of conflicting ideologies. The group of Christians in Makuyu
came; together and gave prayers to God but on the other hand, they criticize their neighbors: ‘…
elders of Kameno collected and gave sacrifices to Murungu under the sacred tree.’ (p.29).
Thus, the ancient conflict between the ridges over leadership now becomes a conflict of religion.
Amidst this inter-ridge conflict, personal conflicts emerge. Individuals use this conflict to
advance the personal interests. Joshua emerges as the leader of the Christians and is pitted
against the tribe through the Kiama led by Kabonyi. Kabonyi is initially Joshua’s assistant but
defects to the tribe and now leads a fiery war against his former colleague.
Perhaps the most significant personal conflict is that between Waiyaki on the one hand and
Kabonyi and Kamau on the other. The conflict stems from the leadership of the ridges. Kabonyi
believes his family is the rightful line of leadership of the ridges. He disputes the belief that
Chege, Waiyaki’s father descended from the line of Mugo Wa Kibiro. He is therefore angered by
Waiyaki’s rapid rise to leadership in the ridges. He feels his son Kamau should have played his
role.
We also witness conflict within individual’s conscience. This is particularly with characters like
Waiyaki and Nyambura. Waiyaki finds himself in a conflict of conscience. He is torn between
loyalty to the tribe and his love for Nyambura, a Christian. Nyambura is also torn between
loyalty to her father and Christianity, and her love for Waiyaki a non-Christian.
3.5.10. Fighting for Independence and Freedom
This novel is written when almost all African countries are struggling for independence after a
long period of colonization. Ngugi informs the advantages and disadvantages of white men. He
expresses them through the importance of Siriana and Livingstone to Gikuyu people. The white
men bring a formal education to African by building schools where the nationalists have studied.
46
They also build hospitals and churches. In general they bring civilization. It is after the white
men come that Chege decides to send his child Waiyaki to school. Sick people can now go to
hospital at Siriana after their traditional medicines fails. And Muthoni may not have died if she
had been taken to hospital on time.
Among disadvantages, there is division among the communities, tax payment, occupation of the
land, alienation of the African culture and so on. The society that Ngugi portrays becomes
divided and conflicts begin as soon as the white man comes. This becomes a big issue that
should be solved before fighting against them. Waiyaki who has been prophesied as a savior of
the society when the butterflies come, is struggling for unity and reconciliation first in order to
fight. The challenge that he encounters is that the Christians who are against the traditionalists
and the latter are extremist. It challenges Waiyaki to bring them together while he was not
allowed to meet Christians alone.
Waiyaki finds himself in dilemma. Elders are convinced by Kabonyi that the freedom is more
needed than education yet Waiyaki finds the solution in it. Waiyaki believes that his aimwill be
achieved after a long time while a lot of people like direct interest. He is accused of chatting with
Christians and white men and betrays the tribe whereas it is for the tribe’s long term interests:
‘As for Siriana, I can only tell you that I have never entered into any negotiation with the white
man. I had gone there to try and get teachers for our schools which you agreed to build.’ (p.123)
As a result it becomes almost impossible to fight against new settlers who are pouring in
abundance like spring water. Everybody wonders how they will get free from this colonization. It
should obviously become a cumbersome struggle because people are not together.
Some people elsewhere even in Rwanda may not feel comfortable in a system where they work,
pray or live together. Once they are negatively dominated with someone and they do not have the
same understanding, he keeps dominating them. All leaders are happy when the workers (or
opposition forces) are in conflicts. The workers do not think of their problems against them
instead they keep quarreling among themselves. They report even one another to corrupt the
leader and see them right and be cherished like Joshua.
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3.5.11. Extremism against Moderation
These both kinds of behaviors are basic to the antagonism that we observe in the society of
Kikuyu. Most of the people of Kameno especially elders are extremist traditionalist as the
narrator tells: ‘People knew that Waiyaki had taken an oath given by the Kiama never to
contaminate the tribe with impurity and never to reveal the secrets of the Kiama . ..’ (p.146).
They want the purity of the culture whereas it is dynamic. Ngugi proves this by pointing out
difficulties they encounter when refusing the change. For instance Muthoni falls sick after
circumcision, instead of taking her immediately to hospital; they are giving her different
traditional herbs until the case becomes worse.
They become against the moderation of Waiyaki. This is shown in Kabonyi’s attitudes towards
Waiyaki where he accuses him of coping with Joshua and white men. Waiyaki accepts the
tradition and he can cope with Christians like Nyambura that he even wants to marry. He bears to
enter a Christian church though he knows very well that it is against the tradition.
Makuyu does not want any traditional ritual to occur to them. This is cited ‘To Joshua, indulging
in this ceremony was the unforgivable sin. Had he not been told to take up everything and leave
Egypt? He would journey courageously, a Christian soldier, going on to the Promised Land ….
In fact, Joshua believed circumcision to be so that he devoted a prayer to asking God to forgive
him for marrying woman who had been circumcised.’(p.30). Joshua who takes the head of the
Christians terribly hates the tradition. It is difficult to understand why he cannot go to take his
child Muthoni in Kameno whereas he knows that circumcision is not good. He cannot visit him
to hospital or burry her. For him a non-Christian person is like an already dead body.
The both behaviors are observed in Rwandan communities. For instance in Rwanda some
people, especially old people, rely on racism. They give it value in whatever they do and do not
want to change. Besides they teach it to their children. For them it is difficult to change what
they are accustomed to. It is a negative reflection that the government is struggling with and it is
diminishing. Most of people behave this way so as to keep the interests they had. The selfishness
makes some people become extremists but they should be moderate in most of the time. They
should understand that as time goes on the world changes.48
A big number of Rwandese is becoming moderate because we can see a great change that even
old people accept. For example Rwandan women understand that having birth at hospital is
better. Gender equality and balance became a problem at the beginning but now few people
doubt about the woman’s ability. In Rwanda you find old women who wear trousers something
that was strongly forbidden. Another typical example is the changes that have happened in
education system and Rwandan people accepted the change. Actually, the government has
injected in the people the habit of moderation. Now a lot of Rwandese believe that culture can
change in order to conform themselves with others in this global village.
3.5.12. Jealousy
This is a behavior, which is often understood in a negative sense. It is explored through Kabonyi.
For Ngugi, this is quite normal. The fact that Kabonyi appreciates Waiyaki and he does not want
him to lead the society indicates how bad the behavior is. It makes person always see positive
things in the negative perspective and become selfish. It makes him blind of what is right and
fruitful.
In The River Between, Kabonyi wishes his son were in Waiyaki’s position yet he accepts his
talent and believes in prophecy. Now he cannot see that the tribe needs a competent leader who
is aware of many of the secrets and the past of the ridges. As the author declares, this is normal
and it is found in all communities. In daily life, for example in the school, students may criticize
an intelligent student in order to minimize his or her talent and lose some profits he or she might
get from the inner gift. Actually life is a competition and failure or success is achieved for
various reasons. Some people fail understand the failures and be left away. Then they decide to
fight against those who have succeeded in order to weaken their speed. It seems unbelievable
because most of the time no one has led him to failure.
People should not always get this word with a negative sense. We learn from others in the
society and no one can stand alone. It is positive jealousy when someone becomes committed to
imitate another so as to progress as he. Therefore many of our achievements are from positive
jealousy. The writer explains well that Chege decides to send his son to Siriana because of
jealousy. This was to the result of learning that fighting against someone requires some ability
that the same rival, white men, has.
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3.5.13. Betrayal
In The River Between Ngugi Wa Thiong’o explores the concept of betrayal in society and how it
affects human relations. Because of the various conflicts in the novel, betrayal becomes
inevitable outcome. We witness a number of betrayals in the story. First, Muthoni betrays her
family when she rebels and runs away to her aunt, to be circumcised. This is big blow to her
father Joshua who wants his family to become a model for other Christians. It is a kind of
disobedience that the writer does not appreciate. That is children should respect their parents. It
becomes ill-will when you want to ignore their thoughts and regulations. Ngugi teaches about
this by presenting the immediate problems that both Joshua’s girls faced soon after they dare
leave their father’s belief and home.
Actually as the author believes, at early age, a child should respect the parents’ advice. Maybe,
against in a respectful way when it becomes mature. Nowadays, this problem appears in Rwanda
especially because the children’s rights have extremely improved. It is really good but some
children disobey by dropping out schools, refusing their duties as well as leaving homes at under
age provided by the law. This is a disgraceful behaviour that everyone should fight against.
Evidently one should avoid bias and abuse because whatever is done over children is to educate
them.
Kabonyi, too, betrays the tribe, Joshua and then Waiyaki. When the white man comes, he and
Joshua quickly reject the tradition to the Christianity. Ngugi portrays Kabonyi as an indecisive
person as he deserts the Joshua’s church to the tradition again. They two have been the leaders
of the Christian church in the ridges but now Kabonyi leads the Kiama in a fiery war against the
Christians. People of Kabonyi’s behaviors are found everywhere. Most of them fight for their
benefit. It is quite normal.
He also fights for the leadership of the community by convincing people that Waiyaki is
betraying the society. He even thinks that his son Kamau ought to have occupied the position.
Ngugi reminds that we should care about our friends. Kamau is Waiyaki’s childhood friend
together with Kinuthia. However, he betrays Waiyaki’s trust in by spying on him and reporting
him to the Kiama. So, most of the time it is your so called closed friend that can do something
50
wrong to you. This means that an enemy does not come far from one because someone has to
know you vell well so as to fight against you.
We learn again that young leaders must pay attention to girls in order to achieve their goals.
Waiyaki’s actions also amount to betrayal. He has been earmarked for leadership. From his
childhood, his father Chege initiates him into the tribe’s tradition, revealing to him the secrets of
the tribe. As a teacher, people revere him and look up to him for guidance. However he betrays
them when he goes against the oath of allegiance that he takes to keep the tribe pure. By
interacting with Christians and wanting to marry an uncircumcised girl Nyambura, he goes
against the tribe’s customs.
3.5.14. Love
From the story, it is noticed that sometimes love between people becomes impossible. It is
acquired in both Nyambura and Waiyaki’s love. They love each other but the barrier of belief
impedes them from getting married. In Rwandan interaction, some parents do not allow their
children to get married to anyone for different reasons. Among them there is a problem of
families that killed others’ members in 1994. With this case, some marriages become impossible
even if the children may not have any problem. Some children might want to bring the families
together and it hardly becomes possible. In the story Nyambura really loves Waiyaki and sees
peace in him and so does Waiyaki. Their dreams do not come true because a girl is loyal to the
Christianity whereas Waiyaki is a traditionalist.
Like in the novel, the religion hampers love between some Rwandans. Some parents do not want
their children, especially girls, to be out of their church. This even interrupts love among the
couples and leads to great misunderstanding.
Apart from this unreasonably impossible love, the author explores the exemplary love between
Muthoni and her big sister Nyambura. They love each other to the extent that when Muthoni
wants to leave home in order to become circumcised asks her fellow sister for advice. Though it
is difficult for Muthoni to change her mind, she believes that Nyambura can assist her when it is
to take a decision. This kind of love is found but not everywhere in Rwandan communities.
Some brothers and sisters are in land conflicts due to various reasons. The most one, I see, is
51
acculturation and/or selfishness. Some people no longer give appropriate value to parental
relationship. This may be one of the consequences of the tragedy that occurred in Rwanda.
Nyambura proves this love when she goes to visit her sister when she gets informed that Muthoni
is ill. She goes there though she knows that her father does not want it. She gives the value the
relationship that already exists there. Therefore one should help everyone because he or she is a
human being and in particular your relatives. The love that Waiyaki has to Muthoni indicates the
human hood in him.
3.5.15. The Complexity of a Human Being
This is a behavior which is quite normal. Actually, it is difficult to define and believe one’s
behaviors and thoughts. This message is expressed through the characters like Kabonyi,
Muthoni, and Nyambura. According to the way these characters change, this is caused by one’s
own interests and carelessness. Kabonyi is portrayed as someone who may not be stable.
The abrupt change into the Christianity and then back to the tradition shows very well that at any
time he can change or make a mistake in choosing. He is not careful when taking a decision of
becoming Christian because he should have noticed that it is difficult to cope with strange
people. He had better wait and observe them before receiving their belief. Joshua, who has been
cooperating with him for a long time, suffers from the conflict and attacks that Kabonyi and the
Kiama he leads prepares over him and his Christians. It might be unbelievable for Christians.
There are numerous people with this behavior in Rwanda. For example the politicians who have
worked in a government system and go out and oppose what they used to explain to different
people. Many of them they first of all need their own interest to be achieved.
Both of Joshua’s girls rebel in an unpredictable way and soon after encounter problems. In other
words wrong doing is always fatal. Though Joshua quickly accepts their rebelliousness, but it is
hard to say that he might have seen it. Therefore these are surprising decisions that consider their
interests which are be circumcision and love.
The love of Waiyaki and an uncircumcised girl, Nyambura shows that it is difficult to define
someone. Almost all elders are convinced that he cannot betray the tribe yet he can after a lot of
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proofs which Kabonyi points out. All in all, in any community even in Rwanda, one can say that
a human being is indefinite because no one can exactly know how his heart changes as a result of
living conditions. This is relation with what Christians believe in that God makes it impossible to
know what is in the heart/thoughts of another person.
3.6. SummaryThis subchapter highlights the main concern of the present study. The presentation and analysis
of literary techniques and Characters as well as their characterizations are clearly described. As
the major focus of the work, themes from The River Between by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o such as
education, bravery, circumcision and others are analyzed, interpreted and illustrated as well in
relation to the Rwandan community. Therefore, the next chapter describes the last voice of the
researcher basing on what the analysis has come up with. Clearly, hereafter are the general
conclusion and recommendations made to improve the well-being of our society.
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CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1. ConclusionThe River Between by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o is a very interesting literary work with a high
verisimilitude to Rwandan society. The set hypotheses have been validated. After intensive
reading, a deep analysis and interpretation of the content, I have noticed that culture
preservation, education, conflicts and many others are the themes. They have social influence to
the portrayed society in the novel. I have also found that the themes highly influence the
Rwandan society. It is about the traditional societies and their perception of the white men
attitudes and culture. The story depicts the behaviors that are likely to meet any society
especially in African countries. Apart from the characters’ traits, the events that are narrated are
very realistic. Most of them are what we can even observe in Rwanda or in Africa just when the
white people came.
The author teaches us about culture preservation. It is very crucial to know the past when you
want to effectively plan for a better future. He demonstrates how a community without old
people encounters problems. Ngugi tells this through Chege who knows almost everything of the
tradition of the community. This wise old man warns people about the coming of the white men
as Mugo Wa Kibiro prophesied long time ago. They absolutely reject his words but after they
become challenged by them. They remember his words when he has already died.
In Rwandan culture, old people should be respected for many history of Rwandan culture is
learnt from them. This is seen in ceremonies like wedding, informal and formal national
meetings. They form a national council called Inteko izirikana and the government provides
them with a monthly amount of money so as to live for long. This is in line with the Igbo sayings
that ‘An elder sitting on the ground sees what a young cannot see sitting on the top of a tree’ and
‘the words of elders are the words of action’. This implies that the words of elders are full of
wisdom and insight because they see what is hidden or what can’t be seen by our naked eyes.
From Waiyaki, it is learnt that young leaders are more exposed to temptations than others though
they may be brave or talented. It is believed by a lot of people ,even in Rwanda, that they are not
better people to choose for some position which require much wisdom. Among the hindrances
there are ladies who may want to make love with them and become out of their responsibilities.
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The lack of experience also leads them to mismanagement of some issues especially when it is to
make a choice or a conclusion about what to do. In the novel, Waiyaki has proved the ability of
leadership in him since he was a small child. He is even from the family of talented people.
Nobody doubts that he deserves to be chosen as the leader and savior of the community.
Nevertheless, he fails accomplishing his responsibilities like uniting the traditionalists and
Christians. He is challenged by Kabonyi. He ignores the culture and betrays the community due
to love with an uncircumcised girl, Nyambura. He obviously falls in these crimes because of lack
of experience. He might not have committed such crimes if his father had still been there. That is
young people should pay much attention when they take high responsibilities like leadership.
As a head of any group of people, advisors who are more mature and wise should be there in for
fear of many mistakes. This attitude is much needed because a mistake affects everyone and
many other activities in a group. This is understood by the way he fails to unite the people to
fight against the white people and people become slaves. People’s land is occupied and they have
to pay taxes.
One should learn that wrong doing like betrayal is always fatal. Everyone had better be good to
all people especially parents. In the story it is acquired that disobedience and betrayal are bad
behaviors that should be avoided. These disgraceful behaviors are found to Muthoni and
Nyambura who find themselves in terrible situations after leaving the parents. Muthoni dies and
Nyambura is brought by The Kiama from Waiyaki’s hut to the public meeting of both ridges.
She does not expect this to happen as she highly believes in her love’s power. All these ill-will
circumstances do not only affect children but also their parents who have betrayed the tradition
though they do not suffer much because of their belief in God. Therefore children should honor
every person particularly those who are older than them and listen to their pieces of advice.
The writer also encourages the society to keep the culture of heroism. This is a good behavior
that everyone has to fight for. One ought to sacrifice himself for the country, family or other
people at any time there is a danger. So patriotism and bravery always matter.
At the beginning of the novel we are introduced to the fighting for dominance and leadership. As
time goes there is antagonism among people. This is quite normal in the community as one wants
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to be more successful in what he does. However opposition is not good because it most of the
time creates big confrontation. At this level the problem becomes too difficult to control. This is
when people die or eternal quarrels exist in or among the societies. Rwandan people may be
more knowledgeable than any others because they had division. It makes Rwandese adopt the
unity, reconciliation, tolerance, patience, forgiveness as well as moderation. These are ones of
the approaches that everyone has to adopt in order to avoid conflicts. Waiyaki attempts some of
these approaches like unity, reconciliation and moderation but fails because of some other
mistakes but he is in a good way.
4.2. RecommendationsOn the basis of the evidence from this study, the following recommendations are forwarded in
order to improve the well-being of our communities:
4.2.1. Recommendation to Students and Parents
Nobody doubts that The River Between by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o conveys a better message to
people who are long sighted. It covers a lot of lessons that are very helpful for both children and
parents. A lot of moral lessons are discussed.
For students especially secondary school ones, this is a good novel to read for leisure, studying,
research and so on. For the reading to be successful, students should have at least elementary
ability of analyzing a written text so as to get the maximum message. They should be able to
relate the read with the community where they live and apply them. It provides values that
should characterize young people to become good future leaders.
Parents should pay attention and know what should be acquired or be left out. Ngugi presents
some behaviors which might have been relevant when he wrote the story which may now be less
valuable. One should accept that the world gradually changes.
4.2.2. Recommendation to Teachers
The River Between is a good novel with a relevant and significant content for a student. It makes
a student know his or her role in the society. Due to its grammar and literary properties it is
among the novels that should be taught to the beginners. That is, it should be used to teach and
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introduce literature because students will understand easily quotations that may be needed to
reinforce or clarify literary elements.
Teachers should introduce literature before letting students read this story. This is necessary
because always comprehension is an important purpose for reading. This is in the idea that when
you read and you don’t understand what you are reading, you become less interested. For the
reader to understand the deep meaning, some literary elements such as figures of speech, setting
and others had better be delivered to him or her before.
When reading this novel, students extremely need teacher’s assistance. This is why teachers
should help students understand the story in their real contexts. It is important as some ideas of
the story may seem less interesting. For example colonization and female circumcision may be
less interesting and important to students even though they contain some moral lessons that
people should notice.
4.2.3. Recommendation to Further Researchers
The River Between by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o is a novel that is about the colonization and the
attitudes of Africans towards it. The writer used simple structure and language. It implicates that
it is the deep meaning which makes it be somehow complicated to understand. So when dealing
with it, the focus should be on the deep meaning rather than surface meaning. Its content is so
wide and complex that its interpretation may vary depending on the society you are referring to.
The Characters’ traits seem to exist in a lot of communities but they are complex. This is quite
normal depending on the societies’ moral values. Therefore when the focus of the critical
analysis is on the social influence, you need be very careful. Your analysis will be interpreted
depending on the society you are talking about.
Similarly, as far as the message is concerned, the writer has delivered enormous ideas that should
obviously be dealt with in order to understand the story. For the research to be successful,
different literary elements like literary techniques and devices, setting, plot, characters and their
characterization and others should be taken into account.
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