217

Notes

Introduction: Pain, Literature and the Personal

1. World literature, as a term and a category for analysis, is contested terrain, and I agree with many of the reservations recently expressed by Charles Forsdick and Graham Huggan. In referring to world literature, I am first pointing towards a field of literary study in the US and the UK, within which it is possible to locate many of the critics who have concerned themselves with literary expressions of pain from beyond Western Europe and the US. I am also aligning myself with David Damrosh’s investment in cultural net-works and Franco Moretti’s emphasis on global inequalities within the world literary system.

2. For more about medical approaches to pain see Melzack and Wall’s classic The Challenge of Pain, first published in 1982. Relevant publications featuring recent research, targeted at clinicians, include Core Curriculum for Professional Education in Pain (Charlton) and the International Association for the Study of Pain’s journal, PAIN.

3. Trauma itself is notoriously difficult to define. The genealogy of the term is explored by Ruth Leys in Trauma: A Genealogy and Roger Luckhurst in a chapter of The Trauma Question entitled “the genealogy of a concept” (19–76). As Anne Whitehead points out, much of the late-twentieth-century interest in trauma can be traced back to the 1980 inclusion of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (Memory 114). Luckhurst opens his book with a discussion of the spe-cific criteria specified by the DSM (1).

4. For more recent discussions of ethnicity and pain perception see “Ethnicity, Catastrophizing and Qualities of the Pain Experience” (Fabian et al.).

5. Functional in the sense that they are used to build an evidence base for a human rights organisation.

6. I will use the verb to aestheticise and the adjective aestheticised throughout this book. Whilst these words can carry negative connotations, I am employ-ing them here in a positive sense to indicate the ways in which ‘literariness’ contributes to and enriches the representation of suffering.

1 Painful Encounters in Yvonne Vera’s The Stone Virgins

1. These biographical details are drawn from two obituaries by Primorac (“Obituary”) and Dunphy.

2. For more on these themes, in particular the discussion of Vera and history, see Ranger (“History”), Wilson-Tagoe, Bull-Christiansen and Chan.

3. ZAPU stands for the Zimbabwe African People’s Union, ZANU for the Zimbabwe African National Union. For more on the historical background to the colonisation of Rhodesia and the Zimbabwean liberation struggle see Beach, Lan, Ranger (Violence) and Kriger.

218 Notes

4. ZIPRA, the Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army, was the armed wing of ZAPU. For more on dissident attacks, Mugabe’s 5 Brigade and other govern-ment forces active at this time, see Ranger (Violence), Alexander & McGregor or Bull-Christiansen.

5. Catholic Commission, Part One, Introduction. 6. It is probable that Vera draws on a variety of sources for her accounts of

violent incidents. Kezi, the town where The Stone Virgins is set, is also a key case study in Breaking the Silence.

7. These ideas are developed in even more depth in Primorac’s subsequent monograph The place of tears: the novel and politics in modern Zimbabwe. Primorac does discuss The Stone Virgins in this later text, in a chapter enti-tled “Crossing into the Space-Time of Memory: Yvonne Vera” (145–69).

8. We could also ask how it is possible for one author to produce such diversity of experience. A potential answer might be offered by Derek Attridge who describes the ways in which alterity enters the text in The Singularity of Literature.

9. For a historical perspective on healing in Zimbabwe see Ranger (“War”) and Schmidt.

10. For more on women, literacy and violence see A. Armstrong and Getecha and Chipika.

2 Between Minds and Bodies – the Location of Pain and Racial Trauma in Works by Bessie Head and J.M. Coetzee

1. See, for example, the edited collection Psycho-Physical Dualism Today: An Interdisciplinary Approach (Antonietti et al.).

2. This biographical information comes from the 2002 Penguin edition of A Question of Power and Killam and Rowe’s The Companion to African Literatures.

3. This is mainly due to his charge sheet identification as ‘CM’, short for ‘Coloured’ male (70). Given the authorities’ tendency to misread Michael’s identity, this is not a reliable source of information but it does suggest that Michael is treated as ‘Coloured’ irrespective of his actual identity. I will use the word ‘Coloured’ in quotation marks throughout this chapter. In this, I am following the lead of Mohamed Adhikari, who also uses quotation marks ‘wherever it is necessary to mention people who are generally regarded as being Coloured but are known to reject the identity’ (xv).

4. Coetzee and Head also draw on international examples of racial discrimina-tion, in particular the Holocaust (Norridge “After”).

5. The cultural nuances of these ‘Coloured’ identities may be quite differ-ent: Bessie Head has bi-racial parents and Michael K could be read as being ‘Cape Coloured’, which would evoke a mixed-race heritage spanning several generations.

6. For an overview of traditional biomedical models and their evolution see Bendelow and Williams.

7. Descartes’ meditations on mind-body dualism also informed his specific theories about the way we experience pain (Melzack and Wall 157–93).

Notes 219

8. This sexlessness is interesting given the West’s tendency to oversexualise the black body as another reductive category of racial essentialism. (See Fanon and Cress Welsing, amongst others). The work of disability theorists who discuss the desexualisation of people deemed to be physically flawed might shed some light on this (Murphy).

9. This also affects the protagonists’ own sexual identities. Elizabeth’s visions taunt her with hyper-sexualised African girls to underline her own sexual inadequacy, whilst also imbuing in her a continual sense of self-loathing and shame (44, 48, 104, 127). Similarly, after a homeless woman performs oral sex on Michael at the end of Life & Times of Michael K, he feels both shamed and objectified (179, 181).

10. Michael accepts help from families at two points in the narrative. Firstly, he is fed and given a bed for the night by a young man and his family on his jour-ney from the hospital to Prince Albert. Unusually, he feels a desire to speak and even shows the children his mother’s ashes. Then, during Michael’s internment in the Jakkalsdrif camp, he forms a friendship with another young man, Robert, and his family. Michael gives Robert half his wages and in return his friend looks after him. They discuss the meaning of the camps together and this begins the gradual process of Michael’s politicisation.

11. Turner points out that ‘limen’ means ‘threshold’ in Latin (94) and in this thesis I will use the term quite loosely to describe any state of being in-between and outside the bounds of the usual structures of society.

12. Turner explains that he prefers the term ‘communitas’ to ‘community’ in order to distinguish between the ‘modality of a social relationship’ and an ‘area of common living’ (96).

3 Women’s Pains and the Creation of Meaning in Francophone Narratives from West Africa

1. See, for example, Kleinman, Das and Lock (eds.) Social Suffering for mul-tiple insights into these social processes that create or seek to understand suffering.

2. Of the Dogon, Bekers writes: ‘Amma, the god of creation, tries to penetrate the female Earth he has just created. His attempt is thwarted by the Earth’s potent clitoris, which, in the shape of a termite hill, rises against Amma to prevent the rape. The almighty Creator however, works his will and excises the Earth’s clitoris, thus ensuring the submission of Earth, and of all women after her.’ (Rising 3). The Old Testament narrative of Eve’s punishment also evokes the physical infliction of pain on women as a means to ensure sub-mission (Genesis 3:16).

3. For a map overview of the ‘Prevalence of female genital mutilation in Africa and the Yemen’, see the World Health Organisation, Eliminating 5.

4. In this I am following the lead of Elisabeth Bekers who explains that although ‘FGM’ is common in ‘(Western) human rights and abolitionist cir-cles, [the term is] denounced as racist by African and postcolonial critics’ (Bekers, “Painful” 57–8). She prefers ‘excision’ because, although admittedly still a political choice, she feels it is more transparent and descriptive of actual practices.

220 Notes

5. Cameroon is not, strictly speaking, one of the sixteen countries which make up the UN definition of West Africa, but it borders Nigeria and has many similarities with the Western region. Because the analysis of pain meanings requires very close reading, I will offer my own English translations for each of these texts.

6. For a discussion of the ways in which West African writers explore sexual-ity in the context of conflict see ‘Sex as Synecdoche: Intimate Languages of Violence in Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun and Aminatta Forna’s The Memory of Love’ (Norridge “Sex”).

7. Although this sense of fulfilment appears to be active, the subjunctive tense in the French (‘pour que je m’accomplisse’) makes it clear that Tanga is acted upon and, as I will argue later, is entirely passive.

8. See, for example, Korouma’s exploration of the cultural meanings of infer-tility and Seydi Sow’s description of painful and invasive infertility treat-ment in Misères d’une boniche.

9. For more on literary explorations of cultural meanings of HIV narratives in Zimbabwean and South African literature see Attree.

10. As I will discuss in the following section, this text, perhaps more than any of the others, is inscribed with a specific agenda – writing against the prac-tice of excision.

11. The phrase ‘femme nue, femme noire’ sounds much more lyrical and roman-tic in its original French and does not translate well.

12. There is a published translation for Kourouma’s novel but I have opted to offer my own translation – rather more literal than the one favoured by the African Writers Series – because I believe it will give a more direct insight into the inflections of the original French.

13. For commentary on interruption and illness, see Frank 56–9.14. As we saw in the first chapter discussing the polythetic in relation to Yvonne

Vera.15. For more on psychoanalytic interpretations of pain and meaning, see Juan-

David Nasio’s The Book of Love and Pain, which examines Freudian and Lacanian conceptions of suffering.

16. I have written about the erotic content of development and rape narratives in the context of civil war (“Sex”).

17. See, for example, Lourde’s The Cancer Journals or Bauby’s Le Scaphandre et le papillon.

4 Writing around Pain – Personal Testimonies from Rwanda by African Writers

1. Genocide denial in Rwanda, as elsewhere, remains a salient issue. But where the existence of genocide is agreed, the aversive nature of the crime is widely acknowledged.

2. Gourevitch’s text, for example, is strewn with quotations from Conrad, Plato, Ellison, Deronda, Milton and Levi, although admittedly Umutesi begins her text with a quotation from Dante.

3. All quotations from Mukagasana, Tadjo and Diop in this chapter are my own translations. Quotations from Umutesi’s memoir are taken from the English translation.

Notes 221

4. See, for example, the African Studies Review “Focus” on the text in volume 48, number 3, December 2005.

5. Respective publication dates are Mukagasana (1997), Umutesi (2000), Tadjo (2000) and Diop (2000).

6. Tierno Monénembo’s novel, L’Aîné des orphelins (The Oldest of the Orphans), is also widely available in French and English but focuses on the experiences of children, whereas all the other texts I will discuss are concerned with adults.

7. For example, Umutesi suggests the RPF were responsible for the shoot-ing down of the presidential plane (46). Since the book was published the January 2010 Mutsinzi report and French judge Marc Revidic’s findings published in January 2012 strongly suggest that this was not the case and the missile was launched from an area controlled by the Rwandan Army at the time.

8. See, for example, Tadjo’s comment in the final section of her book, “The Second Return”: “I have not recovered from Rwanda. Rwanda cannot be exorcised.” (118).

9. See Christopher Taylor’s Sacrifice as Terror for more on the practice of wounding victims in order to ‘dispatch’ them later, particularly by severing Achilles tendons or otherwise injuring feet and legs (131, 134–5).

10. On this, Mukagasana remarks: ‘The genocide made us into strangers, even though we were united in our suffering’ (La mort 163).

11. In his discussion of extreme forms of violence, Taylor observes that impal-ing (through the anus or vagina) and the evisceration of pregnant women had been used during the earlier killings in Burundi. Other forms of torture, such as the emasculation of men and the breast oblation of women, were perhaps specific to the 1994 genocide (105). For more on the cultural mean-ings of this type of violence, see the chapter “The Cosmology of Terror” in his anthropological study Sacrifice as Terror (99–149).

12. For more on the desire to be punished and the strange feelings of a victim for his executioner, see Mukagasana (La mort 130, 194).

13. Work units made up of prisoners who collaborated with the concentration camp authorities.

14. Muganga means ‘doctor’. Mukagasana explains that she was called this as she was the most senior nurse in the area (La mort 17).

5 Responding to Pain, from Healing to Human Rights – Aminatta Forna, Antjie Krog and James Orbinski

1. Scarry makes this assertion in relation to torture, asserting that, for the torturer, ‘to allow the reality of the other’s suffering to enter his own consciousness would immediately compel him to stop the torture’ (57). Although other critics, such as Susan Sontag, might question the utility of our responses to suffering, academics do, for the most part, agree that the perception of pain in some way demands a response.

2. There are examples of other medical memoirs by African writers: Yolande Mukagasana (discussed in the previous chapter) was a nurse; Halima Bashir, author of Tears of the Desert (2009), is a Sudanese doctor.

3. See, for example, The Zanzibar Chest (Hartley) or Emergency Sex (Caine et al.). 4. See, for example, the Laura Waters film As We Forgive (2010).

222 Notes

5. This is not naïve praise – elsewhere, Orbinski is very critical of the French and of some members of the Catholic Church. He also pointedly refers to the abuses of power that went on in churches, such as the Église Sainte Famille in Kigali.

6. The importation of knowledge is particularly problematic in relation to psychological understandings of loss. Krog, for example, writes about the various stages of coming to terms with terminal illness and death as theo-rised by the psychologist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross (249). Such models fail to take account of the complexities of cultural settings and the diversity of approaches to death in South Africa alone.

7. Christopher Colvin echoes this sentiment in his article about the “Shifting Geographies of Suffering and Recovery”. Examining the political and medi-cal economy of storytelling, he concludes: ‘Perhaps in its deep concern with the dramatic and individuated violences often labeled as trauma, it simply misses much of what happens every day in South Africa. Any broad and suc-cessful therapeutic framework, any theodicy of self, suffering, and recovery, needs to be able to capture a significant portion of the experiences of the ordinary’ (183).

8. This particular passage became the topic of a plagiarism debate when Stephen Watson accused Krog of borrowing from Ted Hughes in New Contrast in February 2006. Further coverage of discussions can be found in Braude.

9. Krog’s subsequent text There was this Goat, co-authored with Nosisi Lynette Mpolweni-Zantsi and Kopano Ratele, would seem to support this argument, focusing as it does on the nuances of translation and meaning.

10. For more on complicity and the sense of ‘foldedness with the other’ that was involved in critiquing apartheid, see Sanders, Complicities 11.

11. For a discussion of truth in relation to transitional justice and literature relating to the TRC, see Gready “Novel”.

12. Thank-you to Michael Galchinsky for pointing out that these intellectual and emotional concerns intersect with commercial motivations.

Epilogue: Literature and the Place of Pain

1. They are also, of course, different in the history they commemorate – a genocide as opposed to a long-standing political system of oppression.

223

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Index

235

Achebe, Chinua, 208–9acute pain, 6–10, 111–12, 121, 181,

194, 208Adichie, Chimamanda, 3, 220aesthetics of pain, 1–22, 29–34, 41–2,

44, 152–8, 208, 211, 215–16, 217

Agamben, Giorgio, 5–6, 146Ahmed, Sara, 18amputation, 173, 180–1, 196apartheid, 1, 21, 22, 63, 64, 78, 79–87,

97, 171, 174, 178, 195, 203–4, 210, 222

Armah, Ayi Kwei, 201–2Attridge, Derek, 218

Bekers, Elisabeth, 100, 103, 104–5, 118–19, 219

Berry, Michael, 16Beyala, Calixthe, 104–33

C’est le soleil qui m’a brûlée, 104, 109, 128

Femme nue femme noire, 104, 113, 127, 128, 220

Tu t’appelleras Tanga, 104, 107, 119, 130, 131, 220

body, see mind-body dualism; sensesBotswana, 62, 96Boyce Davie, Carole, 117British Pain Society, 2–3, 65Brown, Wendy, 18, 124Bryce, Jane, 30, 56Butler, Judith, 84, 117

Cameroon, 104, 220Caruth, Cathy, 4–5, 186Césaire, Aimé, 8, 18–19, 44Challenge of Pain, The, 50, 110, 217,

218Chinodya, Shimmer, 51chronic pain, 10–12, 35–40, 172–4,

194, 208Clark, Phil, 141

Coetzee, J.M., 21, 61–98, 218Life & Times of Michael K, 21, 61–98

collective (identity, memory), 9, 13, 14, 26, 28, 41–2, 47, 51–2, 85, 105–10, 111–12, 132–3, 146, 166, 195, 213

Collingwood-Whittick, Sheila, 16community, 19, 51–2, 62, 64, 87–96,

105–10, 111–12, 140, 145, 153–4, 161, 187, 192–3, 219

corpse, 19, 49–50, 134–5, 147, 152–4, 157

Côte d’Ivoire, 103

Damasio, Antonio, 69, 72, 73, 97Dangor, Achmat, 1–2, 215–16Das, Veena, 11, 216, 219Descartes, René, 61, 65, 69, 71, 83, 218Diop, Boubacar Boris, 138–40, 143–4,

148, 150, 152, 154–60, 164–5Murambi, le livre des ossements,

138–40, 143–4, 148, 150, 152, 154–60, 164–5

Dongala, Emmanuel, 117dualism, see mind-body dualismDudai, Ron, 201Durrant, Sam, 195, 196

Eaglestone, Robert, 213Ecks, Stephan, 82–3Eltringham, Nigel, 147embodiment, 71–87Emecheta, Buchi, 3emotions

anger, 42, 88, 103, 113, 121–3, 125, 159, 163, 178–9, 181, 189, 190

fear, 32, 34, 43, 49, 53, 55, 57, 65, 74, 87, 99, 112–13, 126, 139, 143, 149–50, 155, 159, 160, 189, 196

grief, 150, 151, 194–5sadness, 26, 160–1, 169

ethnicity, 2, 12, 28, 136–8, 140–2, 146–7, 217

236 Index

excision, 1, 2, 20, 21, 23, 100–5, 106–10, 111–17, 118–24, 126–7, 130–3, 135, 152–3, 219, 220

Fanon, Frantz, 8, 81, 97, 219Felman, Shoshana, 5, 7female genital excision, see excisionForna, Aminatta, 24, 166, 167, 172, 174,

175–6, 177, 179, 180–1, 184–7, 190, 195–6, 197–8, 204–8, 211, 220

The Devil that Danced on the Water, 172, 184–5

The Memory of Love, 166, 167, 172, 174, 175–6, 177, 179, 180–1, 184–7, 190, 195–6, 197–8

Frank, Arthur, 11, 35–6, 44, 181–2Frankl, Viktor, 89

Galchinsky, Michael, 200–1, 211Gallagher, Susan, 79gender, 14, 23, 26, 29, 82–4, 93,

99–133genocide, 2, 16, 19, 23, 134–65,

170–1, 195, 198–9, 200, 202, 205, 208, 214, 220–2

genre, 21, 137, 139, 142, 170, 198, 201, 207, 211, 212–13

Good, Byron, 10–12, 36–7Good, Mary-Jo Delvecchio, 10, 12Gourevitch, Philip, 134–5, 136–7,

140, 165, 220We wish to inform you that tomorrow

we will be killed with our families, 134–5, 136–7, 140, 165, 220

graves, 46, 49–50, 145, 210Gready, Paul, 21, 190, 200, 214, 222grey zone, 158–64Gunner, Elizabeth, 57

Harrison, Nicholas, 59–60Hatzfeld, Jean, 147Hayot, Eric, 16Head, Bessie, 21, 22, 61–98, 99, 168,

173, 211, 218A Question of Power, 21, 61–98, 173

healing, 3, 24, 38–9, 50–60, 101, 110, 145, 166–81, 182, 187, 190, 194, 200, 208–9, 218

Hillman, James, 187

Hintjens, Helen, 142, 143Hitchcott, Nicki, 128, 139HIV, 3, 27, 100, 102, 103, 109, 110,

118, 132, 159, 220Holocuast, 4–5, 16, 20, 85, 88–9, 94,

146–7, 162–3, 170, 200, 213, 218Hove, Chenjerai, 27, 46Hron, Madeleine, 16–18Hughes, Nick, 152human rights, 24, 30, 100, 136, 141,

170–1, 173, 174, 179, 190, 193, 194, 199–209, 211–14

human rights modes, 211

identity, 12–13, 18, 34, 37–9, 50–2, 76, 79, 84–7, 88, 90–1, 97, 109–10, 110–17, 121, 124, 137, 138, 141–2, 143, 149, 171, 185, 201, 205, 218

illness narrative, 11, 35–6, 132, 169images of pain, 3–4, 13, 14, 16, 18,

22, 24, 33, 45–50, 58, 72–8, 125, 131, 133, 139, 152–7, 158–9, 189, 193, 203

imagining pain, 1, 24–5, 26, 29, 31, 33–4, 42–4, 58, 60, 67, 71–87, 139–40, 145, 150, 154–7, 159, 164, 197–9, 202, 203, 209, 215

International Association for the Study of Pain, 3

intimacy, 32–3, 50–6, 57, 58, 168isolation, 33, 46, 50–6, 64, 77, 86, 91,

111, 113, 168, 182–3

Keane, Fergal, 136Khady, 1–2, 21, 104–5, 106, 108–9,

111–12, 114–18, 121–4, 132–3, 211

Mutilée, 1–2, 21, 104–5, 106, 108–9, 111–12, 114–18, 121–4, 132–3, 211

Kleinman, Arthur, 10–12, 14, 219Kolawole, Mary, 105, 117Kourouma, Ahmadou, 103, 106, 111,

113, 114, 117, 121, 124, 126–8, 132, 220

Les Soleils des Indépendances, 103, 106, 111, 114, 117, 121, 124, 126–8, 220

Index 237

Krog, Antjie, 21, 24, 166–7, 171–2, 174–5, 178–9, 181–4, 187–94, 197–9, 203, 206–7, 222

Country of My Skull, 166–7, 171–2, 174–5, 178–9, 181–4, 187–94, 197–9, 203, 206–7, 222

lacuna, 5–6, 146–52Lambek, Michael, 62, 72–3, 75laughter, 160–1, 207, 211Leder, Drew, 96Lemarchand, René, 136, 141Levi, Primo, 5–6, 147, 162–3, 220Levinas, Emmanuel, 54, 55, 58, 87, 183Leys, Ruth, 217liminality, 93–4, 97, 100, 111Lionnet, Françoise, 14–16, 17–18Luckhurst, Roger, 5, 6, 7, 185, 217Luedke, Tracy, 176–7Lund, Giuliana, 178

Mamdani, Mahmood, 141Mapanje, Jack, 4Matabeleland, 21, 22, 28, 29–34, 40,

49, 57, 58–9, 165Mbembe, Achille, 2medical anthropology, 10–13, 72–3Medicins Sans Frontières (MSF), 21,

167, 170, 201, 202, 205, 207Melzack, Ronald, 7, 50, 98, 110, 217,

218memorials, 2, 134, 147, 154, 157, 210,

211memory, 1, 5–6, 16, 30–1, 34–5,

37, 45, 47–9, 53, 55, 105, 109, 117, 172, 184–6, 191–3, 195–6, 212–13, 215

mental health, 10, 27, 37, 61–71, 73–80, 83–4, 86–7, 89, 91, 109, 115–17, 151, 172, 175, 185, 188

mind-body dualism, 21, 22, 61–2, 64, 98, 195, 218

Mitchell, David, 86, 102Morris, David, 11–14Moss, Laura, 192–3mothering, 32, 62, 66, 77–8, 80, 86,

87–8, 89–94, 96, 101, 106–9, 113, 119–20, 126, 130, 140, 145, 149, 153, 180, 181, 186, 219

Mukagasana, Yolande, 2, 23, 137–8, 142–5, 147, 150–1, 153–4, 157, 160–3, 165, 211, 214, 221

La mort ne veut pas de moi, 137–8, 142–5, 147, 150–1, 153–4, 157, 160–3, 165, 211, 214, 221

Les blessures du silence, 147N’aie pas peur de savoir, 137

Ndiaye, Abdoulaye, 104, 106–7, 109, 111, 113–14, 127, 132

Le Mannequin de bois, 104, 106–7, 109, 111, 113–14, 127

Needham, Rodney, 22, 40–1Newbury, Catherine, 141Nganang, Patrice, 16, 135

Manifeste pour une nouvelle literature africaine, 16, 135

NGOs, 161, 168, 177–8, 203, 215Nwapa, Flora, 118

Ogundipe-Leslie, Molara, 105–6Okri, Ben, 167–8, 208–9Orbinski, James, 21, 24, 166–74,

176–7, 179–82, 187, 189–90, 198–9, 201–3, 205–8, 214, 222

An Imperfect Offering, 21, 24, 166–74, 176–7, 179–82, 187, 189–90, 198–9, 201–3, 205–8, 214, 222

Oyono, Ferdinand, 3

painacute, 6–10, 111–12, 121, 181, 194,

208aesthetics of, 1–22, 29–34, 41–2, 44,

152–8, 208, 211, 215–16, 217appropriated meanings of, 19, 23,

54, 83, 102–3, 124–31, 132, 133, 153, 168, 191, 201, 214

cessation, 3, 8, 13, 132, 166, 201chronic, 10–12, 35–40, 172–4, 194,

208cultural meanings of, 23, 101–2,

105–15, 118, 119, 121, 130, 132, 133, 220, 221

and daily life, 7, 26, 80, 81, 89, 96, 113, 120, 130, 138, 148–51, 197, 207

238 Index

pain – continuedfiction and, 21–2, 26, 27, 29–34,

45, 50–1, 56, 58, 63, 72, 112, 124, 137, 139, 144, 167, 170, 172, 187, 192, 205, 207, 212, 214, 216

and language, 6–8, 9, 10, 15, 34, 40, 44–5, 52, 53, 55, 58–60, 73, 113, 121, 139, 154, 165, 171, 172, 178, 183–4, 188–9, 193, 206, 216

personal meanings of, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20, 22–4, 26, 27, 29, 31, 36–7, 42–3, 48, 54, 57, 75, 76, 97, 100, 101, 110–17, 119, 121, 123–5, 127, 130–1, 132–3, 135, 138, 139, 140–6, 158–61, 164–5, 182, 186, 188, 190, 204, 214, 216

politics of, 18, 140–1, 168, 202, 214and suffering (difference between),

22symbolic meanings of, 23, 102,

117–24photography, 2, 13, 32, 58, 122, 153polythetic, 22, 40–1, 43, 45, 47, 49, 57,

65, 124, 133, 145Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, 175,

185, 217Primorac, Ranka, 29, 37, 39, 217, 218Prunier, Gérard, 136, 141

Quayson, Ato, 34–7, 39, 79–80, 86, 102

racism, 79–87, 97, 171, 174, 195, 203–4

Ramazani, Vaheed, 15–18Ranger, Terrence, 29–31, 35, 47, 217,

218Rooney, Caroline, 29Rothberg, Michael, 6Rwanda, 2, 8, 16, 19–21, 23, 24,

134–65, 167, 168, 170–1, 173, 174, 176, 179, 181, 187, 194, 195, 198–200, 202, 205, 207, 210–11, 213–14, 220, 221

Saadawi, Nawal El, 119Samb, Mamadou, 103, 105, 108,

110–11, 114–17, 128, 132, 173Ouly la fille de l’aveugle, 103, 108,

110–11, 114–17, 128, 132, 173

Sanders, Mark, 206, 222Scarry Elaine, 4, 6–14, 16, 20, 50, 99,

126–8, 155, 166, 193–5, 221The Body in Pain, 4, 6–14, 16, 20, 50,

99, 126–8, 155, 166, 193–5, 221Schaffer, Kay, 212Scheper-Hughes, Nancy, 15Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky, 86Senegal, 1, 12, 23, 103–4, 114, 140senses, 1, 3, 6, 7, 15, 20, 22–4, 38,

43–4, 66, 67, 69, 71, 73, 74–6, 80, 87, 90, 102, 106, 112, 120, 121, 128–9, 131–3, 135, 146, 148, 152–8, 160, 165, 198–9, 211

Sierra Leone, 24, 135, 166, 172, 174–6, 179, 184, 194, 195, 204, 207

silencing, 2, 4, 16, 17, 24, 30–2, 42, 46, 55, 80, 88, 124, 128, 145, 152, 154, 167, 186, 196, 198, 204

Slaughter, Joseph, 200, 203, 204, 206, 212

slavery (transatlantic), 14, 19, 135Smith, Sidonie, 212social suffering, 14–20, 41, 219somatisation, 64, 66, 67, 75, 151, 189Sontag, Susan, 1, 2, 9, 13, 14, 18, 19,

58, 102, 118, 125, 153, 158, 203, 214, 221

Regarding the Pain of Others, 1, 2, 9, 13, 14, 18, 19, 58, 102, 118, 125, 153, 158, 203, 214, 221

South Africa, 20, 62–4, 77, 78, 79–81, 83, 85–6, 89, 91, 95–7, 166, 171, 174, 178, 179, 182, 184, 188, 191, 192, 194, 203, 206, 207, 210–12, 215, 220, 222

smell, see sensesStaunton, Irene, 32suffering, see pain, and sufferingsurvivors, 1, 2, 5, 21, 35, 39, 40, 57–8,

88, 94, 122, 134–5, 136, 138–41, 146, 147, 150–2, 156, 160, 162, 165, 167, 178, 184, 195, 196

Tadjo, Véronique, 21, 138–9, 142–4, 148, 150, 154–7, 159, 165, 220, 221

L’ombre d’Imana, 21, 138–9, 142–4, 148, 150, 154–7, 159, 165, 220, 221

Index 239

Taylor, Christopher, 141, 221testimony, 5, 21, 25, 33, 122, 124,

134, 137, 139, 140, 143, 144, 146–9, 157, 158, 163, 164–5, 169, 172, 174, 179, 191–5, 205, 207, 211, 213, 214

Thiong’o, Ngũgĩ wa, 18Thompson, Allan, 153trauma, 2, 4–6, 16, 25, 34–7, 39, 78,

79, 87, 97–8, 113, 126, 135, 146, 151, 153, 164, 175–6, 178–9, 184, 185–6, 188–9, 195, 213, 217, 222

Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), 21, 24, 166, 168, 171, 172, 174, 175, 178, 182–4, 187–8, 191–2, 200, 203, 212, 222

Turner, Victor, 93, 94, 97, 101, 111, 219

Umutesi, Marie Béatrice, 23, 138, 142, 144, 145, 149–54, 160–1, 165, 173, 220, 221

Fuire ou mourir au Zaïre, 23, 138, 142, 144, 145, 149–54, 160–1, 165, 173, 220, 221

unrepresentability, 5, 7–8, 17, 44

Vera, Yvonne, 20, 22, 24, 26–60, 65, 124, 165, 168, 184, 217, 218

Nehanda, 37, 46, 57The Stone Virgins, 22, 26–60, 65,

124, 165, 168, 184, 217, 218Without a Name, 34

Wall, Patrick, 50, 110, 217, 218West, Harry, 176–7Whitehead, Anne, 213, 217Wicomb, Zoë, 85Wiesel, Elie, 5, 147Wood, Marcus, 19World Literature, 4, 9, 14–20, 217wound, 1, 13, 16–19, 21, 34, 36, 38,

39, 47–8, 51–5, 60, 105, 108, 124, 125, 130–1, 133, 135, 147, 153, 156, 173, 174, 179–81, 181–3, 198, 202, 208, 215, 221

Zabus, Chantal, 105, 135Zbrowski, Mark, 9, 17, 105Zimbabwe, 22, 26–9, 31, 34–5, 44,

45, 47, 50, 51, 57–9, 168, 217, 218, 220

Žižek, Slavoj, 124–5, 130–1