impact of raw information on prudent decision making

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Impact of Raw Information on Prudent Decision Making

HumaHanif

Engineering Management Department Center for Advanced Studies in Engineering

Islamabad, Pakistan [email protected]

Dr. Nadeem Ehsan



UsmanHanif Engineering Management Department

Center for Advanced Studies in Engineering Islamabad, Pakistan

[email protected]

Ibtisam Mirza



Hanif Ahmad



Abstract - Peter Checkland and his colleagues developed Soft System Methodology (SSM) (associated with the department of systems at Lancaster University in UK) with the intention to fetch an organized technique towards the explanation of imprecise management-type problems. The rationale of a rich picture is to help out the analyst to gain a deep insight of the complex problem situations. The paper opted for a case study in which the rich pictures are compared with other tools and techniques. The research will disclose facts about the effectiveness of rich pictures in organizations to solve problem. It will also help to investigate that by using symbols and diagrammatic conventions which are used to signify any messy situation must be unambiguous and understandable by the users can fill in the gaps of understanding problem first and its better solution. This paper includes the implications for the implementation and incorporation of rich pictures in order to get optimal solutions in time.

Key Terms - Soft system methodology, Rich picture, Metaphors, System thinking, Problem situation

I. INTRODUCTION

Peter Checkland developed Soft System Methodology (SSM) which is a qualitative technique. This technique is basically used for applying systems thinking to non-systematic situations. This approach is also used in those problem situations where there is a It is also a method of dealing with problem situations in which there is a strong concern of social, political and human activity element between SSM and other approaches such as HARD

978-1-4244-5540-9/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE

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problems which are based on the usage of technology alone. So it can be easily deduced that SSM therefore is a realistic approach in order to solve the complex, messy, chaotic situations actions. The need for SSM developed from the perception that the HARD systems thinking forexample Operations Research Techniques, is not fulfilling the concept that SSM originated from the perception that "hard" Systems Thinking, for example Operations Research Techniques, is not sufficient to solve large and complex organizational issues. This was the reason Peter Checkland developed soft Systems Methodology especially to deal with such problems of the same nature. Peter gained an immense experience in the industry. He observed in the industry that a very little work has been done on the inclusion of social elements in the large and especially complex problems. This was the reason which forced him to visit the University of Lancaster in 1960s to carry out the research and find out more causes about it. Afterwards carried out many research projects with the collaboration of industry and did many modifications and alterations over a number of years.

As a consequence of abovementioned problem in the industry and very less focus on soft systems issues Peter Checkland developed a technique called "Rich pictures the raw data for messy and composite situations [1], [2]. Solving problems through pictorial representation is a general problem solving technique being used around the world. This is because our spontaneous consciousness responds much more rapidly in the shape of pictures, images and symbols rather than words. Pictorial illustrations can

give more detailed and precise representation of the situation.

At the pre-analysis stage of problem solving the technique of drawing rich pictures is recommended because, it gives a deep insight about the whole system. It tells explicitly that which components of the system can be used as parts and various processes. Rich pictures demonstrate the complex situations in a very clear way. Rich pictures are drawn by showing connections between different components, defining their relationships, their influences, emotions, moods etc. In addition to these objective ideas, rich pictures also give an idea of the subjective essentials for example moods, different aspects of human nature, relationships, biases and prejudices etc. It should be kept in mind while drawing rich pictures while particularly dealing with the clients and customers that you must draw from their point of view or perspective not yours [3].

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

The rich picture technique (RP), developed by Peter Checkland's Soft System Methodology is a unique and elastic pictorial technique which symbolizes a whole concept of a messy problem and complex situations. As in all institutions and universities all over the world, there has always been a stress given to get a deep insight about information systems. This study used rich pictures as a tool to learn deeply about the information systems. Various aspects of rich pictures in order to have profound understanding about the different situations have been discussed and proposed. Horan [4] in his findings about rich pictures has described rich pictures as a versatile technique in tertiary students learning about information systems. He concluded that rich pictures contribution in IS served as two important functions, one as a leamer-managed and second one is the system technique.

Conventionally many students and professionals used linear thinking to plan design problems. But linear thinking has certain limitations like they do not recognize the relationships and connections between the parts and their optimal solutions. So they do not opt the systematic thinking approach due to the lack of relationships between the components. The research conducted in this paper discussed the importance of thinking holistically (Systematic Thinking) while solving complex problems. Thinking holistically actually means to keep in mind all the aspects of the situation as a whole system and not individually. It included all the relationships connected with it, various parts and sub-parts, and how all the objectives were supported by the activities of its different parts [5].

[6] Reported the outcomes of a research which was conducted to analyze the practicability of the Checkland's Soft Systems Methodology (SSM). For this purpose nearly 300 questionnaires were distributed to people who had an experience of using SSM. There are problems in its use especially acceptance in the first place, gaining the commitment of key actors, and the extent to which the language of SSM is used explicitly. All of these could be done easily if the methodology were to become better

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known and extensively accepted. When responses were analyzed, weaknesses had been found to surprise. The limitations of using SSM were the lack of client's interaction, problems in relating SSM to information systems, inflexibility and failure to cope up with the changes in the system.

'Systems Thinking, Systems Practice' (STSP) set a new standard for systems methodologists both in the intellectual breadth and in consolidation of quite radical thinking and in the virtuosity of the writing. 'Soft Systems Methodology in Action' (SSMIA) is equally timely and necessary. Whereas STSP made the methodology and theory accessible, SSMIA had made the real world application of the methodology accessible in a way that is valuable to theoreticians, consultants, and managers. The inference, which can clearly be drawn from this and other comments, was that, as the culture of the workplace would define the feasible solution; this culture should be allowed to dominate the methodology. This could be interpreted as suggesting that those in the problem situations believe they know what the problem was and would not be interested in full rich pictures, or perceptions of a problem situation, which was too radical. However, the basis of SSM is that 'perceptions' of problem situations were fundamental [7].

The sample under study in this paper was all organization-based M.Sc. student projects of two consecutive years, using Soft Systems Methodology (SSM), undertaken as part of the course requirements at Lancaster University. This paper reports on a survey of 25 projects conducted by the group who originally developed SSM. The SSM projects presented here covered different industries and areas of application. The major recurring themes in this study were found to be participation, complexity, working at different levels, readiness to learn, politics, mode 2 uses of SSM and language. The correlation between these was analyzed. It was suggested that the provision of more structure, in the sense of a tighter project management, and training in consultancy and communication skills would make some of the aspects of SSM which could cause problems to users less problematical, while at the same time not simplifYing and taking away the richness from a demanding but potentially very beneficial approach [8].

[9] Concludes the planning and establishment of latest information systems strategy for one of the major UK food and grocery retailer. The group which was great supporters of SSM created number of models and incorporated into the methodology being used in the process making. The resulting process was successful in delivering a strategy developed by management, with commitment to implement it. In addition, the teamwork across functional boundaries was recognized as valuable management development.

The approach of rich pictures had been practiced by many analysts and the development could be seen easily to be helpful in variety of ways. It has always provided assistance in such a way that it provides a quick and simple understanding of a complex situation, but keeping in mind the most important thing that is the focal point of the situation. So this fact could not be ignored that the worth of

rich pictures is embedded in the process used not in the It was important to mention that the worth of rich pictures lies in the process used not in the results or products of the process. It could be easily inferred that the essence of rich pictures is in giving its holistic view regarding the problem [10].

A holistic approach has always been necessary in order to understand contemporary geographical problems, but an overly structured, formal model building methodology can result in the omission of important relationships. Checkland recognized these deficiencies of the hard systems approach and it was hoped that his soft systems methodology would provide an alternative. Unfortunately it had not yet been sufficiently developed. The construction of root definitions could highlight the contrasting perceptions different groups maintain in human activity systems. Sahelian governments may, for example, view pastoralism as an inefficient food production system wherein animals and herders wander aimlessly without adding any contribution to the economy of the country, even pastoralists might claim it to be a well-tried production system for the inhabitants of unfriendly environments, designed to fight the vagaries of rainfall and pasture by various herding strategies which were reinforced by a rich and complex social system [11].

[12] Concludes that the issue regarding validity in SSM seems to have been ignored till now. Checkland declared that validity is not an important issue in SSM, which became the only reference point for this discussion. But in the modeling of real situations, validity does play an important role. Considering the validity, different issues were raised during the study. For example, the correct use of methodology in learning systems. Because researchers were of the opinion that very less concentration had been given to the prejudices decision making which eventually proved to be learning barriers in the SSM. This methodology also lacked in providing tips and techniques for the identification of vital successful actions.

The fundamental idea of this study was the implementation of Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) within management practice area. The research was carried out on one of the study group of Queensland Department based in the Primary Industries. Upon the management practice the results and analysis showed a positive impact. But after that on the basis of conclusion it was inferred that even if leaves a positive impact but the novelty of the impact remained ambiguous and unclear [13].

For solving real-world problems, Soft System Methodology (SSM) had always been principal comprehensible approach by keeping the idea of comparison in mind. In order to explore this area research had been conducted on the major concept of comparison and proposed a framework as a basis for the clarification of comparison concept. The paper explored comparison as a problem area and proposed a framework consisting of expectation, desirability, and importance as a basis for extending and clarifYing the notion of comparison [14].

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III. SOFT SYSTEM METHODOLOGY

In the beginning, SSM was considered to be a modeling tool but afterwards it became renowned as a knowledgeable tool which provokes creative thinking. SSM gives rise to the development of models which merely not only represents the "real world" alone but also structure ideas regarding real world through the usage of rules and regulations, tips and techniques etc. The models carry the elements of both normative and explanatory approaches. SSM is similar to many other systems because it involves the comparison between the worlds themselves and some perceived models of the worlds. So it can be easily stated the method of comparison in such a way gives the analyst a better way to understand the world of research and notions of the improvement. It had been a norm and practices in the SSM that researchers or analysts begin with a real world situation. The analysis was done on the situation in totally unstructured or amorphous ways. After analyzing the situation they develop a model of it. A major advantage of SSM for analysts is that they can easily use the SSM strategy to deduce the detailed interpretations with the help of and different views and perceptions on these goals. This activity is done by developing different point of views on the situation, then thoroughly constructing models based on these perceptions and ideas and finally comparing it with the real life.

Traditionally SSM follows a process of seven stages. Their level of concentrations has been divided among the stages like very few of them concentrates on the real world whereas other on the conceptual world ..

ProblUl S·lhJ� I�pr.".d

Figure I. The Seven-Stage Process Model (SSM ) Source: Checkland (1981:\63 ) [I]

A. Seven Stages in SSM

Following steps are recommended at various stages while developing SSM: Stage 1- Look into the unstructured problem. Stage 2- Describe the complex problem situation by using "Rich Pictures". The main function of Rich pictures is to collect data or information related to the problematic situation. A rich picture is usually drawn to show the human activity system. It basically shows different objects having relationships between them, they way they communication with each other, flow of information, boundaries and arrangements. This is the main difference which does not exist in other models for example class models and data flow diagrams. Stage 3- Root definitions of relevant systems.

This is that stage of analysis where a practitioner can analyze the problem situation through various perspectives. At this stage practitioner can look at the problem situation through different perspectives. After analyzing the root definitions, meaningful sentences are constructed. There are six elements that make a structured root definition. An acronym CATWOE has been made and can be understand through the following small illustrations.

• Customer: Customer is the person who may gain advantages and benefits from a system. If the system involves sacrifices such as layoffs, then those victims must also be counted as customers.

• Actor: The actors transform inputs into outputs and they perform the activities defined in the system.

• Transformation process: This is shown as the conversion of inputs to outputs.

• Weltanschauung: The German expression for world view. This world view makes the transformation process meaningful in context.

• Owner: Every system has some proprietor, who has the power to start up and shut down the system (power of veto).

• Environmental constraints: These are external elements that must be considered. These constraints include organizational policies as well as legal and ethical matters.

Stage 4- Conceptual models. • Formal system concept. • Other system thinking.

Stage 5 - Comparison of 4 with 2. Stage 6- Changes according to desirability and feasibility. Stage 7- Taking actions to progress the problem situation

[15].

IV. RICH PICTURES

A rich picture makes use of drawings or pictures to gather information regarding an ill-defined situation. In drawing rich picture a systematic approach is used in order to get the insight of the complex situation. Special emphasis is given on the issues addressed in the problem, conflicts arose, processes, relationships and even motivations, moods,

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conflicts etc. This technique is used at very early stages of analyzing the situation. Therefore, there are chances of doubts and ambiguities but with the passage of time these misconceptions moves us to the condition where we have identified a method or number of methods we wish to address. Rich pictures were especially developed by Peter Checkland to use at the initial stages of his SSM. His findings were based on the fact that people and problems both are a part of a system. And this system involves different point of views of participants. So SSM makes the human systems understandable to its actors and participants in that system. The enclosure of social element in rich pictures has been proved credible because it serves a tool not only to learn about the apparent facts but also regarding the emotional and conceptual components.

B. Rules and Conventions for Rich Picture Development

For drawing rich pictures, all what is needed is large sheets of paper, colored pens or crayons and simply draw what you see happening around. It is about drawing based on perceptions but should be problematic or significant with the help of emotions and relationships, connections by using metaphors and different symbols so that it becomes understandable by others. As a rich picture is drawn in an abstract way so it is a mix of messy thoughts and perceptions flow on to the page. Not any format language or syntax is used, so it varies from person to person and depends which technique they follow to draw rich pictures. However, general guidelines have been made to facilitate beginners:

Incorporating Structure: In normal parlance, structure refers to those parts of the situation, which shows resistant to change and is stable. For example this structure may include people being affected by the situation, the organizational arrangements, geographic locations etc. It is recommended to use the related structures which allow the analyst to proceed further.

Incorporating Process: Literally process is a term which refers to the changes and transformations that may arise within the structure. Again we can understand it by taking examples of the changes going on during flow of goods, documentations or any other data. It is again recommended to capture only the most aspects of process in order to meet your requirements.

Incorporating Concerns: Peter Checkland has given a special name to these concerns and that is "issues". Concerns refer to the concept of motivation that is behind the involvement of actor's participation in the situation. These motivations in return give birth to various perspectives each actor possess.

Incorporating You: Including yourself is the most important aspect of drawing rich pictures and it should not be ignored. So always make sure that your roles and relationships in the situation are explicit [3].

A rich picture about rich pictures

l' vi'

Figure 2. Constructing a Rich Picture [3]

V. OTHER TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

Numerous graphical techniques are available world wide which can be used and implemented as an expression of problem situation. It is noteworthy here that all of these tools and techniques do not replace the significance of rich pictures. But they can give some advantages and also help to prevail over the shortcomings of using rich pictures only. Following are some tools and techniques:

A. Problematique Drawings B. SWOT Analysis Technique C. Grouping and Ranking of Results D. Cognitive or Mind Maps E. Ishikawa Diagram

A. Problematique Drawings:

Problematique diagrams are drawn to elaborate the problem situation, where there is link between the problems. Special consequences are attached with these links. In order to develop these diagrams one-on-one interviews are conducted by the investigator. After conducting the interviews, the investigator makes an introductory draft based on the analyses and finds out the relationships in the drafted problem situation. Afterwards a model is developed based on the links and relationships between the expressed problems. It usually serves as a back up before the actual analysis and determination of relationships and dependencies present the problem situation.

The important facet of this tool is by encasing the problems in the "bubbles". The positioning of these bubbles matters a lot. Every bubble is determined on the basis of its positioning in the diagram. For example the bubbles at the top are considered to be more participative in the existence of the problem. On the other hand the bubbles at the lower

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levels of diagrams are considered to be less participative in the problem situation. All of the bubbles in the diagram are linked with each other throw arrows showing a causal relationship in the direction of arrowhead between them.

Figure 3. Related Problems Lead to Poor Employment Prospects [17]

B. SWOT Analysis Technique

SWOT analysis is the most comprehensive technique used in management. This technique is normally used during early stages of SSM especially when problems are related to information systems. This technique does not represent a problem situation in a pictorial form. Even then SWOT analysis is considered to be an extremely powerful in order to make the unstructured problem, structured. During SWOT analysis the discussion and agreement on the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats in the problem situation are made. The acronym SWOT has been derived from the abovementioned measurement criteria. We can see that this analysis takes account of both the negative and positive aspects of the situation, which are necessary to dismiss any likelihood of defensiveness in SSM.

C. Grouping and Ranking of Results

This is a common concept that at problem identification stage, a number of issues and problems will arise. So there is a need to rank and group all those addressed issues and problems. It is necessary in this technique that all the phases of the study being conducted must be in some sequence or priority. Sequencing is done on the basis of priorities and happenings of the issues and problems. After grouping and ranking, results and outcomes are also ranked. This technique can be merged with the SWOT analysis technique or can be used as a stand alone exercise. Another usefulness of this tool is that an investigator can easily cut down the unnecessary issues, causes, and suggestions derived during SWOT analysis that are not ranked according to the quality

and importance factors. In order to avoid that an investigator must take the results, group or prioritize the relevant information in useful manner that can be used in the discussions and obtaining results. This technique has also one shortcoming and that it involves the representations of qualitative assessments of the raw data.

D. Cognitive or Mind Maps

Cognitive maps are drawn in order to represent a mental psychological state of the situation. These drawings also involve relationships which are causal based on the thoughts and perceptions of the people. The main theme of these mind maps to raise the awareness regarding different problems, factors, issues etc expressed in the problem situation.

u s R.pid Increlses in Stock

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Shu.,

x Figure 5. Ishikawa Diagrams [17] ----

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A ..... 71 �.

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x

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\../ inc,."o) Lo;gend: (=) -Fti, ., __ ..... ____ '" & fill' tog.oth ..

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Figure 4. Cognitive Maps [17]

E. Ishikawa Diagrams

Ishikawa diagrams are also called Fish Bone diagrams, Cause and Effect diagrams, which were developed to study the variations in quality, especially in quality management studies. These diagrams are drawn by following a structure of a fishbone. All the causes and effects encountered during a problem situation are drawn along a series of spines. This altogether makes structure like a 'fishbone". There are basic four functions of fishbone diagram, identification of problem areas, identification of its root causes, constructing diagram on the basis of it and finally analyzing the diagram [16].

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VI. SOL VING REAL WORLD PROBLEM THROUGH RICH PICTURES - TRAFFIC CONGESTION

Figure 6. Rich Picture - Traffic Congestion

A. Implications of the Above Rich Picture

The above rich picture shows a real life example of traffic congestion scenario, which is also the problem situation.

I) The characters in the rich picture are the public, the highway authorities, the city council, and the public safety agencies.

2) What's clear and evident from the

above rich picture is the chaos and unrest created among public by traffic congestion and are consequently affected by it such as late deliveries, missed meetings, crashes etc. The public, in this situation is looking up to the highway authorities to resolve this congestion havoc.

3) The picture also reflects the clear conflict that lies between the highway authority staff mainly because they are unaware of the priority areas of the organization.

4) The rich picture also shows some statistical information of traffic congestion over the past few years i.e. the annual average hours of delay and pattern of congestion costs over the years.

5) It is clear from the picture that the trend in both the above-mentioned factors has radically increased over the past few years.

6) There is also a pie chart drawn on the picture to show the proportion of recurring and non-recurring congestion and the likely repercussions of that chart is that almost 60% of the congestion is non recurring which is totally controllable and to some extent the recurring congestion and hence policies and strategies can be devised to address these issues.

7) The eyeball in the picture can be attributed to the city council officials i.e. people controlling the situation and they are also not pleased with the current situation but the question is how are they going to solve this dilemma?

VII. BENEFITS OF DEVELOPING AND USING RICH PICTURES

A. Authentication and Appreciation of Multiple Perspective

Authentication means that the analyst can always double-check that whether his ideas are streamlined with the actors/stakeholders about the problem situation. This must be kept in mind that every person has hislher own views regarding the problem situation, including the investigator. So they all have their own Weltanschauung which means

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having individual subjective biases regarding the problem situation.

B. Developing Norms, Values, Culture, and Roles

Rich pictures provide a framework of culture within the problem situation by defining all the norms and values, and especially the roles of all the entities involved in it (Lewis, 1994). These pictures can effectively surface the formal and informal roles of the various actors involved. Roles can be broadly defined as the clients of the system, people from different background, the role of environment and last but not the least the owner of the system (Avison and Fitzgerald, 1988).

C. Developing the Informal Organization

As in the abovementioned benefit of rich pictures (formal), these also reflect the informal organization within the problem situation. In organizations, documents are considered to be an important asset because it contains all the data regarding processes and flow of information especially while analyzing problem situation. But sometimes people find different ways to do things, for example they tend to bypass the difficult and detested procedures. Informal way of doing things is important to follow in organizations because it helps to modify and subsumes the formal ways. It is a must that the proposed solution must take an account of informal organization; otherwise it is likely to be rejected

D. Introduction of a Comical Element

The introduction of comical elements is the significant feature which none of the other drawing techniques possess. The characteristic of rich picture is that it includes cartoon like structures which adds humorous elements in the complex situation. It can not be done sometimes deliberately by the analyst. The importance of adding a humor can be realized while presenting a problem in humorous and light manner. It also makes the problem more understandable to others.

E. Addressing the Root Causes of the Problem

With the help of rich pictures, the real problem can be identified and explored by paying attention to each stakeholders view. And once the real problem has been surfaced, it will be easier to find a solution.

VIII. COMPUTER GENERATED RICH PICTURES

There has always been a big debate over the pros and cons of computer generated rich pictures. According to Peter Checkland (1999) the hand-drawn pictures gives subjective views but failed to give the objectivity of the problem. All over the world, people use clip-arts. They use different clip-arts (for example the girl sitting in front of the computer) and associate different perspectives or emotions with it. The problem comes here, because it might be the case that the analyst wanted to depict a different point of view when using a renowned image. It creates ambiguity for

the analyst and observers as well. Another point comes here that rich pictures must be hand-drawn. Otherwise the outcomes would be reliant on the technological proficiency of either the user or the limitations of the software used. The practice of developing computer generated pictures is still being followed. It conveys no meaning and plays insignificant part in SSM. Because they are perplexed, incomplete and ambiguous pictograms. The benefits of hand-drawn rich pictures becomes very clear now, because computer generated rich pictures are poor example in print. Truly the appeal lies in the rich picture development. Computer generated rich pictures puts constraints on the analyst, like not viewing the problem as a whole situation. Whereas hand-drawn pictures takes the investigator from non-systematic to systematic thinking. Checkland (1999) gave an emphasis on the usage of rich pictures and to be taken as a complete system rather than reductionist thinking about complex problem situations.

IX. CONCLUSION

In SSM studies, even in the past, it had always been recommended to use rich pictures as the special too to express the problem situation. In this study special emphasis has been given on rich picture development. Also it describes the other tools and techniques used to represent problems and issues of real world. It also concludes that one can not deny the importance of other tools and techniques and hence rich pictures can be used as a supplement with other tools as well. Different tools and techniques have been discussed in detail and also tell the extent of their usage. Also these are used in a variety of studies especially related to information systems.

The prime benefit of using Rich Pictures is that they encourage situational holistic or systemic thinking rather than reductionist thinking. This allows the problem solver or analyst to take an account of larger realm of issues as well as a larger number of solutions. Particular to engineering problem solving, this systemic thinking has a higher probability of producing a successful initial solution and afterwards.

Rich pictures play a constructive role as it is a handy and useful method for developing significant results of the complex problem situations. The most important point is that development of rich pictures gives a holistic view about the whole scenario. This means it shows whole of the system connected. Not even a single component or part can represent itself individually; all are interlinked and dependent upon each other. So it is a must to keep each and every point while drawing a rich picture otherwise it will fail to convey its meaning. In case of such failure drawings results and outcomes will be affected and rich picture is not worth doing. It necessary to follow a holistic approach, thinking in terms of system not parts. In order to justify the continuation of rich pictures, their use must be appreciated and approved.

REFERENCES

[I] Checkland P B. 1981. Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Wiley: Chichester. (Republished 1999 with 30-year retrospective. )

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[2] Checkland PB, Scholes J. 1990. Soft Systems Methodology in Action. Wiley: Chichester. (Republished 1999 with 30-year retrospective.)

[3] Rich Pictures, Retrieved Nov. 19, 2009, from http://systems.open.ac.uk/materials/t552/pageslrich/richA ppend i xz. ht ml

[4] P. Horan, "Using Rich Pictures in Iriformation Systems teaching", presented at the 2000 I" Int. Conf Medicine Systems Thinking in Management, Bendigo, Australia.

[5] Cecelia M. Wigal, "Special Session - Using Rich Pictures to Improve Systemic Thinking", presented at the 2009 39th ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference, San Antonio, TX.

[6] J. Mingers, S. Taylor, "The Use of Soft Systems Methodology in Practice", The Journal of the Operational Research Society, Palgrave Macmillan Journals on behalf of the Operational Research Society, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 321- 332, Apr. 1992.

[7] H. Rennie, "Soft Systems Methodology in Action: The Text for SSM Teachers and Practitioners?", The Journal of the Operational Research Society, Palgrave Macmillan Journals on behalf of the Operational Research Society, Vol. 43, No. I , pp. 77-79, Jan. 1992.

[8] H. Kreher, "Some Recurring Themes in Using Soft Systems Methodology", The Journal of the Operational Research Society, Pal grave Macmillan Journals on behalf of the Operational Research Society, Vol. 45, No. II, pp. 1293 -1303, Nov. 1994.

[9] R. Ormerod, "Putting Soft OR Methods to Work: Information Systems Strategy Development at Sainsbury's", The Journal of the Operational Research Society, Palgrave Macmillan Journals on behalf of the Operational Research Society, Vol. 46, No. 3, pp. 277- 293, Mar. 1995.

[10] Dr. G. Bakehouse, T. Wakefield, Dr. K. Doyle, T. Bames, "Rich Pictures in Soft Systems Methodology - A Holistic View", University of Bristol, Unknown

[II] C. T. Agnew, "Checkland's Soft Systems Approach: A Methodology for Geographers?", Area, Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers ) Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 167-174, June 1984.

[12] [12] O. Pala, J. A. M. Vennix, T. van Mullekom, "Validity in SSM: Neglected Areas", The Journal of the Operational Research Society, Pal grave Macmillan Journals on behalf of the Operational Research Society, Vol. 54, No. 7, pp. 706 - 712, July 2003.

[13] P. Ledington, J. Donaldson, "Soft OR and Management Practice: A Study of the Adoption and Use of Soft Systems Methodology", The Journal of the Operational Research Society, Palgrave Macmillan Journals on behalf of the Operational Research Society Vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 229- 240, Mar. 1997.

[14] P. Ledington and J. Ledington, "Extending the Process of Comparison in Soft Systems Methodology", The Journal of the Operational Research Society, Palgrave Macmillan Journals on behalf of the Operational Research Society Vol. 50, No. II, Yield Management, pp. 1149-1157, Nov. 1999.

[15] Peter Weeks, Applying Systems thinking to non-systematic situations. "Explanation of Soft Systems Methodology of Checkland". http://www.12manage.com/methods _checkland _soft_systems _ metho dology.html. Retrieved November 16, 2009.

[16] Peter F. Fillery, Alexander Rusli and Helen L. James, Describing the Problem Situation in IS Studies Using SSM: A Practitioner's View, 1996.

[17] Galliers, R. D. Course Notes for Information Systems 562, Unpublished course notes, Western Australian Institute of

Technology, Perth, 1986.

impact of raw information on prudent decision making

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