Research Topic:

Dedication

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A survey on the influence of English and Tok-Pisin on Alekano speakers in Goroka town, PNG.

This paper has been the toughest one due to limitations beyond my control and therefore deserves dedication. First and foremost, I would like to dedicate this work to my heavenly father who has been good to me throughout my school life and the accomplishment of this project. Back at home I dedicate this paper to my mother Hilda Saras who has been very supportive in prayers and whom I dedicate my school life for till this far. I also dedicate this work to my sister and husband-Mr and Mrs Popei in Wewak. You have been very supportive and my major sponsor during my four years of study here at the University of Goroka. You have been my mentors whom I have seen success in this aspect of life. Finally, and not the least I extend this dedication to all my families (immediate and extended) at home for your support in one way or the other, and to my village Timingir, your dream to see someone representing your community at a university has come true and here I am to present this paper as your ambassador. Thank you and may our Good Lord bless you all.

Declaration

I declare that this is my original work done in HRM 481-Research Method and HRM- 482 Independent Research Project. I did not copy or plagiarise from other authors or researchers. I confess that, I am the original researcher and writer of this thesis paper in my final year of studying bachelor degree in Education at the University of Goroka. I do extract

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some of the valid information from some other writers, researchers and authors in which I formally acknowledge them. This thesis paper shouldn’t be reproduce, rewrite or copy without the author’s permission. Anyone found copying without permission or acknowledged the author is guilty of committing an academic crime under the academic act of PNG.

Name: Jonathan SARAS

Signature: __________________________Date: ___________________

Acknowledgement

I am indebted to acknowledge the following lecturers and tutors who have committed their time and effort in teaching us the courses HRM-481: Research Method and HRM-482: Independent Research Project,without whom this research project would not be a success for me. I therefore extend this appreciation to Mr D Gumbis, Mr Balane, Mr Z Mari,Mrs Panta, Dr F Frowein, Dr Awi, Mrs D S Illai, Mr S Botu, MrR Tete, and Mr J Kogapo.

Special word of appreciation to Mr D Gumbis (the course coordinator), and also to my tutor and mentor Mrs D S Ilai and Dr F Frowein. Despite your workload you have been so kind and friendly to me in assisting me

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tirelessly throughout the course of these projects (HRM 481 and HRM 482).

Lastly I would like to extend my word of appreciation to the non-academic staffs, friends and colleagues (students) that has helped in constructive ideas, resources and collection of raw data: Aldius Weseki, Iso Bakaramu, Robinson Siagaun, Richard Kaus, Peter Pagau, John Tom, Lambert Gigmai, Mr Benjamin Kapris, Mr Bruce Ickinus and Mr Titus Urahambu.

Abstract

Languages around the world are constantly undergoing change and the changes may be gain, loss or maintenance. Towards late 18th century and early 19th century this area of study has been of interest and focus for many linguists. Similar to many other researches that have been carried out in Papua New Guinea concerning language contact and language change, this research looks at Alekano in particular. It seeks to identify some features (of grammar-phonemes, morphemes, semantics and pragmatics), socioeconomic and sociocultural issues associated with the contact and change. The research would also be helpful to future organizations, future researches and Alekano speaking communities in particular if they were to promote and preserve their emblematic language before extinctinction. The following chapters discuss this in detail.

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Content Page

Table of Content Page Number

1. Topic page_________________________________________________________________12. Dedication________________________________________________________________2.3. Declaration________________________________________________________________3.4. Acknowledgement___________________________________________________________4.5. Abstract___________________________________________________________________5.6. Content page_____________________________________________________________6-7.7. Chapter 1 (overview of topic) _________________________________________________8.8. Introduction________________________________________________________________8.9. Statement of the problem___________________________________________________8-9.10. Significant of the study____________________________________________________9-10.11. Limitations of this study_____________________________________________________10.12. Delimitations______________________________________________________________10.13. Chapter two (Literature Review) _____________________________________________11.14. Introduction_______________________________________________________________11.15. Issue_____________________________________________________________________11.16. Discussion________________________________________________________________12.17. What effects does the influence of English and Tok-Pisin have on Alekano speakers in Goroka

town? ___________________________________________________________________12.18. Is the influence positive or negative? ________________________________________12-13.19. How does the influence of English and Tok-Pisin affect the fluency of native Alekano speakers

in Goroka town? ________________________________________________________13-14.20. Gaps and Omissions________________________________________________________14.

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21. Conclusion and recommendation___________________________________________14-15.22. Chapter Three (Methodology) _______________________________________________15.23. Research design____________________________________________________________15.24. Settings__________________________________________________________________15.25. Pilot study________________________________________________________________15.26. Subjects_______________________________________________________________15-16.27. Data collection_____________________________________________________________16.28. Data analysis______________________________________________________________16.29. Budget___________________________________________________________________16.30. Time schedule__________________________________________________________16-17.31. Reporting_________________________________________________________________17.32. Expected outcome__________________________________________________________17.33. Chapter Four (Data Analysis/Presentation and Result) ____________________________18.34. Data analysis______________________________________________________________18.35. Presentation of raw data collected (tables and graphs) _________________________18-25.36. Chapter Five (Discussion) ___________________________________________________25.37. The speakers’ views on Alekano (Beneficial or Detrimental) ______________________25-26.38. The speakers’ level of fluency_________________________________________________26.39. Knowledge level in vocabulary________________________________________________27.40. Code switching (Alekano-English & Tok-Pisin) _________________________________27-28.41. Sound change_____________________________________________________________28.42. Tone (Accent) _____________________________________________________________28.43. Language (Registers) _____________________________________________________28-29.44. Speakers’’ views on the influence-positive or negative? __________________________29.45. Sociocultural problems______________________________________________________29.46. Socioeconomic problems__________________________________________________29-30.47. Chapter Six (Conclusion and Recommendations) ________________________________30.48. Raw data_________________________________________________________________30.49. Key findings_______________________________________________________________30.50. Significant of the study___________________________________________________30-31.51. Limitations of the study_____________________________________________________31.52. Advantages of the findings___________________________________________________31.53. Recommendations_________________________________________________________31.54. Summary______________________________________________________________31-32.55. Reference________________________________________________________________32.56. Bibliography____________________________________________________________32-33.57. Appendix______________________________________________________________33-37.

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Chapter One[The overview of the topic]

Introduction

The focus of this study will be on influence of English and Tok-Pisin on Alekano speakers in Goroka town. The study attempts to investigate with research questions as a guide that will facilitate the study to achieve its purpose, importance and purpose of study, limitation s of study, delimitations of study, review of related literature, the research methodology, budget and time frame of the study, including the method of reporting which are pivotal to the discussion in this proposal.

Statement of the problem

Issues relating to language contact and language change is an inevitable phenomenon. It has on one hand advantages, and on the other hand some disadvantages. The positivity and negativity of language change rely solely on speakers linguistic, social and economic circumstances for vindication. Jorge Arsenio Gomez Rendon (n.d) Typological and Social Constraint on Language Contact- Ameriindiian Languages in Contact with Spanish. Netherlands “On the other hand, language mixing is considered positive in certain multilingual settings to the extent that it facilitates intercultural communication.”

On linguistic ground speakers may shift or integrate features of a second language on their language for reasons such as assimilation. On social ground speakers may shift or integrate

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features of a second language to ease communication with native speakers of that second language, or to enrich their social status if considered a prestige language. On economic ground speakers may shift or integrate features of a second language for reason such as possibility of job employment. Despite that such changes are detrimental to Alekano for reasons such as inferior or low social status of language itself, reduction in both the number of speakers and the level of fluency. Few may even want to despise their language at all. Like all languages in the world, Alekano as an indigenous language to the local people of Goroka town has rich culture and tradition which uphold morals and ethics, norms believes values and taboos that once unite and harmonize the society’s integrity and dignity. Understanding these changes is essential to maintain their grammatical and communicative competencies to safeguard it from dying out with its myriad cultural heritage. (Anonymous. (n.d)) Causes of Language Change: (pdf). “What sounds more convincing is the idea that speakers unconsciously or semiconsciously bring about innovations while complying with the need to be successful in communication.

According to SIL (1999), Alekano is shifting and as alluded may result in language endangerment. This process has two alternative outcomes. One is that bilingual continues and emblematic language survives in the restructured version. The other is that the emblematic language is eventually abandoned in favour of the speakers’ version of the intergroup language (Duni, Ross. 1996. Contact-induced change and Comparative Method: Cases from Papua New Guinea reviewed). These are the outcomes which Thomason and Kaufman (1998: chap. 3) call ‘borrowing’ and ‘interference through shift’. The young generation today may want to shift to English or Tok-Pisin, or both in pursue of higher social status (prestige) and job employment opportunities in the two ,lingua francas. They may also shift to favour interlanguage group to ease communication with speakers of other languages in public places like schools, market, stores, professional government and non-government offices. Jorge Arsenio Gomez Rendon (n.d) Typological and Social Constraint on Language Contact- Ameriindiian Languages in Contact with Spanish. Netherlands. “Amerindian learn Spanish or Portuguese in order to participate in the main stream society and the market economy of their respective countries. Knowledge of Spanish or Portuguese help people get jobs, buy and sell their products or simply have access to public facilities and services provided by the government. No similar exist for Spanish or Portuguese speakers in Latin America, which explains why multilingualism is a reality for those whose native language is not Spanish.” This principle may be the basic to explain why many speakers shift to speak second languages which are considered superior or are the lingua francas.

An issue worth careful consideration, both the advantages and disadvantages of the influence of English and Tok-Pisin on Alekano needs to be investigated, preserved and make known to the speakers so that they take pride in their language and promote its sustenance as an emblematic language.

Pertaining to this study the questions, listed below will direct the course of the study to specific priority areas and to achieve its purpose.

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I. What effects does the influence of English and Tok-Pisin have on the Alekano speakers in Goroka town?

II. Is the influence positive or negative?III. How does the influence of English and Tok-Pisin affect the fluency of native speakers

in Goroka town?

Significant of the study

This study will constitute two preconceived purposes: firstly the study is aimed at identifying effects of influence of English and Tok-Pisin on Alekano and the advantages and the disadvantages so that speakers be made aware of the changes and may take preventive measures to avert endangerment and promote sustenance as an emblematic language. Secondly, as an undergraduate language and literature student, this study will set the foundation for improvement on postgraduate studies on the area of language and linguistics in which I am interested in.

Being situated at the heart of Goroka town, Alekano is one of the Eastern Highlands language that expose every day to English, Tok-Pisin and other languages as people of different language speaking communities move in and out of the town for various reasons such as education services, health services and other business activities. This is detrimental to language itself and as stated, is experiencing sift. Therefore this research seeks to identify and make aware the positive and negative effects of influence of English and Tok-Pisin on Alekano so that speakers make informed decisions regarding the value and safety of their emblematic language.

Seeing drastic changes as an outcome of language contact in my own language, this study will put me in the right position to make awareness and carry out similar research in the future to document and preserve my emblematic language.

Thus choosing this topic is quite a difficult decision that I made but I presume it is important to deal with such an important aspect of linguistic research so that it gives me better ideas and experience to deal with complicated research in the future.

The specific purpose of the study is to:

I. Investigate and examine which grammatical features (phonemes, morphemes, semantics, pragmatics) of Alekano are affected and how are they affected?

II. Investigate and examine what factors or circumstances instigate these changes?III. Investigate and examine the effects of these changes-number of speakers, their

fluency and the social status of Alekano?IV. To help Alekano speakers know the changes resulting from contact with English and

Tok-Pisin so that attempt can be made to maintain the social status and the prestige of their emblematic language.

V. Use the experience of this study as a guide for future researches in this field of study.

Limitations of this study

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This study will be limited to Okiufa village alone as semblance of the entire Alekano speaking communities. Beyond this scope is limited by time as a student , lack of finance and logistics such as travel, accommodation, meals and unfamiliar people who may not be willing to assist on account of personal (student’s) own benefit.

Delimitations

The focus of this study will be on native Alekano speaking population in Okiufa village. To get different views and perspective the findings will look into three categories of people: the old people, the middle-aged and younger generations.

Chapter two[Literature Review]

Introduction

Pertaining to the topic chosen this particular area has been focus for much research during the centuries leading up to 21st century. Anonymous (n.d), Causes of Language Change (PDF). “Given its crucial nature historical linguists have been concerned with this question over the last two centuries.” Great philosophers, mostly linguists have devoted ample time and resources in observing and collecting holistic information to identify new changes resulting from influence of other prominent and standardized languages on local vernacular, mostly first language (L2 on L1). Frowein. F. (2015). Unit 9: Language contact, pidgins & creoles (Lecture Notes). University of Goroka “in a language contact situation the dominant languages are called superstratum (superstrate) languages, and the undominant language are called substratum (or substrate) languages.” Thus this workis devoted to providing a review on literature pertaining to influence of second language on first language. It seeks to identify areas that have been explored together with its causes, net effects and seeks to identify other areas which have not been looked into. The outline of this review is as follows: introduction, issue statement, discussion of issue, gaps and omissions, conclusion and recommendation, references and bibliography (not included at the end of this chapter).

Issue

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The recurring influence of second language on local vernacular (l2 on L1). It is obvious that most language around the world are undergoing dramatic changes. Subsequently, one language influences another when they come into contact with each other. ). Frowein. F. (2015). Unit 9: Language contact, pidgins & creoles (Lecture Notes). University of Goroka “Language contact…can have impact on all aspects of grammar.” Contact situations are consistently systematical in several ways being that these reasons are universal and in most cases, are inevitable. Frowein. F. (2015). Unit 2: Linguistic genealogy (Lecture Notes). University of Goroka “language is constantly undergoing change.”

Like many other language of Papua New Guinea, Alekano is experiencing the influence of English and Tok-Pisin. On that token, the question now at hand is that what effects does the influence of English and Tok-Pisin have on Alekano speakers in Goroka town? Are the effects of the influence of English and Tok-Pisin beneficial for the Alekano speakers or is it detrimental? Moving on, is the influence positive or negative? What causes the positive or the negative influences of English and Tok-Pisin on Alekano speakers in Goroka town? Furthermore, how does the influence of English and Tok-Pisin affect the fluency of native Alekano speakers in Goroka town? What level of fluency does the influence of English and Tok-Pisin have on the native Alekano speakers I Goroka town?

Discussion

What effects does the influence of English and Tok-Pisin have on Alekano speakers in Goroka town?

Of paramount importance, students, teachers, researchers and other individual interested in the area of language ought to understand what effects the influences of second languages have on first or native languages. Pivotal to most aspects of language-an important aspect is the grammar. When languages come into contact, grammatical aspects are affected as in Frowein. F. (2015). Unit 9: Language contact, pidgins & creoles (Lecture Notes). University of Goroka “Phonetics: Eng. Garage [ʒ] (<French). Morphology: Eng. dis-, -ation (<French). Syntax: e.g. SOV-SVO. Semantics / lexicon, borrowings / loanwords Engl. kindergarten (< German)taboo, gecko (< Austronesian). Pragmatics and discourse.” In correspondence, Alekano without exception, I believe would have undergone similar changes in terms of grammatical aspects, e.g. morphology, as in the case of Arapesh a language found in the Torricelli Phylum where I come from, employ the suffix –pleim to use in its counting system when refering to numbers that exceeds number four since the counting system is a base four counting system and ends only at number four. E.g. the number five is referred to as fivepleim (five-pleim), meaning five pepla in Tok-Pisin. During the course of morphological change, the phonological aspect of grammar would certainly change since both phonology and morphology are intertwined, i.e. each morphology carries with it the features of phonology and vice versa. Jorge Arsenio Gomez Rendon (n.d) Typological and Social Constraint on Language Contact- Ameriindiian Languages in Contact with Spanish. Netherlands. “Borrowing affects the lexicon and then morphology, syntax and phonology,

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provided that contact is intense enough.” Here it is clearly evident that there is a lack of detail description on the interrelations between morphemes and phonemes.

Is the influence positive or negative?

Like all languages, the positivity and negativity of influence of language contact and language shift depends entirely on the net effects felt by the indigenous speakers of Alekano. Though it is obvious that in most instances it is always a negative, however, such changes can be positive depending on the pragmatic and rhetorical use of that change in the social and economic context. Frowein. F. (2015). Introduction to Linguistics (LIN 131) Unit 10-Pragmatics & Sociolinguistics (Lecture Notes). University of Goroka “Pragmatics deals with the use of language in context. What do or can we say in specific situations?” in a situation where a specific aspect of grammar in a second language (L2) must be used in local vernacular (L1) to meet the rhetorical scope of discourse, this would mean that the influence in positive. However, if there are changes in the grammatical aspects of vernacular (L1) without the need for meeting pragmatic and discourse standards, this is detrimental to the language itself. Speakers may shift because the utterances is easy, or it may be memorable and easy to understand its lexical items and assimilate the phonemes. If this is so, then it is detrimental to the language itself. Furthermore, people may shift to utter second language because of its social status, which I see, is very true for English. Presumably, many Papua New Guineans shift to English for one basic reason, i.e. to meet the pragmatic and discourse needs in the modern day communication to raise social and economic status.Jorge Arsenio Gomez Rendon (n.d) Typological and Social Constraint on Language Contact- Ameriindiian Languages in Contact with Spanish. Netherlands.“Amerindian speakers learn Spanish or Portuguese in order to participate in the main stream society and the market economy of their respective countries. Knowledge of Spanish or Portuguese helps people get jobs buy and sell their products, or simply have access to public facilities and services provided by the government. No similar exists for Spanish or Portuguese speakers in Latin America, which explains why multilingualism is a reality for those whose native language is not Spanish.”

How does the influence of English and Tok-Pisin affect the fluency of native Alekano speakers in Goroka town?

Prerequisite to effects or the outcome of influence of second language on first language, it is important that we understand the nature of such influence. That is, what are the circumstances that force or encourage the speakers of first language to shift or borrow from second language? Again the reasons, more or less, mostly are social reasons, which is important to know that it is made possible when speakers of first language (L1) are bilingual or multilingual. Contact with people from another language and cultural background has instigated the need for language shift, borrowing or loaning of linguistic features from other languages and this may be because of some of the following reasons: intermarriage; to ease and promote effective communication between marriages of different language background, several features of second language may be engaged. Croft. W. (n.d) Social Evolution and Language Change. University of Manchester “Extra linguistic exogamy can occasionally lead to significant borrowing.” Trade; has long existed in human history until today for the

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purpose of satisfying human needs and wants for survival. Thus the need for trade with people of different language background has created a need for understanding and using their language. The ultimate result is that several features may be employed and integrated into the native language and vice versa, to encourage better communication for the purpose of trade. Croft. W. (n.d) Social Evolution and Language Change. University of Manchester“These changes are typically relatively local, namely among bands that have regular contact. Since the bands are relatively equal, multilingualism in the local languages was the typical outcome of this sort of contact.” Quite opposite to this phenomenon, an Alekano speaker who wishes to buy vegetable at the market sold by a Tokano speaker, will have to communicate in Tok-Pisin or occasionally in English if both are mutually intelligible in these two languages. Migration is another reason. When people migrate whether as emigrant or immigrant, may bring with them features of their language to utter in the new language they have just settle in for semantic, syntactic, and assimilation,. Devaluation or low social status of the language. Obviously almost every individual strive for recognisable social status in his or her society and in doing so may despise native language and shift to speak or integrate features of second language that is of higher status than native language, which I personally think, is a true phenomenon in PNG. The class and social status of individual is determined by his newly introduced western knowledge and philosophies such as math and science, and his rhetorical fluency in English. Jorge Arsenio Gomez Rendon (n.d) Typological and Social Constraint on Language Contact- Ameriindiian Languages in Contact with Spanish. Netherlands. “Negative evaluation of one’s language usually trigger shift.” Parallel to social status is economic reason. Job seekers turn to use languages that are used in everyday business and is very true for English. Those who are competitive in English today ended up employed in well-paid job. Jorge Arsenio Gomez Rendon (n.d) Typological and Social Constraint on Language Contact- Ameriindiian Languages in Contact with Spanish. Netherlands.“The primary causes of language contact. These factors include military invasion and colonialism, living in a border area or an ethnolinguistic enclave, migration for social and economic reasons, formal education, and spread of international languages and the emergence of ethnic awareness.”

Gaps and Omissions

As alluded above linguists have outlined several influences of second language on indigenous languages as a result of language contact. The effect can be both negative and positive depending on individual and societal perspective of the change. Like all other languages, Alekano, being situated in the township of Goroka is subjected to change in several aspects because it has been inhabited and exposed to mobility of bilinguals and multilinguals, who have interacted with the native speakers over the years. However, none have devoted to look into the indigenous speakers’ perspective on changes in Alekano as to whether the effects are positive or negative and its causes which might be slightly different to the common ones alluded to. Other aspects of change such as literacy rate, fluency of speakers in different age group, the overall population who are able to speak, those that can partly speak, those that cannot speak at all, and the social status of Alekano have not been investigated. Of paramount importance to the native Alekano speakers they should be informed and be well aware of these changes so that they may seek ways to preserve and maintain their language if

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changes are considered detrimental, or despise and shift to second language such as English and Tok-Pisin if changes are conceived positive base on social and economic grounds. On account of that my, study will delve into the areas mention.

Conclusion and recommendation

Corresponding to continuous influences that superstratum languages have on substratum, I believe Alekano is currently under the pressure of two superstratum languages-English and Tok-Pisin, and other substratum languages such as Tokano, which is from the same language family and geographically contiguous.

Obviously the influence of language contact can affect the speakers’ social and economic scope, as well as aspects of language such as lexicon, semantics, syntax morphemes and phonemes of that language, which needs to be understood. Nevertheless these changes can be positive and negative depending on its speakers’ views. If changes were to promote, social, economic and linguistic status and or the scope of communication, then it is beneficial somehow. On the other hand if the speakers shift to second language without any need for pragmatic and rhetorical discourses in the social and economic context, then it would be detrimental to the language itself and thus the other social segments such as culture and identity.

Appreciating the fact that the causes, the effects-the linguistic, social and economic aspects that are often affected during language contact has been researched and documented by various linguists, my research will delve into specific change in areas such as literacy rate, fluency of speakers in different age group, those who are able to speak, those that can partly speak, those that cannot speak at all social status of Alekano and the speakers’ views and attitude towards Alekano which have not been researched.

Chapter Three [Methodology]

Research design

This study will engage both qualitative and quantitative methods of research and will investigate the quality and quantity of changes-shift or borrowing and loan words including the number of speakers in three different age group and their fluency in the grammar and lexicon (vocabulary). To find out whether the changes are positive or negative, qualitative research will be undertaken to obtain the speakers perspective and views on changes that may have occurred. The quantitative method will be used to obtain responses from selected number of speakers in the three categories.

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Settings

The study will be conducted in Okiufa village that is in the heart of Goroka town in PNG that experience massive contact with bilinguals and multilinguals attending Goroka Technical College and the University of Goroka simultaneously. Sarah G. Thomason (n.d) Language Change and Language Contact (pdf). University of Michigan “A common assumption is that contact induced change is inevitable under conditions of intense contact, i.e. when there is widespread bilingualism in a speech community.”

Pilot study

Preliminary study involving member of the Okiufa village employed by the University of Goroka will be conducted to test the validity and reliability the information gathering instruments-questionnaires, interviews etc.

Subjects

Due to possibility of lack of cooperation and help from the villages on the assumption of students own educational benefits , a random sampling method will be used for the study since respondents will be randomly selected from the three different age group in Okiufa village, particularly ones who are able and willing to help. The sample collected will be a fair representation of the population. The total number of respondents who will make up the sample is fifteen (15)-five for the young people, five for the middle-aged people, and five for the old-aged people.

Data collection

Collecting of data will be both interactive and non-interactive. Respondents who are illiterate will be interviewed to collect data as an interactive technique and survey questionnaires will be used as a non-interactive technique for respondents that are literate. Questionnaires will be used as the main instrument for data collection while the interviews will be used to provide backup information. Apart from that other sources of information such as books, lecture notes, conference papers and internet sources will be engaged to underscore value and depth of this study.

Data analysis

Data collected through survey questionnaires (quantitative techniques) will be used as a basis for this study while information gathered through interviews (qualitative techniques) will complement and add value and depth to this study.

Budget

The study will cost K1150. The table below shows the breakdown of budget.

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Particulars Total Amount

Stationery K75

Research assistance (2x K100) K200

Editor K250

Printing and binding K150

Incidentals (e.g. participants respondents demand) K475

Total K1150

Time schedule

The study will be completed in line with the academic time frame in the University of Goroka (2015). However, due to late commencement of tutorials-normal classes for L&L students in week five of semester one, certain task schedule below have been differed. The remaining task will also be carried out within this timeframe but may be subjected to delay or early completion during the course of the study.

Task/Month Feb Mar Apr

May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct

Nov

Topic development

Tour question development

Literature review

Proposal writing

Data collection instrument development

Field study (Data collection)

Data analysis

Report writing

Editing, binding, submitting report

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Reporting

The findings from this study can be presented to indigenous Alekano speaking or other people interested with the information through linguistic conference or international mother tongue day if ask to present any findings that relates to language and culture. This information can also be stored by tutors or lectures in archives or any retrieval system for students or Alekano speakers who may require such information for various sociolinguistic purposes.

Expected outcome

The expected outcome of this study is that the Okiufa speech community after understanding the issues of language contact and language change;

I. Appreciate the value of their emblematic language.II. Relate the importance of language preservation and maintenance to the neighbouring

Alekano speaking villages.III. Take preventive measures and approaches such as daily conversation amongst all

members in Alekano speech community in order to maintain their emblematic language from shift and loss.

Chapter Four [Data Analysis/Presentation and Result]

Data analysis

Sample population of the three selected age groups.

Age group Number of participants

1-25 years 5

26-50 years 8

51-75 years 0

Total 13

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As explain in the subject, I presume there wouldn’t be much cooperation from the speakers concerned so I choose only 15 as a sample-five from each age group. My assumption was true. I distributed 50 copies of the questionnaires but was delayed until the final examination week of semester two where only 13 copies were return. The numbers and age group as proposed too, were not even. Of the thirteen respondents, five are under younger age, i.e. between 1-25 and eight are under middle age, i.e. between 26-50. No older age (51-75) participated.

Presentation of raw data collected.

Based on the research questionnaires (tour questions), the raw data collected are presented here in tables, column, and pie graphs.

Table 1.1 Speakers views on influence of English and Tok-Pisin, beneficial and detrimental.

Answer

Age group Beneficial Detrimental

1-25 // ///

26-50 //// ///

51-75

Total 7 6

Title: Graphs indicating speakers’ views on benefits of English and Tok-Pisin.

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Key: Key:

Table 1.2 Speakers level of fluency in Alekano.

Level of fluency

Age group Excellent Very Good Good Poor

1-25 /// //

26-50 / / /// ///

51-75

Total 1 1 6 5

Title: Column and pie graphs indicating speakers level of fluency in Alekano.

Table 1.3 Speakers’ level of knowledge in vocabulary.

Level of knowledge in vocabulary

Age group Very Much Much Little Very Little

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1-25 years 26-50 years 51-75 years0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Beneficial Detrimental

54%46%

Beneficial Detrimental

1-25 years 26-50 years 51-75 years0

0.51

1.52

2.53

3.5

K ey: Excellent Very Good Good Poor

Excellent8%Very Good8%

Good46%

Poor38%

Key: Excellent Very Good Good Poor

1-25 / // //

26-50 // / // ///

51-75

Total 2 2 4 5

Title: Graphs showing level of knowledge in vocabulary.

Table 1.4 Code switching (Alekano-Tok-Pisin/English).

Number of people that Switch Code

Age Range Yes No

1-25 //// /

26-50 ///// //

51-75

Total 10 3

Title: Graphs showing code switching (Alekano-Tok-Pisin/English).

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Very Much Much Little Very Little0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

1-25 years 26-50 years 51-75 years

15%

15%

31%

38%

Very Much Much Little Very LittleKey: Key:

Key: Key:

Table 1.5 Code switching and code mixing.

Code switching and mixing

Age group Switching Mixing Pure Alekano Uncertain

1-25 // / //

26-50 /// / / ///

51-75

Total 5 1 2 5

*Mixing, e.g. truave.

Title: Graphs showing types of language shift.

Table 1.6: Speakers’ views about sound change.

Sound Change

Age Range Yes No Uncertain

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1-25 years 26-50 years 51-75 years0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Yes No

77%

23%

Yes No

1-25 years 26-50 years 51-75 years0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

Switching Mixing Pure UncertainKey:

Key:

38%

8%15%

38%

Switching Mixing Pure Uncertain

1-25 / // //

26-50 //// // /

51-75

Total 1 9 3

Title: Graphs showing speakers’ views on sound change.

Table 1.7 Speakers’ tone (accent) when speaking Alekano.

Tones (Accent)

Age Range English Tok-Pisin Alekano

1-25 / ////

26-50 // /////

51-75

Total 0 3 10

Title: Graph showing tones (accent) used by speakers.

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1-25 years 26-50 years 51-75 years0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Yes No Uncertain

8%

69%

23%

Yes No UncertainKey: Key:

Key: Key:

Table 1.8 Speakers’ knowledge of language (registers) used in formal and informal speeches.

Knowledge of language (registers).

Age Range Yes No

1-25 /// //

26-50 ///// //

51-75

Total 9 4

Title: Graphs showing speakers’ knowledge of language registers.

Table 1.9 Speakers’ views about whether or not English and Tok-Pisin cause sociocultural problems.

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1-25 years 26-50 years 51-75 years0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

English Tok-Pisin Alekano

23%

77%

English Tok-Pisin Alekano

1-25 years 26-50 years 51-75 years0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Yes No

69%

31%

Yes NoKey: Key:

Speakers views

Age Range Yes No

1-25 //// /

26-50 //// ///

51-75

Total 9 4

Title: Graphs showing speakers views on sociocultural problems associated with English and Tok-Pisin.

Table1.10 Speakers’ views about whether or not English and Tok-Pisin causes socioeconomic problems.

Speakers views

Age Range Yes No

1-25 // ///

26-50 // //// /

51-75

Total 4 9

Title: Graphs showing speakers’ views on socioeconomic problems associated with English and Tok-Pisin.

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1-25-years 26-50 years 51-75 years0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Yes No

69%

31%

Yes NoKey: Key:

Key: Key:

Chapter Five[Discussion]

1. The speakers’ views on Alekano (Beneficial or Detrimental)The speakers’ views on benefits and detriments of influence of English and Tok-Pisin on Alekano is very tough. This attributes to the fact that English and Tok-Pisin equally have advantages and disadvantages as seen by the results shown by the gap between the two outcomes. According to the pie graph 54 % of the people from both the young and middle age group agree that influence of English and Tok-Pisin do have some benefits while the other 46 % disagree that the influence is detrimental.

The 54% who argue that the influence is beneficial say that English and Tok-Pisin help them to communicate with outsiders, whether they be nationals or foreigners, but at least who do not speak Alekano at all. Understanding English and Tok-Pisin help them translate to Alekano to help old people who are not intelligible in other languages. It also help them to communicate in public places such as with fellow students in schools and colleagues in other work force where information and ideas need to be transmitted so that they understand and get things done as required. The formal education system requires common languages like English and Tok-Pisin where teaching and learning is made easier for students with different language background and which help them to seek job. They argue that as we are experiencing modernisation, languages like English and Tok-Pisin work in a juxtaposition with these changes. Modernisation in this context comes with new items which are not found in Alekano therefore knowing the two languages introduces new knowledge of items and their vocabularies.

The other 46% of the people argue that the English and Tok-Pisin is detrimental to Alekano. This is because languages like English has its own cultures and traditions which young generations today are rapidly adapting to and are despising their own valuable cultures. Too much use of Tok-Pisin has made them to forget their vernacular and has resulted in low level of fluency and knowledge of vocabularies as well as their pronunciations. Equally significant,

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1-25 years 26-50 years 51-75 years0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Yes No

31%

69%

Yes No

they switch code to Tok-Pisin and English because they do not know some vernacular terms. Surprisingly some have argued that continuous code switching would spawns sub language of its own, technically would mean integration of linguistic features like phonemes, morphemes, semantics, syntax and ultimately, the pragmatic and rhetorical use of the language. This would mean formation of a new creole as in the process which Tok-Pisin developed from.

2.1 The speakers’ level of fluency.Here we examine how English and Tok-Pisin has affected the fluency rate in Alekano. The research has shown that fluency rate in both young and middled-age speakers is rapidly decreasing. There are only few people who are fluent in their vernacular-Alekano. Different level of fluency is shown in the graphs. According to the pie graph the highest number of people are below the average level of fluency as indicated, 46% of the speakers are at the level of being good in speaking Alekano while 38% are very poor in speaking Alekano which made up the biggest proportion of the Alekano speech community. Of the remaining, 8% are very good and the other 8% are excellent speakers who made up the smallest proportion of the speech community. To be more specific, the very good and the excellent speakers are those middle age people and perhaps the old age as clearly shown in table 1.2 and the column graph.

The low level of fluency is said to be attributed mostly by frequent use of Tok-Pisin and occasionally English. Most generations today use Tok-Pisin in everyday life compared to Alekano. They also read and write in English and Tok-Pisin than in Alekano. Even if Alekano is used, it has never been pure, rather speakers switch code to Tok-Pisin, and occasionally English when situations allow. The frequent use of Tok-Pisin has been due to the demand to cope with the changing world which language is not to be excluded. Alekano being situated at the heart of Goroka town-a multilingual society, is succumb to interference from other languages in this case English and Tok-Pisin which reduces the scope to be fluent. Intermarriage has also been the major cause of using Tok-Pisin. Universally intermarriage has instigate the need for common language of communication which Tok-Pisin and English are no exception in the case of Alekano. Speakers of Alekano married to outsiders mostly use Tok-Pisin in their daily life communication.

The research has caught some views of speakers on possibilities of improving their level of fluency on Alekano. Most speakers stated that one way is to stay as much as possible with old people in the village and practically try speaking Alekano so that errors can be corrected. They also pointed out that even speaking Alekano with any members of their speech community is essential unless and only with people from different language background. Attending schools or classes and workshops if any is would be of paramount importance too.

2.2 Knowledge level in vocabulary

The research on the level of knowledge in vocabulary has indicated that knowledge of vocabulary in both age groups is below average. According to the pie graph younger and middle-aged people share 31% and 39% respectively while much and very much share a common 15 % percentage each. None of the groups have reached 50% above, perhaps older age people would.

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My research has manage to get some views on speakers as to why their knowledge level of vocabulary is below average. The common reason is that they have been using Tok-Pisin and English most of their time. Thus the frequent use of English and Tok-Pisin terms has reduced their capacity to learn and store Alekano terms. Learning most of the new vocabularies in English and Tok-Pisin in schools and this multilingual society has caused them to use these words in place of tok-ples words, which they eventually forget. Being in this multilingual society also reduces the scope to which they attached and interact with only the speakers of Alekano in order to learn from them. Intermarriage again has caused the speakers to speak Tok-Pisin a lot which reduces the scope to which they learn Alekano and its rich vocabularies. The speakers are also blaming their parents for not speaking to them in Alekano so that they could learn from them. Those few that possess very much and much knowledge in their vocabulary are the ones that exposed to Alekano most of the time. They attached to their parents and grandparents, who most often speak Alekano to them.

2.3 Code switching (Alekano-English & Tok-Pisin)

My research has found out that code switching is one of the many aspects of language shift. Like many languages in Papua New Guinea Alekano speakers considerably alternate between Alekano, Tok-Pisin and occasionally English. According to table 1.4, 10 people switch code between these three languages while only 3 maintain pure Alekano. The pie graph shows that these made up 77% and 23% respectively. Evidently this means that Alekano is at the verge of being completely shifting. That is sooner or later no speaker would use pure Alekano but will shift between the three languages instead. Interestingly code switching seem to be evident as claimed by one participant. See table 1.5 and its pie graph. Example given was the word “tru ave”. Though they are separate words and morphemes, technically they cannot be pronounce separately since they wouldn’t give the implied meaning. This can also technically be concluded that it is the begging of language loss or extinction as this is oppose to code switching.

Code switching has been instigated by following reasons as claimed by the speakers themselves. When Alekano words are not familiar, the speakers switch on to Tok-Pisin and or English in order to get messages across, especially the utterances in sentences. Speakers also switch to suit the pragmatic and rhetorical needs because they think it explains better and meets the condition or context of usage. Some switch when they feel that the word is weird or awkward in pronouncing or would be felt that way by the listener (receiver) of the information.

There are few who claimed that they do not switch code for the following reasons; Alekano is very different and cannot be describe in English and Tok-Pisin. Their second claim is that it is hard to replace certain Alekano words because it wouldn’t express the feeling and meaning, or bring the implied message like Alekano itself does.

2.3.1 Sound change

Since discussing code switching and mixing I shall now discuss some finding on speakers’ views with regard to sound change. In linguistics it is obvious that all morphemes and words have their basic units which are sounds. When there is a change like mixing as discussed

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above, it would mean that the sound has changed simultaneously. The findings in this research, according to table 1.6 and the graphs revealed that sounds do change with words that are mix together such as “true ave” which was agreed upon by one speaker. This constitute 8% of language change (shift) and as alluded, it shows the beginning of language extinction or losing its original version. The graph shows that 23% of speakers are uncertain as to whether or not there are sound changes while 69% say that there are no sound change, perhaps because all they knew is code switching.

However it is important to know that if there is a code or word mixing there is always a change of sound because sounds are the building blocks of morphemes and words. For instance, the word tru ave, though they are written separately, they cannot be just ‘tru’ nor “ave’ since they wouldn’t mean anything unless their sounds are pronounce together at once.

2.4.1 Tone (Accent)

This study revealed some changes in speakers tone when speaking Alekano. According to table 1.7 and the pie graph in particular, 77% of speakers use original Alekano tone and the remaining 23% use Tok-Pisin tone. None of them use English tone when speaking Alekano. Although 23% is smaller it is evident that accents used in Alekano have experience transformation and is transforming as long as upcoming children and generation will heavily expose and rely heavily on Tok-Pisin for their daily life communication.

2.4.2 Language (Registers)

Obviously all speech communities have their language (registers) that are used in formal and informal speech situation. This study reveal that quite a good number of people know the kind of registers used in formal and informal speech situation as this was made possible because they can at least hear and speak Alekano. Though it is the case, some people do not know the registers used in their language even though they can hear and speak. Of this group, some people believe that it is because they are not fluent speakers and do not know much of their vocabularies in order to understand the registers. The pie graph indicated that those who know their register made up 69% of their population which is stronger than those who do not who made up 31% of the speakers population. Nevertheless 31% is big enough to draw conclusion that the language has undergone shift which resulted in this 31% lost. Due to continuous contact with Tok-Pisin and English perhaps this would amount to half the population of the speakers.

Those who claim to know their registers pointed out that this is made possible through observation during meetings and various types of gatherings. Like other languages Alekano does have formal and informal language depending on context of use. Some people has involve in public meetings and gatherings where they learnt from that. Some say no because they knew very little about their language (not fluent) and the rich knowledge that it has. They also say that unlike past where people are more considerate about their speech act, as much as possible speakers today do not care about that and so chances of knowing that is limited because they do not expose to such speech act.

3. Speakers’ views on the influence-positive or negative?3.1 Sociocultural problems.

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In principle, every changes that occur has reasons and good and bad sides of the change. I have managed to get some views of speakers regarding social problems that associated with the influence of English and Tok-Pisin. According to table 1.9, nine people say that English and Tok-Pisin have brought in sociocultural problems, which made up 69% of speakers who participated while four people disagree that it has no impacts on sociocultural domain of their society. This group of people made up 31% of the speakers who participated which also may be indicative of similar perspective of the entire population.

Some of the problems raised by the speakers where underage marriage. Being premature couples misunderstood each other and often resulted in domestic violence (problems), which ultimately lead to broken families and communities. Others claimed that influence has cause them to despise their language and culture that has underlying principles that guide their conduct. As a result they have seen a rise in family to family marriage which is culturally prohibited. Language is said to be carrier of culture where rich knowledge of the culture and the past is stored. Being less fluent in Alekano has resulted in the loss of family trees and genealogy, and clan and land boundaries which often leads to disputes over land etc. Most generations today do not speak Alekano anymore and in doing so some cultural practices got mixed up with introduced ones, ultimately losing its values and meanings.

Those who say that the influence is positive based their argument that the languages has brought in better ways of communicating with people from other language and cultural background. They also argue that even within this scope of intense contact and influence of English and Tok-Pisin, some aspects of culture such as marriage is done in Alekano which maintains some aspects of their cultures and traditions.

3.2 Socioeconomic problems.Like sociocultural problems, this study also has managed to get some speakers’ views on socioeconomic problems associated with English and Tok-Pisin. Table 1.10 indicated the finding and is further expressed in the pie graph. According to this study it has been revealed that 69% of the sample-the participants says that the influence has brought in economic problems while 31% argue that it has no economic problems but benefits instead.

Socioeconomic problems as claimed by the 69% say that English and Tok-Pisin has brought in introduced things such as alcohol which leads to alcohol related issues including youth fight, street fight, domestic violence, mismanagement of money, increase chances of STIs etc. when under liquor. The formal education system has created a huge gap between people despite close family ties and this gap is made possible through class of people based on their education level and the job that they have. The introduction of formal education system is not equally distributed which has resulted in unequal distribution of knowledge and skills needed to cope with the advances brought in by the introduced language and its culture. On the other hand they believe that low education level and achievements have been related to too much use of Tok-Pisin, which has seen a drastic drop in the formal education system. Some argue that they cannot find jobs that require fluency in English. It has also resulted in low level of income which gives rise to poverty.

Those who claimed that the influence is positive based their claim on benefits such as increase living standards and ease of communication with outsiders in this world of business.

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With the help of English and Tok-Pisin, they are able to communicate well and get employed and in doing so, helps them to make their living better. Generally they are limited to poverty and have access to better services which improve their living standards.

Chapter Six [Conclusion& Recommendations]

Raw data

The discussions above are the findings that were derived from the raw data collected based on my research questionnaires given out. As proposed15 participants would be the minimum since I was expecting lack of cooperation from members of the Alekano speech community. Evidently my presumption was correct in that 50 copies of the questionnaires were given out with only 13 copies returned towards the final examination week where the semester and the academic assessments were winding down.

Key findings

Key findings

Benefits/Affirmatives/Good

Percentage (%)

Detriments/Oppose/poor

Percentage (%)

1. 7 54% 7 46%2.1 2 16% 11 84%2.2 4 30% 9 70%2.3 2 15% 6 47%2.3.1. 1 8% 9 69%2.4.1 10 77% 3 23%2.4.2 9 69% 4 31%3.1 9 69% 4 31%3.2 4 31% 9 69%

Significant of the study

As languages are rapidly changing at the expense of superstratum languages such English and Tok-Pisin in the case of Papua New Guinea, an effort like this is of paramount importance to documentation and preservation of languages before completely extinct. To the Alekano

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speakers this study can help them to realise the threats from English and Tok-Pisin and as an awareness to help them to promote and preserve their emblematic language.

The findings in this study in general reveal the fact that speakers are shifting to the two introduced superstratum languages due to inevitable massive contact. Even though they value their language they do agree and accept the fact that introduced languages have brought in new changes, thus improving their living standards and adding value to their lives and social status.

Limitation of the study

As proposed the study aimed at identifying major grammatical features of Alekano that have been affected by the contact induced change with English and Tok-Pisin. However these are too technical and would confuse the speakers/participants as it needs ample and quality time, and close supervision by researcher in this case myself in making sure that questions are appropriately answered. As a result the questionnaires designed aren’t too technical, rather kind of general questions based mostly on social domains.

On the other hand the samples collected are too limited to make accurate judgement and predictions. As alluded the reasons are beyond my control. Today’s society are no longer in a preliterate society. Most people refused to help in answering the questions on account of my personal benefits or they be exploited. However I strongly believe the pattern of findings resembles similar views and perspective of the entire Alekano speaking population and present some facts about changes that are occurring.

Advantages of the findings.

The discovered knowledge though similar to other findings is new and specific to Alekano alone which represent some of the few areas in this domain of contact-induced change and shift in languages, which Alekano is no exception. Individuals, speakers and researches interested in this field of study or language preservation in the case of Alekano speakers can use this information in making awareness and to promote and preserve their emblematic language before extinction. Future researches wanting to carry out research on this particular area can based their research on this foundation and or consider areas that have not been touched.

Recommendations

I recommend that this area of study is necessary for future research. It is a wider area in which some important areas have been left out. This research is smaller in scope and therefore future researchers need to broaden their scope of study and intensely look into technical areas such as all the features of grammar that are liable to change from the influence of English and Tok-Pisin.

Summary

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This research project is basically about the influences of English and Tok-Pisin on Alekano. It looks at sociocultural, socioeconomic, and a little bit on language shift-code switching and code mixing and the general implications of the influence such as fluency rate, knowledge level of vocabularies, accents and registers used in their language. This overall work is divided in chapters which concentrates on specific task and or areas. The analysis of data was based on feedbacks from questionnaires that I developed prior to actual research and the findings are presented in tables, column and pie graphs respectively. From these analysis I found out that Alekano has shift on some of its features as a result of contact with English and Tok-Pisin. Basic one being code switching and is detrimental as it paved the way for the beginning of other type of shift such as mixing which for the long run, would see extinction of this language or formation of a sub-language such as a creole-a combination of English, Tok-Pisin and Alekano.

Reference:

I. (Duni, Ross. 1996. Contact-induced change and Comparative Method: Cases from Papua New Guinea reviewed).

II. Anonymous (n.d), Causes of Language Change (PDF).III. Frowein. F. (2015). Unit 9: Language contact, pidgins & creoles (Lecture Notes). University

of Goroka.IV. Frowein. F. (2015). Unit 2: Linguistic genealogy (Lecture Notes). University of Goroka.V. Jorge Arsenio Gomez Rendon (n.d) Typological and Social Constraint on Language Contact-

Ameriindiian Languages in Contact with Spanish. Netherlands.VI. Frowein. F. (2015). Introduction to Linguistics (LIN 131) Unit 10-Pragmatics &

Sociolinguistics (Lecture Notes). University of Goroka.VII. Croft. W. (n.d) Social Evolution and Language Change. University of Manchester.

VIII. Sarah G. Thomason (n.d) Language Change and Language Contact (pdf). University of Michigan.

IX. Thomason and Kaufman (1998: chap. 3).

Bibliography:

I. Ronald Wardhaugh (2006), An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (PDF). Fifth edition published 2006 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

II. Malcolm D. Ross (1999) Exploring metatypy: how does contact-induced typological change come about? (PDF). Approximate text of keynote talk given at the Australian Linguistic Society’s annual meeting, Perth, 1999.

III. Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald (2007), Language contact along the Sepik River, Papua New Guinea (PDF). International Workshop ‘Language Contact Along Sepik River Systems-28th November 2007.

IV. Romaine, Suzanne, (2002), Process of Language Contact: Studies from Australia and the South Pacific (PDF). Oceanic Linguistic, Volume 41, Number 2, December 2002, pp.523-525 (Review). Published by University of HawaiiPress. DOI: 10.1353/ol.2002.0013.

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V. Retrieved from: http://tefltere.blogspot.com/2009/05/factors-contributing-to-language-shift.html on Tuesday May 23rd, 2015.

VI. Retrieved from: http://tefltere.blogspot.com/2009/05/language-maintainnance-and-shift.html on Tuesday May 23rd, 2015.

VII. Retrieved from:http://tefltere.blogspot.com/2009/05/code-switchingshift.html on Tuesday May 23rd, 2015.

VIII. Retrieved from:http://tefltere.blogspot.com/2009/05/language-chioce-in-multiligual.html on Tuesday May 23rd, 2015.

IX. Retrieved from: http://www.scribd.com/doc/71261587/Factors-Contributing-to-Language-Shift# on Tuesday May 23rd, 2015.

X. Retrieved from: http://www-sil.org/sociolx/ndg-lg-indicators.html on Tuesday May 23rd, 2015.

XI. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wik/Sociolinguistics on Thursday May 25th, 2015.

Appendix:

HRM 481: RESEAARCH METHOD

SURVEY QUESTIONAIRES

Research Topic: A survey on the influence of English and Tok-Pisin on Alekano speakers in Goroka town, PNG.

This research is an awareness to the speakers of Alekano aimed at identifying and making known to them the effects of the English and Tok-Pisin so that efforts can be made to promote and preserve their emblematic language. It seeks to look into three different category of people (young-aged, middle-aged and old-aged) and their level of fluency. It also seeks to identify features of English and Tok-Pisin which have been incorporated into Alekano and also seeks to identify sociocultural and socioeconomic issues associated with the changes that have occurred.

TQ 1. What effects does the influence of English and Tok-Pisin have on Alekano speakers in Goroka town?

IQ 1.1 Are the effects of the influence of English and Tok-Pisin beneficial for you as an Alekano speaker?

Yes No

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IQ 1.1 (a) If yes, in what ways do you think the influence is beneficial?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

IQ 1.1 (b) If no, in what ways do you think the influence is detrimental? _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

TQ 2. How does the influence of English and Tok-Pisin affect the fluency of native Alekano speakers in Goroka town?

IQ 2.1 As a native Alekano speaker, what is your level of fluency?

Excellent Very Good

Good Poor

IQ 2.1 (a) If you are not an excellent speaker, how do you think speaking of English and Tok-Pisin contributed to that? _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

IQ2.2 (b) What do you think can help you improve your level of fluency in Alekano? _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

IQ 2.2As an Alekano speaker, how much knowledge of vocabulary do you possess?

Very Much Much

Little Very Little

IQ 2.2 (a) Given your answer to 2.2 above, what do you think have been the causes of that?

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_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

IQ 2.2 (b) Do you use English and Tok-Pisin words in place of certain Alekano words?

Yes No

IQ 2.2 (c) Explain why your answer is yes, or why your answer is no.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

IQ 2.2 (d) If yes, do you use these complete words alone or combine them with existing Alekano words? Example; (English-cut, Tok-Pisin-im) made up the Tok-Pisin word Katim.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

IQ 2.2 (e) If yes, do the sounds in Alekano words remain as they are, or change together with the words borrowed from English and Tok-Pisin?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

IQ 2.3 Which tone (accent) do you use when speaking Alekano?

English Tok-Pisin Alekano

IQ 2.4As an Alekano speaker, do you know the kind of language (registers) used in formal speeches and the ones that are used in an informal speech situation?

Yes No

IQ 2.4 (a) Given your answer to 2.4 above, explain why your answer is yes, or why your answer is no.

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_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

TQ 3. Is the influence positive or negative?

IQ 3.1 Have you ever faced any sociocultural problem with the introduced culture and languages; English and Tok-Pisin? Example, under-age marriage, family to family marriage, loose knowledge of family, clan and land boundary, etc.

Yes No

IQ 3.1.1 If yes, what are some of these problems?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

IQ 3.1.2If no, explain why?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

IQ 3.2 Have you ever faced any socioeconomic problems with the introduction of new culture and languages; English and Tok-Pisin? Example poor living standards, low education achievements, unemployment, etc.

Yes No

IQ 3.2.1 If yes, what are some of these problems?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

IQ 3.2.2If no, explain why?

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_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Name of the interviewee: ______________________________________________

Age Range: 0-25 26-50 50-75

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