Neurotheology and Revelation Phenomenon

Dr. Ali Akbar Ziaee

Abstract

As a science, by denying the paranormal world, neurotheology has failed to present a criterion for

distinguishing “real matter” from “non-real matter”. Although we should not accept these authentic

religious experiences from non authentic ones due to mental disorder, this science can be used to

recognize revelation effects, inspiration, true dreams and no space or time dimension in mysticism and

self-annihilation of the human body. In this paper, neurotheology and its scopes will be elaborated as

defined by natural scientists.

Keywords: Neurotheology, religious experience, revelation, mental disorder

The Rise of Neurotheology

Neurotheology otherwise known as ‘neurology of spirituality’ is a newly established discipline in

neuroscience [1]. Neuroscience has several sub-divisions including Neuropsychology, Neurophysiology,

and Neurophilosophy. Neurotheology is a new discipline added to this list, and has caused extensive

discussion among contemporary scientists. These four fields could be the foundation of neuroscience,

and an important tool in explaining the human psyche and behavioral characteristics. The general

concept of neurotheology is the association between spirituality and its resulting spiritual experiences

with possible scientific explanations of such knowledge. Those interested in this field believe there is an

evolutionary and neurological basis for all internal-mental human experiences, derived from religious

and spiritual practices [1].

Neurotheology was first used by James Ashbrook, an expert in theology, who started studying

neuroscience. Upon inventing this new term, Ashbrook also became part of this new science. However,

it is generally unclear and complicated. In fact until now a clear definition has not been provided for the

term. In theology and religion, the science of neurotheology is not used properly. It may be thought that

neurotheology tries to find a logical and scientific reason for religious experiences based on

neuroscientific descriptions [2]. Neurotheology aims to study and decode theology based on a

neuroscientific perspective. In this way we are able to understand how human beings have an innate

desire for religion and religious myths [3].

Neurotheology scopes

During the early twentieth century, religious experience was considered as a subject to be studied in

psychology. However, over time it lost its importance among psychologists. In the twenty-first century,

religious experiences not only regained importance between psychologists, today it is also considered

one of the major issues in neurology.

In this day and age, neuroscientists study matters that were previously not considered part of science. In

addition to traditional topics such as memory, pathology and motivation, they try to discuss topics

concerning personality, prejudice, social attachment, moral judgment and social emotions (e.g.

sympathy). Research on religion based on evolutionary and scientific views have increased dramatically,

neuroscientists’ interest in religious experience has also developed raising questions including: What is

the brains’ role in the human experience of God? Are religious experiences specifically different from

other human experiences? Or are they different from other experiences only in terms of content, and

are the religious and non-religious experiences neurologically similar? Is it possible for neurotheology to

investigate the “divine revelation” with a scientific perspective?

This newly emerged science examines the nerve origins of religious experiences and wants to know

what is happening in the brain during religious and spiritual experiences. On the other hand, it tries to

find the relationship between brain disorders, its improper functioning and the religious experience.

Ultimately, it seeks a solution to rid human beings of brain disorders.

In neurotheology, neurology enters the domain of religion and spirituality. A number of researchers

claim they have found Gods place in the brain, they believe the influx of electrical pulses in one area of

the brain may cause religious and mystical states. Other scientists have gone as far as alleging divine

inspiration and revelation have been the result of the prophets’ mental disorders. These scientists have

claimed that the prophets were suffering from diseases such as epilepsy, schizophrenia and psychosis.

They have suggested that religious books are nothing but words repeated in a poetic style by those

suffering from epilepsy and nervous disorders in the temporal lobe.

In this paper, I intend on proving the following: neurotheology is a science concerning the religious

experience of humans; and revelation is not a human religious experience, but it possesses a divine

origin which is not within the neurotheology scope. Also, I will discuss how a religious experience is

divided into two genuine and non-genuine types; and elaborate the neurotheology perspective towards

these two issues.

The Human Experience of the Outside World

The brain plays a role in all human behavior and experiences, including what we feel and how we

behave. During the nineteenth century psychologists and scientists researched on what is received from

the world through our senses, particularly visual perception. Advances is optics and acoustics led

scientists to discover how the energy in light and sound impulses are changed into electric stimuli which

then transmit the auditory and visual information to the brain. The twentieth century witnessed

additional developments in knowledge of our other senses (e.g., touch, taste and smell). In order to

receive sensory information from the environment, receptors are necessary. These sensory receptors

react to a certain energy which must be strong enough to stimulate them and generate an electrical

impulse, causing a sensory operation. Once created this electrical message is transmitted by neurons

creating the nervous system, after reaching specific parts of the brain the electrical impulses are

interpreted leading to our understanding it. Our sensitivity to different types of energy in the

environment means these energies are turned into electrical impulses in our nervous system.

“Representation” in the brain is a concept showing how different things are experienced in our brain. In

other words, it shows how an external message is translated into a model or pattern of an electrical

stimulus.

Feelings and thoughts are the final products of electrical impulses that enter particular parts of the

brain. Movement is also created by electrical stimulation in a part of the brain associated with

movement, and from there it is sent to our muscles. As a result, whatever we do, think, feel or

experience is connected to our brain. Even our perception of ourselves is read out in our brain. A strip of

the brains surface tissue called the cortex is responsible for reading various parts of our body. For

example, when an electrical impulse from the sensory receptor in the index finger begins and makes its’

way to the cortex of the brain, which is dedicated to read the index finger, we are able to understand

the feeling in that part of the body. The phantom limb phenomenon in humans can show how such a

sensation and perception of feeling is possible. Despite losing a limb the person can feel the same organ

as if it is still there, because electrical impulses still reach the part of the brain responsible for reading

the lost limb. Anyone who has lost a limb, such as their hand, can experience this situation [4].

Emotions, Beliefs and Intellect

Emotions have been one of the most important issues in psychology for decades. In recent years

neuroscientists have explored this subject using modern technology, including brain imaging techniques.

According to neuroscientists’ research results, emotions play a significant role in our thoughts and

decision making that is more important than previously suggested.

According to traditional rationalists, reasoning leads human beings to make decisions and emotions do

not play a role, however insignificant, in this process. Descartes believes in the separation of mind and

body. However, recent studies on emotions have shown that affection is closely related to mentality and

even our personal identity [5]. Such studies suggest emotions can also play a role in the quality of our

reasoning and ultimately decision making. Haidt [6] showed how most of our logic used to make a

decision appear after our emotions pay attention to it. In other words, emotions used in decision

making are realized before reasoning takes place. In fact, we use reasoning to justify a decision that has

already been shaped by our emotions.

Researchers have suggested that social emotions (e.g. empathy) are related to the brain structure.

Farrow and colleagues [4] used MRI to discover specific patterns of the human brain activity linked

directly with forgiveness and empathic judgments. Parts of the brain in the prefrontal cortex (orbital and

medial sections) and superior temporal skull play a role in social activities and moral related emotions

such as guilt and shame [8]. The brain circuitry involved in positive and negative emotions

simultaneously follows two underlying systems combined with many other elements. The approach

system (i.e. positive motivation) provides the groundwork for positive emotions (e.g. gratitude and

sympathy), while the withdrawal system (i.e. negative motivation) plays a role in negative emotions (e.g.

disgust and fear).These systems interact with the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the amygdala [9] through

the brain circuitry.

The prefrontal cortex consists of many parts, but the two most important parts in neurotheology are the

orbitofrontal and dorsolateral sections. The orbitofrontal area of the cortex is mostly associated with

emotions, while historically the dorsolateral part was known to have a close correlation with human

memory; recent studies have shown that it is associated with emotions. Although it has not been

confirmed, researchers have shown that positive emotions in the prefrontal cortex have links with the

left hemisphere of the brain, while the right hemisphere has links with processing negative emotions

[10].

The prefrontal cortex is involved in predicting positive and negative effects consequences. It is also

known as the same area of the brain that was destroyed during Phineas Gages’s accident. Gage was

heavily hurt during an explosion; an iron rod broke his cheek and went through his head, reached the

orbitofrontal cortex (anterior cortex) and exited his skull. Although he stayed alive after this accident,

Gage displayed change in character and instability in emotions [9]. His ability to continue effectively at

work, participate in social environments and demonstrate a sense of responsibility towards himself, and

others, was impaired [11]. Any damage to the prefrontal cortex (PFC) may lead to behavioral disorders

in a psychopathological context such as a lack of social interactions and knowledge, a diminished sense

of guilt related to behavior, and flawed feelings associated with reward and punishment [12]. Although

the amygdala is not involved in emotions as much as the prefrontal cortex, its’ role in emotions,

especially in the subject of fear has been outlined well by Ledoux [13]. We don’t know the level of

difference between the two hemispheres influence on emotions, or if the amygdala is equally effective

in both positive and negative emotions [9], yet we do know the amygdala plays an important role in

acquiring probable risks, evaluating dangerous situations, and the rise of fear [9, 15].

In order to explain the main role of emotions in religion, Watts [16] states that both theologians such as

Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher and psychologists such as William James have recognized the

fundamental role of emotions in religion. Schleiermacher believes emotions create the source and

foundation of religion. He has described assessing the extent of human emotions as the best way to

determine a person’s religion. Some researchers [17] believe cancer patients define their faith in

positive, rather than negative emotional words. Based on these investigations, religious beliefs can be

defined based on emotions terminology. Schleiermacher also believes religious emotions are basically

different from other human emotional experiences. There is no doubt that religion is associated with

human emotions, but the question is: Do human emotions compose all life, or can the category of

“wisdom” and “rationality” be identified in human life without being included within “feelings” and

“emotions”. Apparently material empiricists do not recognize “wisdom” as an independent category

from “emotions”. They define all functions in the human brain within the brain sensory processes and

electrical pulse transmission in the brain nerve system. Upon critiquing this reductive materialistic view

it can be said that human wisdom is abstract and nonmaterial, and this metaphysical matter uses

material matters such as brain cells for processing information. Therefore the nature and truth of this

wisdom is independent from material, and uses the brain system as a tool for self-development. This

form of wisdom is not in the realm of feelings and emotions, but includes abstract concepts and

absolute abstract rationales. The fact that existence can be made of matter is a philosophical issue and

many reasons have been submitted concerning the existence of an abstract essence of material. As a

result, existence in an abstract of material and non-abstract of material is divided into three areas: the

scope of the material and potentials or capacities, the scope of abstraction of material with physical

representations such as shape, size, position…, and the scope of abstraction of material and its effects

known as “the world of intellect”.

Emotions and sensory perceptions need material in the form of brain neurons. Emotions are dependent

on the human abstract soul and their dependence upon the abstract soul is similar to the relationship

between an ocean and its’ waves. Research by empiricists and materialists are limited to the existence

phase of rationale and sensory perceptions which have not entered the abstract from the material

domain (i.e. the world of ideas and the world of intellect). In other words if matter, the brain neurons

and their inter-brain interactions, did not exist, there would be no background to create sensitive

perceptions in the soul.

Neurotheology and Reductionism

According to investigations carried out until now, the brain plays a role in emotions, and there is a

relationship between cognition and emotions. Also, the importance of cognition and emotion in

religious experience were empirically examined.

During the last decade a new way to understand and explain religious experiences was formed called

neurotheology, which aims to evaluate the way the human mind works when connected with God [20].

The role of the brain in religious experiences and the relationship between man and God is one of the

most important issues for scientists, theologians and laypeople. Recently, Walterfang et al. published a

book taking a look at the views of twenty one neuroscientists, psychologists, philosophers and

theologians [21]. On May 7th 2001, Newsweek published an article titled “God and the Brain”

dedicated to this issue. Various books have been published on the subject and sold in bookshops, a

series of stories are published regularly in newspapers about the brain and its relationship with religion.

Some people are afraid that neurotheology might prove the nature of God, deny his existence, or that

science will find Gods place in the brain. In fact, scientists who study the connection between the brain

and religion, have appealed to the philosophical interpretation of this knowledge which has been

recognized as an independent science, or used ontological reductive views in the analysis of their

experimental data in a way that has led to this knowledge(e.g., Michael Persinger, 22). The existence of

God has been proven based on non-empirical methods, and empirical science cannot find the answer by

itself. The empirical study of religious phenomenon can show what happens physiologically to a human

being when he has a religious and spiritual experience. Neurological analysis of a religious experience is

a legitimate topic for discussion, and of course, it has limitations that cannot be studied scientifically

without conditions. Michael Persinger was one of the scientists who examined a religious experience for

the first time. In the early 1980s he published a number of articles on religious experience and brain

activity [23], and by the end of the decade he published a book on the belief in God in terms of

Neuropsychology [22]. He emphasized the role of the temporal lobe (particularly the amygdala and

hippocampus in the limbic system) during typical religious and spiritual experiences. One of the reasons

for this emphasis is that during such experiences there is a type of electrical instability caused by the

stimulus, in turn causing the patterns in the structure, which is not necessarily compatible with the

actual sensory data. In fact, a kind of illusion and remembrance are combined with these experiences.

The temporal lobe is the area connected with seizures, as well as vascular abnormalities that are both

directly associated with illusions and dreams [23].

Based on Persinger’s hypothesis, religious experience is the result of a limited and short-term electrical

activity called Temporal Lobe Temporary (TLT). As a result, according to Persinger’s vision, in extreme

cases of seizure disorders, other behavioral symptoms such as crying, facial and speech impairment and

even dementia can also be seen. Interpretation and explanation of this phenomenon depends on the

environmental factors and the place and time it takes place. Persinger believes our temporal lobe has

developed in a way that we can experience a relationship with God, and if the temporal lobe had

evolved in another form, this religious experience of God would not be fulfilled [22, p. 14]. In addition

to what was expressed by the reductive view, Persinger believes that as the religious experience of God

is a biological figment of the human imagination, there is a risk that such experiences are controlled or

exploited by others. He has also expressed his concern about those with seizure disorders in the

temporal lobes who die or are killed. According to Persinger there are many stimuli in religious activities

(e.g. religious music, specific movements of the body such as swing and dance, frequent or repetitive

sounds and even specific smells of religious centers) which can provoke seizures in the temporal lobes

[22]. Unfortunately, he has not provided sufficient and convincing reasons to prove such a claim.

Although the temporal lobe is the main site of seizure disorders, Persinger failed to provide evidence to

defend his claim that religious experience is merely a figment of such seizures. Also, he could not prove

his claim that belief in God is a cognitive impairment and the result of a form of imagination and illusion

[21]. Joseph [25] believes that the structure of the limbic system components (such as the amygdala,

hippocampus and inferior part of the temporal lobe) is considered the basis of religious and spiritual

activities. He reasons that as human beings have a common limbic system, the nature of religious

teachings are similar. These brain structures are involved with sexual activity, anger, and annoying

behaviors. He concludes that is the reason Torah’s God is immensely related to sexuality, often by

providing anger and a need to experience fear in the presence of the sacred and the transcendent

power [25, p. 118]. Joseph believes that due to activation of the limbic system, many religious people

are often hateful adventurers and criminal individuals. Confirming Joseph’s claims on the limbic system’s

role, Saver and Rabin [26] argue that in order to have both religious and non-religious experiences, the

same limbic system of the brain is involved. The only difference is that religious experiences are

unexplainable and profound, because the limbic system is involved which calls such experiences as ultra-

personal, very important, and accompanied by rapture and pleasure. In answer to such reductive claims,

Joseph believes that science cannot deny the role of spiritual and paranormal worlds in influencing the

limbic system during religious activities. Thus, as long as the limbic system is metaphorically known as a

place for soul and relationship with God, this "Transferor to God", according to Joseph's vision, increases

survival expectancy, because it helps man communicate with reality (here spiritual reality is concerned),

just as other brain structures and networks function in such a way [25].

Carol Albright has a highly critical view against the reductive perspective of religious experiences. He

believes that putting the "God Model" or "Transfer to God" in the limbic system makes us unaware that

this part of the brain acts as a whole with other areas of the brain, not as a specific organ and model

independent from them. Although some activities are activated in certain parts of the brain, it does not

prevent the brain from acting as a set of complex interrelationships (compatible and self-organized) in

these areas. Perhaps it is more correct to claim that the whole human brain is involved in religious and

divine experiences [27]. Due to the different aspects of a religious experience, it is expected that

different areas of the brain should be involved in different forms in religious experiences.

Albright and colleagues used the Paul McLean’s triple model to relate the religious beliefs and different

concepts of God with three major parts of the brain called the Reptilian, Mammalian (mammalian brain

is the limbic part) and Neocortex. The reptilian brain is responsible for human behavior that is common

with reptiles, such as reproduction, eating, and altogether any behavior that could preserve life and

property. This kind of behavior can provide problems for human beings and therefore must be

controlled. Religious activities and beliefs teach the right way of living, such as the proper upbringing of

children, sound sexual behavior, and controlling violence and law-breaking. In other words, these

teachings try to bring the reptilian brain under control [28]. Experts believe that Christian beliefs such

as being watchful, eternity, and the unchanged nature of God are related to the activity of this section of

the brain. The mammalian brain is composed of the limbic system that adds feelings and emotions to

the reptile brain activities, and these feelings and emotions help us distinguish the secure and insecure

behaviors from each other. The limbic system also plays a role in memory. According to Albright and

Ashbrook [28] through memory and emotion we can have a meaningful relationship with God. These

two parts of the brain are surrounded by a third section called the cerebral cortex that is associated with

our humanity such as speaking ability. In this area, information related to other parts of the brain is

processed, allowing us to decide or judge [28]. All three areas are involved in religious experiences.

Spiritual experiences, love and belonging are probably related to the limbic system, and different types

of virtuous behaviors are related to the reptilian brain, understanding and a sense of calling from God is

associated with the cerebral cortex (frontal lobe).

Patrick McNamara believes that religious activities are related to activation of the frontal lobes,

particularly the prefrontal cortex that acts as an intermediary for executive cognitive functions [29]. The

frontal lobes of the brain are the last area that matured during evolution, and it is perfected in the last

stages of puberty. The importance of "executive cognitive function" in religious rituals, according to

McNamara's view, is the theory of mind which organizes a mechanism to enable a person to relate

subjective interpretations to others or to other factors (such as God). A man with an advanced theory of

mind can anticipate the thoughts, actions, beliefs and intentions of others and even recognize their

decisions. In addition, the frontal lobes directly participate in emotional operations, nonprofit and

charity behaviors, compassion, empathy and self-awareness [29]. These executive cognitive functions

are also involved in religious activities. Theory of mind enables one to better understand the concept of

God. According to McNamara, if the prefrontal cortex is injured, man’s view about God then must be

changed. He has not empirically proven this hypothesis. According to it, any damage to the frontal lobes

will harm human participation in the emotional aspects of religious experience and will weaken self-

discipline and self-control related to religious teachings and beliefs; it will also undermine religious

behaviors such as empathy, compassion, and forgiveness of others, as far as it is relevant to these

exercises. To be able to reach maturity and have free choices as a human being, we must have more

healthy and active frontal lobes. McNamara believes that cultures in favor of such activities can

contribute to the growth and maturation of the frontal lobes, and religious activities that are common

around the world (such as praying, meditation and spiritual deliberation) can be a means of

accomplishing this maturity [30].

The frontal lobes, particularly the prefrontal cortex and the limbic system are important in the somatic

marker hypothesis developed by Damasio. Based on his assumption, physical (body) changes such as the

nervous and hormonal responses create a feedback that marks a status as a positive activity or one to

be avoided. This automatic feedback is also affected by cultural conditions and serves as a good

response to the development of the "theory of mind", and making appropriate decisions. As a result, it

has benefited greatly from evolution. The somatic marker hypothesis of Damasio can justify

McNamara's theory concerning religion being a universal issue. According to his view religious beliefs,

moral character, and religious practices are all part of the physical marker system and compatible with

evolution, because they have the necessary tools to evaluate situations and make decisions.

It might be argued that the most famous research on the neural foundations of religious experience

belongs to Newberg and Eugene d’Aquili, who raised the issue on a public awareness level [31] and

published stories on this category in general publications such as Newsweek. Newberg and Eugene

d’Aquili, before his death, conducted a number of experiments on the human brain during religious

experiences such as praying and meditation of Franciscan nuns or Buddhist’s spiritual practices

(meditation) indicating that some parts of the brain are activated in that position. Using a brain imaging

technique called Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT); one can identify the time

length of radioactive tracers and find the activities of different parts of the brain and its structures. A

few minutes after tracer injection into the brain, it is possible to extract the image. Newberg and Eugene

d’Aquili injected the tracer at the peak of religious activity in the brain and a few minutes later they

could take images of the brain activity. Thus, taking an image through this method did not interfere with

the religious activities. Activity in the parietal lobe near the top rear, upper part of the brain (posterior

superior parietal lobe), during the rise of religious activity is severely reduced when compared with

activity in normal conditions. The role of this part of the brain, according to Newberg's view, is helping

us organize ourselves in the world. This means a strict distinction between us and the objects in the

world. At the time of praying this part of the brain is relaxed and it seems stillness is what the Franciscan

nuns perceive as a close relationship with God, and Buddhists call the sense of timelessness and infinity

[31]. According to Newberg, exactly when that part of the parietal lobe is faced with decreased activity,

some parts of the frontal lobe and the limbic system are faced with increased activity for better focus on

the spirituality during praying and meditation. It is worth noting that these results are based on

experiments conducted only on a small number of people.

As we can see all of these scientific studies are based on hypothesis; they have examined the

backgrounds for creating religious perceptions and emotions. None of the philosophers deny the

connection between physical aspects of religion with the human nervous system, and it is obvious that if

a part of the brain becomes physically disrupted it can affect a person's religious beliefs and behaviors

negatively, or in some cases it can reinforce the religious beliefs of people. However, the main problem

is that the origin of religion and the relationship of religion with the creator and his prophets, are not

the problems empiricists and neuroscientists, and even the newly emerged discipline of

neuorotheology, have addressed.

Our perception of God in the brain

There is a saying that through prayers and spiritual practices a part of our brain will "light up" or

"become active". Some researchers have gone beyond their knowledge and claimed that God can be

found in a part of the brain which they have called “God spot”. This claim limits the self-existence in

place and results in the materiality of self-existence, which contradicts with intellect and common sense,

and it has scientifically equal plausibility with saying that taking pleasure in sailing is located in the brain

"navigation point". Certainly, when I enjoy recreational sailing, some parts of my brain become active

(turned on), but is this all that happens there? Some researchers like Persinger [32] have such a belief,

saying that experiencing God is nothing but a provocation or activation of the temporal lobe structures.

In other words, it is a biological product of the human brain [33]. Many researchers have greater

precision when expressing their research. Among them are scholars such as Newberg and D’Aquili [34]

who argue that their research does not mention God’s existence. Scientific findings do not imply that

God is merely the result of stimulation of a group of brain cells; likewise, these studies do not provide

any evidence for proving God’s existence. If these researches, like other scientific findings are well

known, they will not say anything about the philosophical position or belief. The results of these

researches do not hint the truth of God’s existence. It cannot be denied that religious experiences and

the knowledge of God must be done through our brain.

Are none of the organs except the brain used in these experiences? It is necessary to know that this is

our action in whatever we do and experience, and it is not limited to religious experiences. For example,

when we study, we use our brain and when we listen to music we continue to take advantage of our

brain. A leading figure in the integration of science and psychology is Malcolm Jeeves who believes that

we understand a phenomenon at different levels and in different layers [35]. A personal unit consists of

two different layers that are mental and physical. In Jeeves’ view, these levels are associated with each

other. These two perspectives create a dual view, but not a dual essence. This irreducible dualism is not

just Jeeves point of view. In the field of psychology, a man named Gustav Theodor Fechner had similar

views regarding the relationship between mind and body [36]. Also, Clive Staples Lewis [37] discussed

looking at a beam of light (objective, a third party experience) and looking through the light (subjective,

a first person experience). Similarly we can look at religious experiences through different levels. We

should not follow those previously mentioned and examine a phenomenon only from the related

physical aspects. Like most of human experiences, a religious experience is non-reductive and

irreducible. Of course it is clear that our brain (and body) changes during a religious experience. Through

multiple levels of human perspectives of an issue, we can divide religious experiences into objective and

subjective terms. With such an approach it could be useful to explore religious and spiritual experiences

and the role of cognitive neuroscience and physiology, in explaining the experience with a physical

perspective.

The Definition of Revelation in Theological Perspective and Its Presuppositions

Revelation literally means to instill awareness in someone else; it is invisible, fast, and mysterious. In

other words, revelation means a prophets connection with God in a direct or indirect way (i.e. through

Gabriel) to receive a message and understand it; or it can mean inducing the senses in the heart of God’s

prophets and God speaking to his prophets. Revelation sometimes takes place directly without the

mediation of Gabriel, such as God speaking from behind a veil to Moses through the trees and at other

times indirectly it is induced by the Angels to the heart of God’s messengers. Revelation in the Christian

and Jewish religion is called "revelation" as well, and is defined as: disclosing a kind of knowledge or fact

through a relationship with God or through intermediaries or non-material (paranormal) links.

The aforementioned definitions reveal that revelation is a mysterious and non-obvious relationship

between man and God. Through revelation a specific knowledge is given to human beings to pass the

path of evolution, causing it to be considered the grace of God for human guidance. The truth of the

revelation phenomenon is that a connection lies between the supernatural and human beings, and this

connection is not of a known and material kind. The hidden and mysterious nature of the revelation is

its main characteristic. The domain of human knowledge includes the physical and material aspects of

man, not his intellectual aspect. The fact that there are non-material things beyond the material world,

which is called “the world of intellect” or “the world of ideas”, as well as self-existence as the main

cause of all things, are all presumptions of the revelation phenomenon. Theology and philosophy prove

its rationality which is beyond the empirical sciences. Therefore, neurotheology will never be able to

reach the realm of revelation and present a non-fallacious interpretation of it. However, it should be

noted that one side of the revelation phenomenon is the human being and the other side of it is the

immaterial world, and if we accept that man has an immaterial substance and God has combined it with

the physical world in such a way that he can pass the evolutionary stages, the inherent essence of the

divine prophets and their bodies will carry the message of God's revelation and will be its’ secondary

form. The main problem the empiricists face with the meaning of the revelation phenomenon in the

Abrahamic religions is that they are not able to exercise clinical trials on the Prophets’ bodies and it

would be impossible to do scientific studies to reveal the material impact of revelation on their bodies.

The only thing that empiricists and neurotheologists can express is people reporting their own spiritual

and religious experiences; they can examine the influence of spirituality and religion on man’s material

aspects but not his spiritual and non-material dimension.

Religious Experience and the Difference between its Genuine and Non-genuine Forms

Papers written by neurotheologists suggest that by the “religious experience” they do not mean the

whole religion as beliefs, religious rituals and rites, but it is a sense in relation to "speak in languages",

visual hallucinations, auditory hallucinations, feelings of oneness and unity with the universe or the

supernatural, a sense of no space or time dimension, and any unusual sensation related to religion.

Based on this definition, everything that human beings see, hear or feel due to stress, psychological

disorders, hereditary diseases, or any other reason that is "not true" would be a religious experience. It

is therefore a natural and materialistic scientist who detects the criteria of "true" and "not true", and

with a general sentence he can relate all matters of the paranormal world such as revelation,

inspiration, true dream and exploration going as far as issues arising from psychiatric disorders such as

schizophrenia, paranoia and epilepsy as a categorical assumption, and he tries to find the cause of that

purely material phenomenon in human life. These scientists always assume that there is no truth in the

supernatural, and if anyone has any reports of such cases, he will certainly be subjected to examination

for a psychological disorder. The problem with this assumption is that through which tests, reasoning

and arguments these scientists know spiritualism is not real. Also, what is the criterion to judge between

real and imaginary matters? As already mentioned, the revelation topic is not a topic discussed by

neurotheology. It is necessary to examine whether assuming the existence of the paranormal universe,

which has been proven intellectually in philosophy, is possibly applicable to neurotheology? As we

already know, all self-existent, general and particular prophecies have been proven on the basis of

intellect, and even many philosophers have insisted on their self-evidence. If we assume that divine

prophets and divine revelation are inherently out of the neurotheology area, we must examine whether

this new science can be applied in the field of contemporary religious experiences in the modern era.

Based on the definition and according to the perspective of believers and atheists, religious experience

is presented in both genuine and non-genuine forms. The genuine kind of religious experience includes

the authentic revelation, inspiration, true dream, annihilation in God and extracting the soul out of the

human body in the final stages of the spiritual journey or the sense of no time and place due to religious

austerity, continuous praying, citation, and practicing religious duties. The non-genuine type of religious

experience is the psychological disorders associated with "speaking in languages", auditory and visual

hallucinations with religious themes and a sense of no space or time dimension based on non-religious

austerity such as meditation and appealing to secular mysticism. Thus, since in the contemporary era

the revelation concept has ended specifically with religious prophecy, the question is whether the area

of neurotheological study regards these two kinds of genuine and non-genuine forms of experience.

Neurotheology can survey the first type of religious experience. This means that if someone follows the

religious teachings of the divine revelation to communicate with the paranormal world, and has

experiences such as a sense of hearing, witnesses a divine light, and mystic reach to the stage of self-

annihilation and …, a neurology scientist will be able to analyze the material effects of those intellectual

aspects on their bodies. He will also be able to examine the effect of blood pressure in the temporal

lobe, and the neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin in the brain, the extent of electrical

impulses in the central nervous system and the quality of the connection of religious emotions with the

hippocampus and the amygdala. All of these examples of the abstract world effects on the material

world could be examined by a natural scientist, so that through examining the physical condition of a

believer with those experiences, this scientist cannot rule out that those experiences are non-genuine

ones and have been derived from psychological disorders. The scene of physical interactions in the

believer is like showing a shadow in which all the real elements are behind the curtain, and the viewers

and visitors (Neurotheologists) only have a view of the truth in terms of the shadows, then they rule out

certainty from behind the scene.

Regarding the second type of religious experience, it should be said that this new knowledge can be a

good way to solve people’s mental problems in religious communities, and of course, we should not

neglect the fact that God pays special attention to patients who suffer from mental or physical illnesses

of any kind, and if we accept that God is sovereign over all human affairs, then we cannot accept with

certainty that all of the religious experiences of individuals suffering from psychological disorders are

unreal.

Conclusion

Neurotheology is a new discipline added to neuroscience, and has caused extensive discussion among

contemporary scientists. The general concept of neurotheology is the association between spirituality

and its resulting spiritual experiences with possible scientific explanations of such knowledge. This newly

emerged discipline examines the nerve origins of religious experiences, and tries to find what is

happening in the brain during such experiences. It aims to evaluate how the human mind works when

connected with God.

The existence of God has been proven based on non-empirical methods, and the empirical study of

religious phenomenon can only show what happens physiologically to a human being when he has a

religious and spiritual experience. None of the philosophers have denied the connection between

physical aspects of religion with the human nervous system, and it has become obvious that if a part of

the brain becomes physically disrupted it is able to affect a person's religious beliefs and behaviors.

However, the main problem is that the origin of religion and the relationship of religion with the creator

and his prophets, are not the problems empiricists and neuroscientists and even the newly emerged

discipline of neuorotheology have addressed. In this article, it was argued that neurotheology is purely

about the human materialistic aspects and cannot provide a report on the spiritual world; and divine

revelations as the divine message sent to the prophets is out of the scope of this science. Even if we

accept the prophets’ bodies were subject to materialistic changes during revelation, this science cannot

judge their physical condition, because revelations have come to an end with prophecy termination and

scientists do not have access to their bodies. This article argued that religious experiences are divided

into two types: genuine and non genuine, and under the mentioned circumstances, both types can be

explained by neurotheology.

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